The document discusses pharmacological methods for behavior management in pediatric dentistry, including conscious sedation, general anesthesia, and various medications used for sedation. It outlines the objectives, indications, contraindications, and clinical guidelines for sedation procedures, emphasizing the importance of properly managing children's anxiety and behavior during dental treatments. Key sections include details on nitrous oxide sedation, premedication options, and considerations for safely administering anesthesia to young patients.

1. PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OF BEHAVIOUR
MANAGEMENT
Presented By- Yashkumar R. Shah
Final Year – II
 Contents
 Introduction
 Definitions
 PharmacologicalMethods
 Objectives ofSedation in PediatricDentistry
 Indication and Contraindication
 Clinical Guidelinesfor use of ConsciousSedationby Dentist
 Routes of administrationwith drugs
 Nitrous oxide sedation
 Reversalagents
 Premedication
 GeneralAnesthesia
 Complications associated with moderateand deep sedation
 Conclusion
 References

2. INTRODUCTION
 BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT-
Behavior management is the means by which dental health team effectivelyand efficiently
performs treatment for a child and at the same time instills a positive dental attitude.(WRIGHT,1975)
DEFINITIONS
 Conscious Sedation :
A minimally depressed level of consciousness that retains the patients ability to independently
and continuously maintain airway and respond appropriately to physical stimulation or verbal command
that is produced by a pharmacological or non pharmacological method or a combination thereof.
 Deep Sedation :
A drug induced depression of consciousness during which patients cannot be easily aroused but
respond purposefully following repeated or painful stimulation. The ability to independently maintain
ventilatory function may be impaired.
 General Anesthesia :
A drug induced loss of consciousness during which the patients are not arousable even by painful
stimulation . The ability to maintain ventilatory function is often impaired.
 Minimal Sedation : (Anxiolysis)
A drug induced state during which patients respond normally to verbal commands
BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
PHARMACOLOGICAL NONPHARMACOLOGICAL

3. PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
 Conscious Sedation
 Premedication
 General Anesthesia
 Objectives of sedation in pediatric dentistry
For the child
1. Reduce the fear and perception of pain during treatment.
2. Facilitate coping with the treatment .
3. Minimized physical discomfort and pain.
4. Controlled behaviour or movement so as to allow safe completion of procedure.
For the dentist
1. Facilitate accomplishment of dental procedures.
2. Reduce stress in an unpleasant emotion
3. Prevent burn out syndrome.
Indications Contraindications
Children with low coping ability Very young children
Behaviour management problems Intellectually challenged children
Dental fear and anxiety Hyper motive/obstinate children
A patient whose gag reflex interferes
with the dental care
Systemic diseases like respiratory
distress, Neuromuscular disorders etc.
Certain patients with special healthcare
needs

4. Clinical guidelines for use of conscious sedation by dentist(according to ADA,2012)
 1. Patient evaluation.
 2. Preoperative preparation.
 3. Personnel and equipment requirements.
 4. Preparation and setting up for the sedation procedures.
 5. Monitoring during sedation.
 6. Recoveryand discharge.
ASA PhysicalStatus ClassificationSystem
 ASA Physical Status 1- A normal healthy patient
 ASA Physical Status 2- A patient with mild systemic disease
 ASA Physical Status 3- A patient with severe systemic disease
 ASA Physical Status 4- A patient with severe systemic disease that is a constant threat to life
 ASA Physical Status 5- A moribund patient who is not expected to survive without the
operation
 ASA Physical Status 6- A declared brain-dead patient whose organs are being removed for
donor purposes
Preoperativepreparation
 Determination of adequate oxygen supply and equipment necessary to deliver oxygen under
positive pressure must be completed.
 Baseline vital signs must be obtained
 Preoperative dietaryinstructions.
Personneland equipmentrequirements
 Atleast 1 additional person trained in Basic Life Support for Healthcare providers must be
present in addition to dentist.
 A Positive pressure oxygen deliverysystem suitable for the patient being treated must be
immediately available.
Preparation and setting up for sedation procedures
 SOAPME
 S – Size appropriate suction cathethers and a
functioning suction apparatus.
 O – Adequate oxygen supply and functioning
flow meters
 A – Appropriate size airway equipment
 P – Pharmacy

5.  M – Monitors
 E – Special Equipments or drugs
Monitoring during sedation
 Oxygenation
 Ventilation
 Circulation
Recoveryand dischargecriteria
 Cardiovascular function and airway patency are satisfactorily stable.
 Patient is easily arousable,
 Patient can talk
 ROUTES
 DRUGS USED
N2O sedation
Horace Wells was an American dentist who pioneered the use of anesthesia in dentistry,
specifically nitrous oxide (laughing gas).
 N2O sedation
INTRA
VENOUS
INTRA
MUSCULAR
ORAL
INHALATION
Inhalational Agents
Benzodiazepines
Other Agents With
Sedative Properties

6.  Nitrous oxide/oxygen has been shown to be an effective anxiolytic and sedative inhalation
agent for conscious sedation.
 Nitrous oxide is a weak analgesic, most often insufficient to ensure painless dental
treatment.
 Nitrous oxide /oxygen sedation and local anesthesia is an alternative to general anesthesia
 Nitrous oxide/oxygen should be the first choice for paediatric dental patients who are unable
to tolerate treatment with local anesthesia alone and who have a sufficient level of
understanding to accept the procedure.
 It may be offered to children with mild to moderate anxiety to enable them to better accept
treatment which may require a series of visits.
 It can also facilitate the provision of more complex time consuming procedures and dental
extractions particularly for young children or anxious patients undergoing elective
orthodontic extractions.
 Typically delivered through a mask over the nose, nitrous oxide is mixed directly with
oxygen and delivered as the patient breathes in and out regularly.
 The patient is usually asked
to breath normally through the nose,and as the gas begins to take effect, the child will be
come more relaxed and less nervous.
 The gas mixture shall contain a maximum 50% nitrous oxide.
 •Nitrous oxide/oxygen is reliable in terms of onset and recoveryas long as the patient
accepts the nasal hood and breathes through the nose.
 •Nitrous oxide has minimal effect on cardiovascular and respiratory function as well as on
the laryngeal reflex.
Indications
 A fearful or anxious patient.
 Certain patients with special health care needs.
 patient whose gag reflex interferes with dental care.
 patient for whom profound local anesthesia cannot be obtained.
 cooperative child undergoing a lengthy dental procedure.

7. Contraindications
 Pre-co-operative children
 Patients with upper airway problems as common cold, tonsillitis
or nasal blockage
 Patients with sinusitis or recent ENT operations (within 14 days)
 Patients in bleomycin chemotherapy
 Psychotic patients
 Patients with porphyria
PROCEDURE
 Selection of an appropriately sized nasal hood should be made.
 A flow rate of 5-6L/min generally is acceptable to most patients.
 Introduction of 100%oxygen for1-2minutes followed by titration of nitrous oxide
in10%intervals is recommended.
 During nitrous oxide/oxygen analgesia/anxiolysis,the concentration of nitrous oxide should
not routinely exceed50%.
 Nitrous oxide concentration may be decreased during easier procedures(eg,restorations)and
increased during more stimulating ones(eg,extraction,injection of local anesthetic
 During treatment, it is important to continue the visual monitoring of the patient’s respiratory
rate and level of consciousness.
 The effects of nitrous oxide largely are dependent on psychological reassurance. Therefore,
It is important to continue traditional behaviour guidance techniques during treatment.
 Once the nitrous oxide flow is terminated, 100%oxygen should be delivered for five minutes
due to risk of diffusion hypoxia.
 The patient must return to pre treatment responsiveness before discharge
Clinical signs of sedation -
Objective Signs -
1. These signs recorded prior to and 5 minutes after administration .
2. The following signs were examined –
open or closed eyes, tears, smile, speaking, laughing, open or closed hands , limp legs,
abducted feet.
 Subjective symptoms-
1. These are addressed the child’s perception of nitrous oxide effects.
2. Questions regarding the child’s perception of nitrous oxide effects on the head
,abdomen,fingers,toes,and overall condition were asked prior to 5 minutes after
administration.

8. 3. The questions were how do you feel,do you feel different ,how does your head feel ,how do
your fingers feel.
Side effects
 Over sedation
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Panics
 Sweating
 Headache
 Restlessness
 Dysphoria
 Tinnitus
Desflurane-
 It is a inhalational drug used for sedation.
 Useful in outpatient surgery.
 Produces direct skeletal muscle relaxation .
 No hepatotoxicity ,No nephrotoxicity
Risks- Irritating to airway in awake patient and can provoke coughing,salivation,
and bronchospasm.
Sevoflurane-
 It is inhational type drug.
 Used in outpatient surgery
 It is non Irritating to the airway
 Concentration -2-4%
 Does not produce tachycardia
 No hepatotoxicity
ORAL route -
Diazepam-(5mg/5cc)

9. 1.safe agent for mild to moderate anxiety particularly in children with cerebral palsy, mental
retardation.
2. Children less than 6 years of age
3. Oral absorption equally good as parental.
Limitation- multiple doses required to achieve sedation.
4. Not effective in severe anxietywhen used alone.
Meperidine-
 Dose-50 mg/5cc
 Best used in combination for -
1. With promethazine or hydroxyzine
2.longer procedures with chloral hydrate.
 Limitations -1.poor oral absorption
2. Contraindicated in children with COPD , hypothyroidism or liver dysfunction
Chloralhydrate –
 Dose-500mg/5cc
 It is a chlorinated derivative of ethyl alcohol that can act as an aesthetic when administered
in high doses.
 Duration of action – 2-5hours.
 Wide range of safety
 Limitations - 1.Not recommended in children below 6 years of age.
2.Maximum dose not to exceed 1500mg
3.Contraindicated in children with heart disease, renal ailment.
Hydroxyzine-
 Dose-25mg/5cc
 It is a mild sedative along with antiemetic and anticholinergic action.
 It potentiates narcotic and CNS depressants.
 Better used in combinations with other agents.

10. Promethazine -
 Dose -12.5mg/5cc,2.5mg/5cc
 Better used in combination.
 Mild sedative along with antiemetic and anticholinergic action.
 Limitations – 1.for mild levels of anxiety only.
Intramuscular -
1.Ketamine-
 Dose-10-50mg/ml
 Ketamine was first synthesised by Parke-Davis scientist Calvin Stevens in1970.
 It prevents the higher cortical centers perceiving visual ,auditary,painful,stumuli.
 Potent analgesic.
 It maintains cardiovascular stability as well as muscle tone.airway reflexes.
 Chronic use may lead to cognitive impairment,including memory problems.
2.Midazolam-
 Dose-1-5mg/ml
 It possesses hypnotic ,anticonvulsant ,and muscle relaxant properties as well as being
antegrade amnesic and anxiolytic
 Greater potencyas compared to diazepam.
 Rapid onset of action .
 Limitations –Used mainly for short procedures.

11. Intravenous -
1.Propofol-
 Also called as milk of amnesia.
 Diprivan:2,6di-isopropophenol.
 Dose-2mg/kg bolus IV for induction .
 It is a fast acting sedative with a narrower margin of safety I.e. The dose required to produce
a sedative effect is close to that used to induce anaesthesia.
 Limitation and risk-
1. Respiratory depression ,in particular is commonly associated with propofol use.
2. Rarely vomiting does occur and risk of aspiration.
2.Midazolam-
 Most rapid onset of action
 Permits titration and is easily reversible
 Maintains a line for emergency drugs.
 Best for invasive procedure of short duration.
 Limitations- Requires extensive armamentarium training.
 Precautions to be taken in significant hepatic and thyroid disease.
Rectal,Submucosal,OrSubcutaneousare rarely used.

12. Reversalagents-
 Specific reversal agents exist for benzodiazepenes and opioids.
1. Flumazenil –
 . It can be used to reverse the effects of benzodiazepenes and should be immediately
available when using benzodiazepenes for sedation.
 Dose-0.01mg/kg 4times as needed.
2. Naloxane-
It is a opioid antagonist and given intravenouslymostly .
Dose-0.1mg/kg for children under 20kg.
Children over 20kg is 2mg.
This drug is incredibly effective in reversing the depressive effects of the opioids.
Side effect.- nausea
Complications.
Airway obstruction
Anaphylaxis reactions
Aspiration
Nausea
Vomiting
.PREANESTHETIC MEDICATION:
It refers to the drugs which use before anaesthesia to make it more pleasant and safe.
Objectives:
1. Relief of anxiety and apprehension preoperativelyand facilitate smooth induction.
2. supplement analgesic action of aesthetics.
3. Decrease acidity and volume of gastric juice so that it is less damaging if aspirated.
4. Antiemetic effect extending to the post operative period.

13. Some commonly used drugs for preanesthetic medication:
Opioids: morphine (10 mg )
. Pethidine (50-100mg)IM
 Anticholinergic:Atropine0.6mg IM,IV
 Sedative antianxietydrugs :
Diazepam--(5-10mg)oral
Lorazepam(2mg)IM
 H2 blockers : Ranitidine(150mg) oral
GeneralAnaesthesia:
 Definition:
It is defined as a controlled state of unconsciousness accompanied by a loss of protective
reflexes, including the ability to maintain an airway independentlyand respond purposefully to
physical stimulation or verbal command.
 Indications:
1. Patients with certain physical,mental,or,medically compromising condition.
2. Patient who have sustained extensive orofacial trauma.
3. Patient wherein local anaesthesia is not effective or the patient is allergic to it.
4. Fearful,uncooperative,anxious Patient with no expectation that behavior will improve.
Procedure:
Chairsidegeneralanaesthesia –
 Their are 3 common reasons for the use of general anaesthesia are-handicapped or mentally
retarded children , uncooperaative
 child, and inability to come for frequent visits.
 Team includes-1 . Anaesthesiologist
2. pedodontist
3. Dental surgery assistant
4. Anesthesia technicians
Pre-procedure-
 Observations and recording of child behavior.
 The parents are instructed to come for admission one day before the GAprocedure.
 Informing parents about necessity of chairside GA and obtaining verbal consent.
Day1 -
Patient comes to pedodontic clinic.
Concerned doctor send child for preanesthetic check up.
Patient comes back to pedodontics department with report.
If aesthetist accepts the case,patient is admitted.

14.  Basic investigation are done.
 Written consent form is signed by parents.
 Premedication given to patient
Day 2:-
 Child is brought to pedodontics opds with hospital file.
 Child is accompanied by the parents to the procedure room and is present till induction is done.and
then asked to leave.
 Induction is usually done using inhalation route.
 Once the child is ready under GA the aesthetist hands over the patient to pedodontist.
 Treatment is performed using four handed dentistry.
 Radiographs also taken for treatment plan.
 After completion of treatment dentist handover Patient to anesthetist.
 He administer reversal drugs.
 Child is shifted to ICU .
Day 3:-
 Check up in pedodontics opd.
 Then discharge the patient after payment is done.
 The doctor concerned fixes a follow up appointment.
Commonly used parental anaesthetic agents-:
 Opioids –morphine
. Fentanyl
 Benzodiazepenes –Diazepam
. Midazolam
Triazolam
 Barbiturates -: Methohexitol
. Thiopental
Complications of generalanaesthesia:-
 During anaesthesia:-
1.Respiratory depression
2.Salivation,respiratory secretions
3.Cardiac arrhythmia
4.Laryngospasm,convulsions
5.Fall in blood pressure
 After anaesthesia:-
1.Nausea and vomiting
2.Organ toxicities –liver,kidney damage
3.Pneumonia

15. 4.Persisting sedation
 Masks for induction:-
 1.Shape of mask:-
For the children, induction is generally carried out by the use of inhalation.The shape of mask is
modified to make it acceptable to the child’s.
E.g.balloon mask ,Mickey mouse with a wide open mouth.
 2.Scented mask:
. To disguise the odors of the inhalation agents includes addition of drop of fruit extract on the mask.
Also vapourizing volatile fruit flavours into the anaesthetic gas mixture is acceptable.
Conclusion:-
 Pharmaccologic behaviour management is necessary for children with lack of psychological or
emotional maturity
 Mental , Physical or Medical disability
 One should remember the risks during pharmacologic behaviour management
References:-
 Textbook of Pedodontics –Shobha Tandon
. 2 nd edition
 Textbook of Paediatric Dentistry –Nikhil Marwah
. 3rd
edition
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