Petrochemical products

PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Dr. Neeraj Yadav
Assistant Professor
School of Basic and Applied Science
K. R. Mangalam University

PETROLEUM:
➢ Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface.
➢ It is commonly refined into various types of fuels.
➢ Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a liquid
mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a fractionating column.
➢ It consists of naturally occurring hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and may contain miscellaneous organic
compounds.
➢ The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of
refined crude oil.
➢ A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, mostly zooplankton and algae, are buried
underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.

PETROCHEMICAL:
➢ Petrochemicals (also known as petroleum distillates) are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining.
➢ Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas,
or renewable sources such as maize, palm fruit or sugar cane.
➢ The two most common petrochemical classes are
❖olefins (including ethylene and propylene) and
❖aromatics (including benzene, toluene and xylene isomers).

COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM:
➢ With crude oil all liquid, gaseous and solid hydrocarbons.
➢ Lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane exist as gases, while pentane and heavier hydrocarbons
are in the form of liquids or solids under surface pressure and temperature conditions.
Composition by weight
Element Percent range
Carbon 83 to 85%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%

Composition by weight
Hydrocarbon Average Range
Alkanes (paraffins) 30% 15 to 60%
Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%
Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%
Asphaltics 6% remainder
➢ Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil.
➢ The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.
➢ Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition.
➢ Usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish).
➢ In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the
petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it.

PETROLEUM REFINING:
➢ Conversion of crude oil into useful products.
➢ The products are used as fuels for transportation, heating, paving roads, and generating electricity and
as feedstocks for making chemicals..
➢ Each refinery is uniquely designed to process specific crude oils into selected products.
➢ In general, these units perform one of three functions:
(1) separating the many types of hydrocarbon present in crude oils into fractions of more closely related properties,
(2) chemically converting the separated hydrocarbons into more desirable reaction products - conversion, and
(3) purifying the products of unwanted elements and compounds - treatment.

1. Separation
➢ Modern separation involves piping crude oil through hot furnaces.
➢ The resulting liquids and vapors are discharged into distillation units.
➢ All refineries have atmospheric distillation
units, while more complex refineries may have
vacuum distillation units.

Atmospheric distillation Vacuum distillation

➢ The liquids and vapors separate into petroleum components called fractions according to their boiling points.
➢ Heavy fractions are on the bottom and light fractions are on the top.
➢ The lightest fractions, including gasoline and liquefied refinery gases, vaporize and rise to the top of the distillation
tower, where they condense back to liquids.
➢ Medium weight liquids, including kerosene and distillates, stay in the middle of the distillation tower.
➢ Heavier liquids, called gas oils, separate lower down in the distillation tower, while the heaviest fractions with the
highest boiling points settle at the bottom of the tower.

2. Conversion
➢ Heavy, lower-value distillation fractions can be processed further into lighter, higher-value products such as gasoline.
➢ Cracking because it uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to crack heavy hydrocarbon molecules
into lighter ones.
➢ A cracking unit consists of
❖one or more tall, thick-walled, rocket-shaped reactors and
❖a network of furnaces, heat exchangers, and other vessels.
➢ Complex refineries may have one or more types of crackers, including fluid catalytic cracking
units and hydrocracking/hydrocracker units.
➢ Cracking is not the only form of crude oil conversion. Other refinery processes rearrange molecules to add value
rather than splitting molecules.

➢ Alkylation, for example, makes gasoline components by combining some of the gaseous byproducts of cracking.
➢ Reforming uses heat, moderate pressure, and catalysts to turn naphtha, a light, relatively low-value fraction, into high-
octane gasoline components.
3. Treatment
➢ The finishing touches occur during the final treatment.
➢ To make gasoline, refinery technicians carefully combine a variety of streams from the processing units.
➢ Octane level, vapor pressure ratings, and other special considerations determine the gasoline blend.
4. Storage
➢ Incoming crude oil and the outgoing final products are stored temporarily in large tanks on a tank farm near the
refinery.
➢ Pipelines, trains, and trucks carry the final products from the storage tanks to other locations across the country.

APPLICATIONS OF CRUDE OIL REFINING PRODUCTS:
BUTANE:
➢ Butane is a gas at room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure.
➢ However, it can be easily liquified by decreasing the temperature to -1 degree Celsius or increasing the atmospheric
pressure with the gas canister.
➢ When there is oxygen present, butane can burn to form carbon dioxide and water vapour. However, if there isn’t
enough oxygen available, burning butane can produce toxic and dangerous carbon monoxide as its waste product.
1. Butane Torch
▪ Due to flammable nature of butane, it is used in Butane Torch.
▪ The butane torch is regularly used in glass making, craft projects, and certain plumbing projects which require heat.

2. Portable Grills
• Campers love to use butane in their portable grills because the fuel is easy to transport when it is compressed into a
gas canister.
3. LPG
• Butane can be combined with propane as well as other substances in order to form liquefied petroleum gas, also
known as LPG.
• It is used in this form to manufacture petrochemicals, to calibrate gas detectors, and as a refrigerant.
4. Refrigerators
• Methane is the primary gas used in refrigerators, but as methane places on the ozone layer, this common household
item has since switched to using very pure forms of butane instead.
• Often, gasoline is added to the butane when it is used in refrigerators, as adding gasoline enhances the performance
of the butane.

5. Lighters and Aerosols
• Butane is often used as the fuel in lighters as it can handle being pressurised.
• As the vapour pressure requirements for butane are relatively low, putting it in a small plastic pressure vessel such as a
lighter is possible and not dangerous. When the pressure is released through the valve, the liquid quickly turns into gas,
which is very easily ignited with the oxygen found in the Earth’s air.
6. Environmentally Friendly Gas
• Unlike gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, butane is not a greenhouse gas and does not affect the
ozone layer.
• Butane, therefore, has become a replacement material for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) acting as the propellant in
aerosol deodorants, so the risk of solvents negatively impacting the environment is minimised.

The Dangers
• Although in many household and commercial products, butane is one of the most misused volatile substances in the
UK.
• If inhaled, butane can cause a range of mild to serious side effects including drowsiness, euphoria, fluctuations in
blood pressure, and memory loss.
• If subject to butane from a highly pressurised container, in some serious cases, death can occur from asphyxiation
due to irregular and rapid heart rhythms.
• Contact with the liquid form of butane, or from the pressurised gas inside an aerosol spray, can cause frostbite or
freeze burn due to its cold temperature. As butane is also extremely flammable and explosive it is easily ignited, and
with prolonged exposure to heat or fire, it could cause containers or gas bottles to explode.

PROPANE
➢ Sometimes known as liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG — is a gas normally compressed and stored as a liquid.
➢ Nontoxic, colorless, and virtually odorless; an identifying odor is added so it can be detected.
➢ Propane is commonly used for space and water heating, for cooking, and as fuel for engine applications such as
forklifts, farm irrigation engines, fleet vehicles, and buses.
➢ When used as vehicle fuel, propane is known as propane autogas.
Clean
• Propane is an approved clean fuel listed in the 1990 Clean Air Act. Substituting propane for other fuels such as gasoline
and fuel oil is an economical and viable step toward cleaner air.
• It reduces the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and air pollutants like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide.

▪ Propane is used in homes, business, industrial and agricultural, primarily for space heating, water heating and cooking.
Propane is typically used in rural areas that do not have reticulated natural gas.
▪ Propane used as fuel for internal combustion engine applications includes cars, forklifts, buses, irrigation pumps, and
fleet vehicles.
▪ Propane, typically used as a fuel, is a co-product of crude oil refining and natural gas processing. Propane is
categorized as one of the liquefied petroleum gases – LPG.
▪ Propane is also used by business and agricultural for all sorts of applications.
▪ Propane can also be used for refrigerants, aerosol propellants and petrochemical feedstock.
▪ Propane gas can be compressed into liquid at relatively low pressures.

PETROLEUM:
1. Transportation:
▪ Petroleum is a key source of energy for transportation.
▪ The transportation fuels that are derived from petroleum include gasoline/petrol, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), jet fuel, and marine fuel.
▪ While gasoline/petrol is used in cars, motorcycles, light trucks, and boats, diesel is used as fuel by trucks, buses,
trains, boats and ships.
▪ Jet airplanes and some types of helicopters use kerosene, a byproduct of petroleum refining.
2. Power generation:
▪ Though petroleum is largely used in transportation, it is also used in electricity generation.
▪ A fossil fuel power station uses petroleum or natural gas to produce electricity.

PETROLEUM:
▪ According to the Joint Organizations Data Initiative (JODI), Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that use crude
oil directly for power generation, due to lack of domestic coal production.
3. Lubricants:
▪ Derived from petroleum, lubricants are used in many types of machines in almost all the industries.
▪ Lubricants are used in all kinds of vehicles and industrial machines to reduce friction.
▪ Besides, they are used in cooking, bioapplications on humans, ultrasound examination, and medical examinations.
Lubricants typically contain 90% of base oil, usually petroleum fractions.
4. Pharmaceuticals:
Petroleum byproducts such as mineral oil and petrolatum are used in the manufacture of creams and topical
pharmaceuticals.

5. Agriculture:
▪ Petroleum is used in the production of ammonia, which is used as a source of nitrogen in agricultural fertilizers.
▪ Most of the pesticides are produced from petroleum.
▪ Besides, machinery for agricultural tasks also consume petroleum.
▪ In this way, agriculture is one of the major users of petroleum.
6. Chemical industry:
▪ Petroleum by products are used in the manufacture of chemical fertiliser, synthetic fiber, synthetic rubber, nylon,
plastics, pesticides and insecticides, perfumes, and dyes, paints, among others.
▪ Refining of crude oil results in the production of several by-products, which are used in making different products
for household and industrial purposes.
▪ Major by-products of petroleum include plastic, detergents, neptha, grease, vaseline, wax, among others.

DIESEL:
1. Heavy duty engines
▪ Because combustion in a diesel engine is triggered by compression rather than a spark, the engines are built tough
and don’t break down often.
▪ Because they do not use an electrical ignition system they also can adapt easily to damp environments.
2. Impressive Fuel Efficiency
▪ Diesel burns fuel about 33 percent more efficiently than gas.
▪ That can add up quickly to some pretty impressive savings even when diesel fuel itself is more expensive.
3. Definite Safety Advantages
▪ Diesel fuel burns more efficiently, so you won’t have fuel residue coming out with your exhaust.
▪ Also, diesel is significantly less likely to burst into flames or explode than regular gasoline.

Ramped Up Torque
Diesel engines offer better torque than their gasoline counterparts, which means significantly smoother acceleration and
more towing and hauling capabilities.
KEROSENE:
▪ It’s safe – with a low risk of carbon monoxide poisoning and a clean burn, kerosene is one of the safest fuels available.
▪ It’s cheaper than gas – it’s economical to produce and has incredibly cheap prices, making it one of the most cost-
effective ways to heat your home.
▪ It’s environmentally friendly – it produces fewer fumes in its paraffin form compared to coal and wood. However, it
can emit some poisonous gases so it’s important to handle and store it correctly to avoid inhalation.
▪ It has a long shelf life – it’s non-corrosive so as long as it’s stored in a suitable tank that is kept under dry and
controlled conditions.

▪ Kerosene are used as heating oil and as a transport fuel, mostly as jet engine fuel.
Heating, lighting & cooking
▪ Historically, kerosene was used as a source of light in oil lamps and lanterns, but this was a huge fire hazard.
▪ Many backpackers and underdeveloped countries, such as Nigeria and India, still use kerosene in lamps and liquid
stoves today, where it’s sold in some petrol stations.
▪ In Japan, kerosene is used as a home heating fuel for installed and portable heaters. It can be purchased at any fuel
station or be delivered to homes. Today, in England, kerosene is often used as a heating fuel in remote areas that are
not connected to the national grid.

Jet engine fuel
More recently, kerosene is commonly used as aviation fuel; it’s less prone to freezing, it doesn’t burn too quickly at
high temperatures and it’s highly combustible – meaning it’s perfectly suited to the demands of a plane.
Cleaning agent
Kerosene can be used as a cleaning liquid, on bike chains and rims to remove lubricants.
NAPHTHA:
Naphtha as a Fuel
▪ Humans use naphtha to fuel products because it contains a large amount of chemical energy and is volatile.
▪ It can create 3.14 megajoules of energy per liter.
▪ Many camping goods stores and hardware stores sell it to power stoves, lanterns, heating units, blow torches and
cigarette lighters, thanks to its ability to burn relatively cleanly.

Naphtha in Different Industries
▪ Factories use naphtha as their most common raw material for the creation of plastics such as polypropylene and
polyethylene.
▪ Different naphtha chemicals also find use as raw materials for the creation of petrochemicals including butane and
gasoline.
▪ The energy sector uses many millions of tons of naphtha per year and breaks it down into easier-to-use chemicals
through a process called steam cracking.
Naphtha as a Solvent
▪ Humans commonly use petroleum naphtha as a solvent.
▪ It can be found in various cleaning agents where its low evaporation point comes in handy and as a dilution agent for
paints, varnish and asphalt. Dry-cleaning businesses also use naphtha in their operations.

HEAVY FUEL OIL
➢ Heavy fuel oil, or HFO, is a fraction petroleum product and is obtained from petroleum distillation as a residue
➢ Comprising carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, ash, metals, and water.
➢ It is blended with other components to bring down its sulphur content to adhere to international oil standards.
➢ Fuels used to generate motion and/or fuels to generate heat that have a particularly high viscosity and density.
➢ Have large %age of heavy molecules such as long-chain hydrocarbons and aromatics with long-branched side chains.
➢ They are black in color.
➢ Heavy fuel oils are mainly used as marine fuel, virtually all medium and low-speed marine diesel engines are designed
for heavy fuel oil.

Marine fuel
Max. sulfur content
High sulfur fuel oil (HSFO)
3.5%
Low sulfur fuel oil (LSFO)
1.0%
Ultra low sulfur fuel oil (ULSFO) 0.1%
➢ A key differentiator of heavy fuel oils is their sulfur content.
➢ According to ISO 8217, their maximum sulfur content must not exceed 3.5%.
➢ The following main classes with regard to the sulfur content can be distinguished:

HFO for Industry
➢ Used in boilers to generate steam or hot water for process heating or electricity generation
➢ Feedstocks (raw materials) used to create products like plastics, chemicals, and fertilisers
➢ For heating large, commercial buildings (air conditioning and central heating has mostly replaced this use)
➢ Used in furnaces for heating for various industrial processes, like metal smelters, forgers and mills.

HFO for Power Plants
➢ When evaluating energy-density (calorific value) HFO is second only to coal.
➢ A back-up fuel at power plants, and it is considerably cheaper than fuels like diesel.
➢ When a power plant is ‘powered down’, restarting the system is no simple task and requires powering up one
section at a time. HFO is the ideal fuel for this task and serves to kick-start the system.
➢ Hybrid power plants as well, providing energy when solar or wind is not available.
➢ Hydrocarbon fuels like HFO will continue to take precedence in the energy industry, especially in developing
countries like many in Africa, until renewable energy becomes more cost-effective and more broadly implemented.

HFO for Manufacturing
➢ Manufacturing is an energy-intensive industry and requires huge amounts of power in order to function.
➢ Energy can account for a large portion of running costs – for example, energy costs in the paper and pulp industry in
South Africa can comprise up to 20% of production costs.
➢ Manufacturing companies often rely on the grid for power, but in situations where power supply may be cut or is
unreliable, such as in South Africa or Zimbabwe, they will often invest in a back-up generator that runs on diesel or
HFO.
➢ These generators must work under intensive conditions due to the long-hours or high quotas to which many
manufacturing businesses are accustomed.
➢ A lack of power can have expensive consequences in the manufacturing industry, making energy a high-priority
resource.

THERMAL CRACKING:
➢ Thermal cracking, also known as visbreaking.
➢ Higher hydrocarbon (crude oil) ----------------→ Lighter hydrocarbon (by breaking molecular bonds)
➢ Free radical mechanism
➢ Extract usable components, known as fractions, which are released during the cracking process.
➢ It is one among several cracking methods used in the petroleum industry to process crude oil and other petroleum
products for commercial use.
➢ This process produces a lot of solid waste, which lead to the development of other processes such as catalytic cracking.
➢ Cracking activities varies with type of hydrocarbon and decrease in following order:
n – paraffin > isoparaffin > cycloparaffin > aromatics > polynuclear aromatics
➢ Olefins break down into lighter olefins or diolefins
800 °C temp.
70 atm press.

➢ Reaction starts at 315 °C and thermal cracking conversion increases with temperature and residence time.
➢ Under very severe thermal condition, coke formation takes place.
➢ Side reactions like condensation and polymerization takes place --------- gum and tar like products formed.
➢ To avoid above problem, gasoline or diesel blend produced from thermal cracking process are hydroheated to form
stable products.
➢ Products are very less stable therefore, fluid catalytic/ catalytic cracking finds more favors with refiners.
➢ This process was first used in 1913.
➢ Distillate fuels and heavy oils were heated under pressure in large drums until they cracked into smaller molecules
with better antiknocking characteristics.

CATALYTIC CRACKING
➢ Catalytic cracking is the refining process of petroleum in which the heavy oil is passed into the metal chambers at
high pressure and temperature.
➢ Catalyst: silica-alumina, zeolites, treated bentonite clays, fuller’s earth, silica – alumina.
➢ Heavy chain molecules into the lighter particles as the result the gasoline is produced.

➢ Kerosene, gasoline, LPG, heating oil and petrochemical feedstocks are products.
➢ Similar to thermal cracking except that catalyst facilitate the conversion of heavier hydrocarbon to lighter
products.
➢ Use of catalyst increase the yield of improved quality products under less operating condition than in thermal
cracking.
➢ Temperature: 450 – 500 °C and 0.68 - 1.3 atm. pressure.
➢ There are three basics functions in the catalytic cracking process:
▪ Reaction: Feedstock react with catalyst and cracks into different hydrocarbons
▪ Regeneration: Catalyst is reactivated by burning off coke
▪ Fractionation: cracked hydrocarbon stream is separated into various products.
➢ Heterolytic fission results in formation of carbocations.

➢ A catalyst promotes the removal of a negatively charged hydride ion from a paraffin compound or the addition of a
positively charged proton (H+) to an olefin compound.
➢ This results in the formation of a carbonium ion, that has only a very short life as an intermediate compound which
transfers the positive charge through the hydrocarbon.
➢ Hydrocarbon compounds come into contact with active sites on the surface of the catalyst that promote the continued
addition of protons or removal of hydride ions.
➢ The result is a weakening of carbon-carbon bonds in many of the hydrocarbon molecules and a consequent cracking
into smaller compounds.

LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS:
➢ A flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.
➢ Used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to
the ozone layer.
➢ When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas.
➢ A non-renewable source of energy.
➢ Extracted from crude oil and natural gas.
➢ Composed hydrocarbons containing three or four carbon atoms.
➢ The normal components of LPG thus, are propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). Small concentrations of other
hydrocarbons may also be present.

➢ Burns readily in air, Energy content ≈ petrol and twice the heat energy of natural gas.
➢ An excellent fuel
➢ Prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas,
➢ Almost entirely derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil),
➢ or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground.
➢ First produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912.
➢ It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur
emissions.
➢ As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution.
➢ Specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol
(gasoline).

➢ The oil mixture is piped out of the well and into a gas trap, which
separates the stream into crude oil and "wet" gas, which contains
LPG and natural gas.
➢ The heavier crude oil sinks to the bottom of the trap and is then
pumped into an oil storage tank for refining.
➢ Crude oil undergoes a variety of refining processes, including
catalytic cracking, crude distillation, and others.
➢ One of the refined products is LPG.
➢ The "wet" gas, off the top of the gas trap, is processed to separate
the gasoline (petrol) from the natural gas and LPG.

USES OF LPG:
➢ LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) is used in your home, including
▪ cooking,
▪ heating,
▪ hot water,
▪ autogas,
▪ aerosol propellant,
▪ air conditioning refrigerant and
▪ back-up generator applications.
▪ hot air balloons
▪ Leisure time activities including caravans, boats, recreational vehicles and camping.
➢ Business and industry use LPG fuel for a multitude of processes including steam boilers, kilns, ovens and LPG forklifts.

LPG Composition
➢ Ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal butane, butylene, isobutane and isobutylene, as well as mixtures of these
gases.
➢ The two most common LPG products are Propane and Butane.
➢ Isobutane (i-butane) is an isomer of butane with the same chemical formula as butane but different physical properties.
➢ Isobutane is converted from butane in a process called isomerization.
➢ It is classified as LPG, along with propane, butane and mixes of these gases.

LPG is Heavier Than Air
➢ "YES".
➢ For example, if the density of air is equal to 1.00, the density of propane is 1.53.
➢ Butane is even heavier, at 2.00. Isobutane is heavier still, at 2.07.
➢ On the other hand, natural gas - methane - is lighter than air, at about 60% of the density of air.
Propane Combustion Formula
In the presence of sufficient oxygen, LPG burns to form water vapour and carbon dioxide, as well as heat.
C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat
If not enough oxygen is present for complete combustion of LPG (propane), incomplete combustion occurs with
water, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide being produced.
2 C3H8 + 9 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 CO + 8 H2O + heat

Butane Combustion Formula
➢ Assuming complete combustion, you get carbon dioxide and water:
2 C4H10 + 13 O2 → 8 CO2+ 10 H2O + Heat
➢ However, with incomplete combustion you can get carbon monoxide and water
➢ Butane + Oxygen (insufficient) → Carbon Monoxide + Water + Heat
2 C4H10 + 9 O2 → 8 CO + 10 H2O + Heat
➢ This would typically occur if the ratio of oxygen to butane was insufficient.

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
➢ (Methane stored at high pressure) is a fuel that can be used in place of gasoline, diesel fuel and liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG).
➢ When compressed, known as CNG.
➢ Primary component: Methane
➢ Derived from natural gas.
➢ Natural gas can either be stored in a tank of vehicle as compressed natural gas at 3000 or 3600 psi or as liquified
natural gas (LNG) 20-150 psi.
➢ Made by compressing natural gas, which is mainly composed of methane, to less than 1% of the volume it occupies
at standard atmospheric pressure.
➢ It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 20–25 MPa (2,900–3,600 psi), usually
in cylindrical or spherical shapes.

Constituents %age
Methane 88.5
Ethane 5.5
Propane 3.7
Butane 1.8
Pentane 0.5
The average composition of CNG as follows:
Comparison of emission level between CNG driven
Vehicles and petrol driven vehicles
Pollutants Emission level
Petrol CNG
CO (gm/km) 0.92 0.05
HC (gm/km) 0.36 0.24

Properties:
➢ Cheapest, cleanest and least environmentally impacting alternative fuel.
➢ Vehicles powered by CNG produce less CO and hydrocarbons emission.
➢ Less expensive than petrol and diesel.
➢ The ignition temperature = 550 °C
➢ Require more air for ignition.

ADVANTAGES:
• Economic Benefits
• Environment Friendly
• Engine Life Improves
• Safety

Economic benefits:
➢ Cheaper than petrol and diesel
➢ Domestic production
➢ On an average CNG costs around half or 1/3rd the amount
of regular fuel
➢ No price fluctuation
➢ Lower maintenance cost
➢ Facilitates high running with lower cost.

Environmental impact:
➢ Greener fuel
➢ Releases lesser greenhouse gases
➢ More clean alternative to other fuel like gasoline
➢ Reduce noise pollution

Safety:
➢ Relief valve
➢ Shutoff Valves
➢ Tank design
➢ Buoyancy of CNG

Disadvantage:
➢ CNG tank requires high storage space.
➢ CNG made engine vehicles are costly than
other fuel engine of same car.
➢ CNG filling stations have limited availability as compared to
gasoline
➢ CNG engine is lower power engine than gasoline engine.

LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG):
➢ Natural gas
➢ Methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane, C2H6
➢ Natural gas is concerted into liquid state.
➢ The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately −162 °C
(−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around 25 kPa (4 psi).
➢ Volume is reduced by 600 times than its volume in gaseous state (at standard conditions for temperature and
pressure).
➢ This reduction in volume enables the gas to be transported economically over long distances.
➢ Liquification makes natural gas more economical to transport.
➢ When shipment of LNG reached to its destination, it is reheated and converted back into gas by regasification process.
➢ Sent through pipelines for delivery to end users.

➢ Hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia.
➢ The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy
hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream.

IS LNG A SAFE FUEL:
➢ Odorless, colorless, non – corrosive and non – toxic.
➢ LNG has been safely handled for many years.
➢ When LNG spills on the ground or water it vaporizes quickly and leaves behind no residues.
➢ LNG spills on water do not harm aquatic life or damage waterways in any way.
➢ As LNG vaporizes, the vapor cloud can ignite if there is a source of ignition, but otherwise LNG dissipates completely.
➢ Putting out a lit cigarette in a glass of LNG to demonstrate that liquid methane does not burn (only the vapors are
flammable).
➢ Pouring LNG into a glass of water and then drinking the water.

Non - Toxic
Does not burn
Not harmful for
aquatic animals

USES OF LNG:
Internationally LNG is being consumed as a fuel in the following sectors:
1. Household sectors as cooking, heating and lighting fuel
2. Automotive sectors as fuel for taxis, vans and private cars.
3. Industry sectors as cutting and heating fuel.
4. Agriculture sector for crop drying
5. Electricity generation
6. Chemical feedstocks
7. Other industrial uses such as manufacture of petrochemical

IS LNG FLAMMABLE?
➢ It depends.
➢ When cold LNG comes in contact with warmer air, it becomes a visible vapor cloud.
➢ As it continues to get warmer, the vapor clouds become lighter than air and rises.
➢ When LNG vapors mix with air, it is only flammable if with 5 – 15% natural gas in air.
➢ Less than this is not enough to burn.
➢ More than this there is too much gas in the air and not enough oxygen for it to burn.

PROPERTIES:
➢ Chemical formula: CH4
➢ Boiling point: -161 °C
➢ Liquid density: 426 kg/m3
➢ Gas density (25 °C): 0.656 kg/m3
➢ Specific gravity (15 °C): 0.554
➢ Flammability limits (in air by volume): 5.3% to 14%
➢ Auto ignition temperature: 595 °C

Removal of some of the non – methane
components such as water and carbon
dioxide from produced natural gas to
prevent them from forming solids when the
gas is cooled to about LNG temperature

BIOMASS:
➢ Biomass is plant or animal material used for energy production (electricity or heat),
➢ or in various industrial processes as raw substance for a range of products.
➢ It can be purposely grown energy crops (e.g. miscanthus (Silver grass), switchgrass),
▪ wood or forest residues,
▪ waste from food crops (wheat straw, bagasse),
▪ horticulture (yard waste),
▪ food processing (corn cobs),
▪ animal farming (manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphorus), or
▪ human waste from sewage plants

➢ In 2019, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries.
➢ All biomass is biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
➢ The estimated biomass production in the world is approximately 100 billion metric tons of carbon per year, about
half in the ocean and half on land.
➢ Wood and residues from wood, for instance spruce, birch, eucalyptus, willow, oil palm, remains the largest biomass
energy source today.
➢ It is used directly as a fuel or processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels.

Classification of biomass:
Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories:
1. First-generation biofuels are derived from food sources, such as sugarcane and corn starch.
▪ Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel which serve as an additive to
gasoline, or in a fuel cell to produce electricity.
2. Second-generation biofuels utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as perennial energy crops (low input crops),
and agricultural/municipal waste.
▪ There is huge potential for second generation biofuels but the resources are currently under-utilized

Biomass conversion
1. Thermal conversions
➢ Heat as the dominant mechanism to upgrade biomass into a better and more practical fuel.
➢ The basic alternatives are
▪ Torrefaction ----- a mild form of pyrolysis at temperatures typically between 200 and 320 °C.
▪ pyrolysis -----decomposition brought about by high temperatures.
▪ Gasification ---- process that converts biomass- or fossil fuel-based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
➢ These are separated principally by the extent to which the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed
(mainly controlled by the availability of oxygen and conversion temperature).
➢ Other less common thermal processes that may offer benefits, such as hydrothermal upgrading.
➢ Some have been developed for use on high moisture content biomass, including aqueous slurries, and allow them to be
converted into more convenient forms

2. Chemical conversion:
➢ Many of these processes are based in large part on similar coal-based processes, such as the Fischer-Tropsch
synthesis.
➢ Biomass can be converted into multiple commodity chemicals.
3. Biochemical conversion:
➢ Microorganisms are used to perform the conversion process:
• anaerobic digestion,
• fermentation, and
• composting.

➢ Glycoside hydrolases are the enzymes involved in the degradation of the major fraction of biomass, such as
polysaccharides present in starch and lignocellulose.
➢ Thermostable variants are gaining increasing roles as catalysts in biorefining applications, since recalcitrant biomass
often needs thermal treatment for more efficient degradation.
4. Electrochemical conversion:
➢ Biomass can be directly converted to electrical energy via electrochemical (electrocatalytic) oxidation of the material.
Performed directly in a direct carbon fuel cell,
• direct liquid fuel cells such as direct ethanol fuel cell,
• a direct methanol fuel cell,
• a direct formic acid fuel cell,
• a L-ascorbic Acid Fuel Cell (vitamin C fuel cell), and a microbial fuel cell.

➢ The fuel can also be consumed indirectly via a fuel cell system containing a reformer which converts the biomass
into a mixture of CO and H2 before it is consumed in the fuel cell.
WHY BIOMASS:
➢ Biomass provides a clean, renewable energy source.
➢ Generates far less air emission than fossil fuels.
➢ CO2 released by biomass is balanced by CO2 captured in the
growth of biomass
➢ Less net impact on green house gas level

FUELS DERIVED FROM BIOMASS:
ETHANOL
BIODIESEL
BIOGAS

1. Ethanol:
➢ Also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol.
➢ Made up of starch in certain grains such as wheat, corn etc.
➢ Production usually begins with grinding up of biomass such as wheat or corn.
➢ Once grounded, starch/ cellulose is converted into sugar.
➢ Sugar is then fed into microbes that uses it for food producing ethanol in the process.
Uses: Most gasoline mixture contains about 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline.
➢ All vehicles are equipped to handle this mixture.
➢ Such a mixture reduces green house gases by up to 4%
➢ Fuel containing 85% gasoline and 15% ethanol can be sued in flexible fuel vehicles results in reduction of 37%
greenhouse gases.

2. BIODIESEL:
➢ Made by transforming animal fat or vegetable oil with alcohol.
➢ Fuel is made up of repeseed (canola) oil or soybean oil or recycled restaurant grease.
➢ Directly used in place of diesel either as net fuel or as an oxygenated additive,
➢ Biodiesel from Jatropha.
➢ Seed of Jatropha nut is crushed and oil is extracted
➢ The oil is processed and refined to form bio – diesel.

FUEL FROM WASTE:
➢Anaerobic digestion
➢Gasification
➢Incineration
➢Pyrolysis

Anaerobic digestion:
➢ Anaerobic digestion is the process by which organic matter such as animal or food waste is broken down to produce
biogas and biofertiliser.
➢ This process happens in the absence of oxygen in a sealed, oxygen-free tank called an anaerobic digester.

➢ Biogas systems use anaerobic digestion to recycle these organic materials, turning them into biogas, which contains
both energy (gas), and valuable soil products (liquids and solids).
➢ Some organic wastes are more difficult to break down in a digester than others.
➢ Food waste, fats, oils, and greases are the easiest organic wastes to break down, while livestock waste tends to be the
most difficult.
➢ Mixing multiple wastes in the same digester, referred to as co-digestion, can help increase biogas yields.
➢ Warmer digesters, typically kept between 30 to 38 °C (86-100 °F), can also help wastes break down more quickly.
➢ After biogas is captured, it can produce heat and electricity for use in engines, microturbines, and fuel cells.
➢ Biogas can also be upgraded into biomethane, also called renewable natural gas or RNG, and injected into natural
gas pipelines or used as a vehicle fuel.

Food Waste:
➢ Around 30% of the global food supply is lost or wasted each year.
➢ In 2010 alone, the United States produced roughly 66.5 million tons of food waste, primarily from the residential and
commercial food sectors.
➢ To address this waste, EPA’s Food Recovery Hierarchy prioritizes source reduction first, then using extra food to
address hunger; animal feed or energy production are a lower priority.
➢ Food should be sent to landfills as a last resort.
➢ Unfortunately, food waste makes up 21% of U.S. landfills, with only 5% of food waste being recycled into soil improver
or fertilizer.
➢ Most of this waste is sent to landfills, where it produces methane as it breaks down.
➢ While landfills may capture the resultant biogas, landfilling organic wastes provides no opportunity to recycle the
nutrients from the source organic material.

➢ As just one example, with 100 tons of food waste per day, anaerobic digestion can generate enough energy to power 800
to 1,400 homes each year.
➢ Fat, oil, and grease collected from the food service industry can also be added to an anaerobic digester to increase biogas
production.
Landfill Gas
➢ Landfills are the third largest source of human-related methane emissions.
➢ Landfills contain the same anaerobic bacteria present in a digester that break down organic materials to produce
biogas, in this case landfill gas (LFG).
➢ Instead of allowing LFG to escape into the atmosphere, it can be collected and used as energy.
➢ Currently, LFG projects throughout the United States generate about 17 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity and deliver
98 billion cubic feet of LFG to natural gas pipelines or directly to end-users each year.

Livestock feed:
➢ A 1,000-pound dairy cow produces an average of 80 pounds of manure each day.
➢ This manure is often stored in holding tanks before being applied to fields.
➢ Not only does the manure produce methane as it decomposes, it may contribute to excess nutrients in waterways.
➢ When livestock manure is used to produce biogas, anaerobic digestion can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce
odors, and reduce up to 99 percent of manure pathogens.
➢ The EPA estimates there is the potential for 8,241 livestock biogas systems, which could together generate over 13
million megawatt-hours of energy each year.

Crop Residues
➢ Crop residues can include stalks, straw, and plant trimmings.
➢ Some residues are left on the field to retain soil organic content and moisture as well as prevent erosion.
➢ However, higher crop yields have increased amounts of residues and removing a portion of these can be sustainable.
Sustainable harvest rates vary depending on the crop grown, soil type, and climate factors.
➢ Taking into account sustainable harvest rates, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates there are currently around
104 million tons of crop residues available at a price of $60 per dry ton.
➢ Crop residues are usually co-digested with other organic waste because their high lignin content makes them difficult
to break down.

GASIFICATION:
➢ Gasification is a process that converts biomass- or fossil fuel-based carbonaceous materials into carbon
monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
➢ At high temperatures (>700 °C), without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam.
➢ The resulting gas mixture is called syngas (from synthesis gas) or producer gas and is itself a fuel.
➢ The power derived from gasification and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable
energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass

Biomass gasification:
1. upstream
2. Gasification
3. Downstream

In a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different processes:
1. The dehydration or drying process:
➢ At around 100 °C.
➢ Resulting steam is mixed into the gas flow and may be involved with subsequent chemical reactions, notably the
water-gas reaction if the temperature is sufficiently high
2. The pyrolysis (or devolatilization) process:
➢ At around 200–300 °C.
➢ Volatiles are released and char is produced, resulting in up to 70% weight loss for coal.
➢ The process is dependent on the properties of the carbonaceous material and determines the structure and
composition of the char, which will then undergo gasification reactions.

3. The combustion process:
➢ Occurs as the volatile products and some of the char react with oxygen to primarily form carbon dioxide and small
amounts of carbon monoxide, which provides heat for the subsequent gasification reactions.
➢ Letting C represent a carbon-containing organic compound, the basic reaction here is
C + O2 -----------→ CO2
➢ The gasification process occurs as the char reacts with steam and carbon dioxide to produce carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, via the reactions
C + H2O -----------→ CO + H2
C + CO2 ------------→ 2CO

1. Counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier:
➢ A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (coal or biomass) through which the "gasification agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air)
flows in counter-current configuration.
➢ The ash is either removed in the dry condition or as a slag.
➢ The slagging gasifiers have a lower ratio of steam to carbon, achieving temperatures higher than the ash fusion
temperature.
➢ The nature of the gasifier means that the fuel must have high mechanical strength and must ideally be non-caking so that
it will form a permeable bed, although recent developments have reduced these restrictions to some extent.
➢ Thermal efficiency is high as the temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low.
➢ However, this means that tar and methane production is significant at typical operation temperatures, so product gas
must be extensively cleaned before use.
➢ The tar can be recycled to the reactor.

➢ In the gasification of fine, undensified biomass such as rice hulls, it is necessary to blow air into the reactor by means of
a fan.
➢ This creates very high gasification temperature, as high as 1000 °C.
➢ Above the gasification zone, a bed of fine and hot char is formed, and
➢ as the gas is blow forced through this bed, most complex hydrocarbons are broken down into simple components of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
2. Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier:
➢ Similar to the counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in co-current configuration with the fuel
(downwards, hence the name "down draft gasifier").
➢ Heat needs to be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting small amounts of the fuel or from external
heat sources.

➢ The produced gas leaves the gasifier at a high temperature, and most of this heat is often transferred to the gasification
agent added in the top of the bed, resulting in an energy efficiency on level with the counter-current type.
➢ Since all tars must pass through a hot bed of char in this configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-
current type.
3. Fluidized bed reactor:
➢ The fuel is fluidized in oxygen and steam or air.
➢ The ash is removed dry or as heavy agglomerates that defluidize.
➢ The temperatures are relatively low in dry ash gasifiers, so the fuel must be highly reactive; low-grade coals are
particularly suitable.
➢ The conversion efficiency can be rather low due to elutriation of carbonaceous material.

➢ Recycle or subsequent combustion of solids can be used to increase conversion.
➢ Fluidized bed gasifiers are most useful for fuels that form highly corrosive ash that would damage the walls of slagging
gasifiers.
➢ Biomass fuels generally contain high levels of corrosive ash.
4. Entrained flow gasifier:
➢ A dry pulverized solid, an atomized liquid fuel or a fuel slurry is gasified with oxygen (much less frequent: air) in co-
current flow.
➢ The gasification reactions take place in a dense cloud of very fine particles.
➢ Most coals are suitable for this type of gasifier because of the high operating temperatures and because the coal
particles are well separated from one another.

INCINERATION:
➢ A waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials.
➢ Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment".
➢ Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas and heat.
➢ The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste and may take the form of solid lumps
or particulates carried by the flue gas.
➢ The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere.
➢ In some cases, the heat that is generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power.
➢ Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy technologies such
as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion.
➢ In many countries, simpler waste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills.

INCINERATION:
➢ While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle, the energy produced from incineration is
high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification.
➢ Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery.
➢ Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80%–85% and the volume (already compressed somewhat
in garbage trucks) by 95%–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from
the ash for recycling.
➢ This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary
volume for disposal.
➢ Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator.
Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70% by using a
stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant energy cost.

➢ There are various types of incinerator plant design:
▪ moving grate,
▪ fixed grate,
▪ rotary-kiln, and
▪ fluidised bed.

➢ The burn barrel is a somewhat more controlled form of private waste incineration, containing the burning material
inside a metal barrel, with a metal grating over the exhaust.
➢ The barrel prevents the spread of burning material in windy conditions, and as the combustibles are reduced they can
only settle down into the barrel.
➢ The exhaust grating helps to prevent the spread of burning embers.
➢ Typically steel 55-US-gallon (210 L) drums are used as burn barrels, with air vent holes cut or drilled around the base
for air intake.
➢ Over time, the very high heat of incineration causes the metal to oxidize and rust, and eventually the barrel itself is
consumed by the heat and must be replaced.
➢ The private burning of dry cellulosic/paper products is generally clean-burning, producing no visible smoke, but plastics
in the household waste can cause private burning to create a public nuisance, generating acrid odors and fumes that
make eyes burn and water.

➢ The burn pile is one of the simplest and earliest forms of waste disposal, essentially consisting of a mound of
combustible materials piled on the open ground and set on fire.
➢ Burn piles can and have spread uncontrolled fires, for example, if the wind blows burning material off the pile into
surrounding combustible grasses or onto buildings.
➢ As interior structures of the pile are consumed, the pile can shift and collapse, spreading the burn area.
➢ Even in a situation of no wind, small lightweight ignited embers can lift off the pile via convection, and waft through
the air into grasses or onto buildings, igniting them.
➢ Burn piles often do not result in full combustion of waste and therefore produce particulate pollution

PYROLYSIS:
➢ The thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere.
➢ It involves a change of chemical composition.
➢ The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyro "fire" and lysis "separating".
➢ Pyrolysis is most commonly used in the treatment of organic materials.
➢ It is one of the processes involved in charring wood.
➢ In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces volatile products and leaves a solid residue enriched in
carbon, char. Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization. Pyrolysis is
considered as the first step in the processes of gasification or combustion.
➢ The process is used heavily in the chemical industry, for example, to produce ethylene, many forms of carbon, and
other chemicals from petroleum, coal, and even wood, to produce coke from coal.

➢ Aspirational applications of pyrolysis would convert biomass into syngas and biochar, waste plastics back into usable
oil, or waste into safely disposable substances.
Types of pyrolysis:
➢ Complete pyrolysis of organic matter usually leaves a solid residue that consists mostly of elemental carbon; the process
is then called carbonization. More specific cases of pyrolysis include:
▪ dry distillation, as in the original production of sulfuric acid from sulfates
▪ destructive distillation, as in the manufacture of charcoal, coke and activated carbon
▪ caramelization of sugars

• high-temperature cooking processes such as roasting, frying, toasting, and grilling
• charcoal burning, the production of charcoal
• tar production by pyrolysis of wood in tar kilns
• cracking of heavier hydrocarbons into lighter ones, as in oil refining
• thermal depolymerization, that breaks down plastics and other polymers into monomers and oligomers
• hydrous pyrolysis, in the presence of superheated water or steam, also used in oil refining
• Ceramization involving the formation of polymer derived ceramics from preceramic polymers under an inert
atmosphere
• catagenesis, the natural conversion of buried organic matter to fossil fuels and
• flash vacuum pyrolysis, used in organic synthesis.

➢ When organic matter is heated at increasing temperatures in open containers, the following processes generally occur,
in successive or overlapping stages:
I. Below about 100 °C, volatiles, including some water, evaporate. Heat-sensitive substances, such as vitamin
C and proteins, may partially change or decompose already at this stage.
II. At about 100 °C or slightly higher, any remaining water that is merely absorbed in the material is driven off. Water
trapped in crystal structure of hydrates may come off at somewhat higher temperatures. This process consumes a lot
of energy, so the temperature may stop rising until this stage is complete.
III. Some solid substances, like fats, waxes, and sugars, may melt and separate.
IV. Between 100 and 500 °C, many common organic molecules break down. Most sugars start decomposing at 160–
180 °C. Cellulose, a major component of wood, paper, and cotton fabrics, decomposes at about 350 °C.
V. Most sugars start decomposing at 160–180 °C.
VI. Cellulose, a major component of wood, paper, and cotton fabrics, decomposes at about 350 °C.

VII. Lignin, another major wood component, starts decomposing at about 350 °C, but continues releasing volatile products
up to 500 °C.
VIII. The decomposition products usually include water, CO and/or CO2, as well as a large number of organic compounds.
IX. Gases and volatile products leave the sample, and some of them may condense again as smoke. Generally, this process
also absorbs energy.
X. The non-volatile residues typically become richer in carbon and form large disordered molecules, with colors ranging
between brown and black. At this point the matter is said to have been "charred" or "carbonized".
XI. At 200–300 °C, if oxygen has not been excluded, the carbonaceous residue may start to burn, in a highly exothermic
reaction, often with no or little visible flame.
XII. Once carbon combustion starts, the temperature rises spontaneously, turning the residue into a glowing ember and
releasing carbon dioxide and/or monoxide.

IX. At this stage, some of the nitrogen still remaining in the residue may be oxidized into nitrogen
oxides like NO2 and N2O3. Sulfur and other elements like chlorine and arsenic may be oxidized and volatilized at
this stage.
X. Once combustion of the carbonaceous residue is complete, a powdery or solid mineral residue (ash) is often left
behind, consisting of inorganic oxidized materials of high melting point.
XI. Some of the ash may have left during combustion, entrained by the gases as fly ash or particulate emissions.
XII. Metals present in the original matter usually remain in the ash as oxides or carbonates, such as potash. Phosphorus,
from materials such as bone, phospholipids, and nucleic acids, usually remains as phosphates.

CLEAN FUELS:
➢ Clean Fuels are fuels that are treated with ethanol to produce fewer greenhouse emissions.
➢ There are numerous types of clean fuels based on the percentage of the ethanol or biodiesel mixed with conventional
fuel.
➢ A type of fuel used for transport; this can be those types of biofuels that have low emission rates, such
as ethanol or biodiesel biogas. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is another example.
➢ A type of fuel used for cooking and lighting: biogas, LPG, electricity, ethanol, natural gas, and solar cookers and
alcohol-fuel stoves are cooking solutions that typically deliver high performance in terms of reducing household air
pollution.
➢ This is often the case even regardless of the type of cookstove used. These cooking solutions are often considered
“modern” or “clean” solutions and are collectively called BLEENS

1. Ethanol
➢ An alcohol-based alternative fuel made by fermenting and distilling crops such as corn, barley or wheat.
➢ It can be blended with gasoline to increase octane levels and improve emissions quality.
➢ Positive: Materials are renewable.
➢ Negative: Ethanol subsidies have a negative impact on food prices and availability.
2. Natural Gas
➢ Natural gas is an alternative fuel that burns clean and is already widely available to people in many countries through
utilities that provide natural gas to homes and businesses.
➢ Positive: Cars and trucks with specially designed engines produce fewer harmful emissions than gasoline or diesel.
➢ Negative: Natural gas production creates methane, a greenhouse gas that is 21 times worse for global warming than
CO2.

3. Electricity
➢ Electricity can be used as a transportation alternative fuel for battery-powered electric and fuel-cell vehicles.
➢ Battery powered electric vehicles store power in batteries that are recharged by plugging the vehicle into a standard
electrical source.
➢ Fuel-cell vehicles run on electricity that is produced through an electrochemical reaction that occurs when hydrogen
and oxygen are combined.
➢ Positive: Electricity for transportation is highly efficient, and we already have an extensive electricity network. In the
case of fuel cells, they produce electricity without combustion or pollution.
➢ Negative: Much electricity is generated today from coal or natural gas, leaving a bad carbon footprint.
(Nonetheless, electric vehicles are still the greenest option around when it comes to cars.)

4. Hydrogen
➢ Hydrogen can be mixed with natural gas to create an alternative fuel for vehicles that use certain types of internal
combustion engines.
➢ Hydrogen is also used in fuel-cell vehicles that run on electricity produced by the petrochemical reaction that occurs
when hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the fuel “stack.”
➢ Positive: No bad emissions.
➢ Negative: Cost. And also the lack of fueling infrastructure and difficulty of putting it in place.
5. Propane
➢ Propane—also called liquefied petroleum gas or LPG—is a byproduct of natural gas processing and crude oil refining.
Already widely used as a fuel for cooking and heating, propane is also a popular alternative fuel for vehicles.
➢ Positive: Propane produces fewer emissions than gasoline, and there is also a highly developed infrastructure for
propane transport, storage and distribution.

Negative: Natural gas production creates methane, a greenhouse gas that is 21 times worse for global warming than CO2.
6. Biodiesel
➢ Biodiesel is an alternative fuel based on vegetable oils or animal fats, even those recycled after restaurants have used
them for cooking.
➢ Vehicle engines can be converted to burn biodiesel in its pure form, and biodiesel can also be blended with petroleum
diesel and used in unmodified engines.
➢ Positive: Biodiesel is safe, biodegradable, reduces air pollutants associated with vehicle emissions, such as particulate
matter, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
➢ Negative: Limited production and distribution infrastructure.

7. Methanol
➢ Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, can be used as an alternative fuel in flexible fuel vehicles that are designed to
run on M85, a blend of 85 percent methanol and 15 percent gasoline, but automakers are no longer manufacturing
methanol-powered vehicles.
➢ Positive: Methanol could become an important alternative fuel in the future as a source of the hydrogen needed to
power fuel-cell vehicles.
➢ Negative: Automakers are no longer manufacturing methanol-powered vehicles.
8. P-Series Fuels
➢ P-Series fuels are a blend of ethanol, natural gas liquids and methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF),
➢ P-Series fuels are clear, high-octane alternative fuels that can be used in flexible fuel vehicles.
➢ Positive: P-Series fuels can be used alone or mixed with gasoline in any ratio by simply adding it to the tank.
➢ Negative: Manufacturers are not making flexible fuel vehicles.

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