The document discusses several key topics in philosophy of religion including: - Philosophy of religion examines fundamental religious concepts and themes through various areas of philosophy like metaphysics and epistemology. - It investigates religious significance of events and features of the natural world. While related to theology, philosophy of religion's goal is objective analysis rather than defense of particular religions. - Philosophy of religion addresses real-world religious practices and is relevant due to religion's influence. It also intersects with many areas of philosophy due to religion's comprehensive claims. - The document then discusses definitions of religion, forms of religious belief like theism and atheism, and key attributes of God from a philosophical perspective.

1. A Primer on the Philosophy of Religion and the Problem of God’s Existence<br />Noel C. Jopson, MATSS<br />Philosophy of Religion<br />The philosophy of religion is one of the most fascinating areas of philosophy. It addresses not only the perennial question Is there a God?, but also the questions If there is, then what is he like? and, most important of all, What does that mean for us?<br />Philosophy of religion is the philosophical examination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions. It involves all the main areas of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics and value theory, the philosophy of language, philosophy of science, law, sociology, politics, history, and so on. Philosophy of religion also includes an investigation into the religious significance of historical events (e.g., the Holocaust) and general features of the cosmos (e.g., laws of nature, the emergence of conscious life, widespread testimony of religious significance, and so on).<br />Sometimes confused with theology, the Philosophy of Religion is the philosophical study of religious beliefs, religious doctrines, religious arguments and religious history. The line between theology and the philosophy of religion isn't always sharp because they share so much in common, but the primary difference is that theology tends to be apologetical in nature, committed to the defense of particular religious positions, whereas Philosophy of Religion is committed to the investigation of religion itself, rather than the truth of any particular religion.<br />Importance of philosophy of religion in the study of philosophy<br />First, philosophy of religion addresses embedded social and personal practices. Philosophy of religion is therefore relevant to practical concerns; its subject matter is not all abstract theory. Given the vast percentage of the world population that is either aligned with religion or affected by religion, philosophy of religion has a secure role in addressing people's actual values and commitments. A chief point of reference in much philosophy of religion is the shape and content of living traditions. In this way, philosophy of religion may be informed by the other disciplines that study religious life.<br />Another reason behind the importance of the field is its breadth. There are few areas of philosophy that are shorn of religious implications. Religious traditions are so comprehensive and all-encompassing in their claims that almost every domain of philosophy may be drawn upon in the philosophical investigation of their coherence, justification, and value.<br />A third reason is historical. Most philosophers throughout the history of ideas, east and west, have addressed religious topics. One cannot undertake a credible history of philosophy without taking philosophy of religion seriously.<br />What is religion?<br />Because it crosses so many different boundaries in human experience, religion is notoriously difficult to define. Many attempts have been made, however, and while every theory has its limitations, each perspective contributes to our understanding of this complex phenomenon. <br />Religion and nature. Religion has its origin in and derives its power from the encounter in the natural world, which provokes fear and n threatens order. In response religion develops as an attempt to appease the forces of nature that are beyond human control.<br />Religion and divinity. Religion marks the human encounter with God or gods. Scripture, rituals, ethics, and faith are built around the meeting between divinity and humankind.<br />Religion and meaning. Religion plays a fundamental role in bestowing meaning and significance on human existence. It marks of what is special and true, provides order and structure, and sets forth the projects and goals of humanity.<br />Religion and the social. Religion is the tie that binds the community together through various forms of belief and practice. It is an institution that contributes important ideas to the society at large; it also connects with specific aspects of non-religious social life, like politics and economics.<br />Forms of religious belief<br />Theism<br />The basic form of belief is theism, the belief in God as traditionally understood in the monotheistic (that is, single-God) religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism. Pantheism takes a different perspective in that God is identified with the universe, so that they are identical. Opinion is divided as to whether this makes pantheists true theists or atheists (see below): if God is no more and no less that the sum total of nature, then can we say that God exists or not as theism does? Polytheism holds that there are many gods, whether as a pantheon as in Ancient Greece or otherwise. Deism takes there to have been a God who created the universe and, as it were, quot;
set it to runningquot;
, but who otherwise plays no further part in it. Panentheism is perhaps best understood as taking God to be to the universe as the soul is to the body—more than equal to the sum of its parts. <br />Atheism<br />Not everyone believes in God. The etymological roots of the term show that atheism was originally understood as the denial of the existence of God; that is, a positive assertion. It was also historically used to denote believers in a different God. Another perspective, however, has come to prominence in more recent times according to which it is taken as a negative statement—merely an absence of belief in God. Often these two meanings are called strong and weak atheism respectively. The latter includes, say some atheists, those people who have never heard of or used the concept of God.<br />Agnosticism<br />The earliest known agnostic was Protagoras, who wrote that: <br />“Concerning the gods, I am unable to know either that they exist or that they do not exist or what form they have.”<br />The term itself literally means quot;
without knowledgequot;
and was coined in the 1880s by T.H. Huxley. Discussing his position on matter theological, he described his difficulty in summarizing it for others:<br />“When I reached intellectual maturity and began to ask myself whether I was an atheist, a theist, or a pantheist; a materialist or an idealist; Christian or a freethinker; I found that the more I learned and reflected, the less ready was the answer; until, at last, I came to the conclusion that I had neither art nor part with any of these denominations, except the last. The one thing in which most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which I differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a certain quot;
gnosis,quot;
—had, more or less successfully, solved the problem of existence; while I was quite sure I had not, and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble.”<br />As a result, he decided to call himself an agnostic to draw attention to the fact that he did not have knowledge of whether God existed or not.Some people misunderstand agnosticism to be a quot;
middle wayquot;
between theism and atheism: where one is supposed to say that God exists and the other that He does not, agnosticism is said to represent the thinker who has become tired of the struggle between two opponents battering each other when the bell shows no sign of ringing any time soon, deciding instead to offer a shrug of the shoulders and the honest response quot;
I don't knowquot;
. <br />Deism<br />Deism is the belief in a supreme being, who remains unknowable and untouchable. God is viewed as merely the “first cause” and underlying principle of rationality in the universe. Deists believe in a god of nature -- a noninterventionist creator -- who permits the universe to run itself according to natural laws. Like a “clockmaker god” initiating the cosmic process, the universe moves forward, without needing God’s supervision. Deism believes that precise and unvarying laws define the universe as self-operating and self-explanatory. These laws reveal themselves through “the light of reason and nature.” Reliance on the power of reasoning exchanges faith for human logic.<br />Concept of God<br />Understanding the concept of God is crucial in delving into philosophical theism. If God would be equal to man, there would be less clamor and interest to the idea of a God. The object of attitudes valorized in the major religious traditions is typically regarded as maximally great. Conceptions of maximal greatness differ but theists believe that a maximally great reality must be a maximally great person or God. Theists largely agree that a maximally great person would be omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, and all good. These attributes are that which separates God from man. Ludwig Feuerbach once said that “theology is only anthropology”, for the reason that how we view God is based on our own conception of a superlative man. A Yiddish proverb states that if triangles would have their concept of God, it would be someone with three sides. A “god” must then possess some attributes that would set him apart from man.<br />Some Essential Attributes of God<br />God is Immutable.<br />The perfection of God by which He is devoid of all change in essence, attributes, consciousness, will, and promises. No change is possible in God, because all change must be to better or worse, and God is absolute perfection. No cause for change in God exists, either in Himself or outside of Him.<br />Perfection means perfection. There is no reason for God to change because there is no change that would make Him better. When something is perfect it is best to leave it alone and avoid causing it to lose its perfection.<br />God is Omniscient<br />“God possesses perfect knowledge and therefore has no need to learn. God has never learned and cannot learn.” Omniscience means all-knowing. God knows everything, and His knowledge is infinite. It is impossible to hide anything from God. <br />This, like omnipresence, demonstrates that man cannot hide from God because God knows all things. He knows the number of hairs on each head, He knows the heart and thoughts of every man. Just because no man is around to see us do wrong doesn't mean nobody saw it happen - God did. The proverbial tree falling in the forest that doesn't make a sound because no man was there to see it or know about it falling at that time, God sees and knows. Our intentions in the things we do are known to God. We need to be sure that our attitudes are congruent with our actions because God knows when we are doing things for the wrong reasons or motives.<br />God is Omnipresent<br />This theological term means “always present.” Since God is infinite, His being knows no boundaries. So, clearly He is everywhere. This truth is taught throughout the Bible as the phrase “I am with you always” is repeated 22 times in both the Old and New Testaments. These were even Jesus’ words of assurance just after giving the challenge to His disciples to take His message to the entire world. This is certainly a comforting truth for all who follow Jesus.<br />God fills the universe in all its parts and is present everywhere at once. Not a part, but the whole of God is present in every place. This is true of all three members of the Trinity. They are so closely related that where one is the others can be said to be, also.<br />Therefore, when man is sinning God is there. If a child is doing something a parent has told him not to do, God is there. There is no place man can go to hide from God.<br />God is Omnipotent<br />Literally this word means all-powerful. Since God is infinite and since He possesses power, He possesses infinite power. He does allow His creatures to have some power, but this in no way diminishes His own. “He expends no energy that must be replenished.” When the Bible says God rested on the seventh day, it was to set an example for us and our need for rest, not because He was tired. <br />This attribute of God describes his ability to do whatever He wills. God's will is limited by His nature, and He therefore cannot do anything contrary to His nature as God, such as to ignore sin, to sin, or to do something absurd or self-contradictory. God is not controlled by His power, but has complete control over it; otherwise He would not be a free being. To a certain extent, He has voluntarily limited Himself by the free will of His rational creatures.<br />This means that if God says something will happen. He has the power to make sure that it will happen. Therefore, when He promises eternal life to those who believe in Christ, He has the power to grant it. Just as He cannot sin, He has the power to forgive those who do.<br />