The document provides an overview of the steel making process at Peoples Steel Mill Ltd Karachi, beginning with the scrap yard where different types of steel scrap are collected, then proceeding through the electric arc furnace, ladle furnace, vacuum degassing, continuous casting, and quality assurance departments. It describes the key stages and equipment used at each unit, and provides background information on steel composition and properties.
This document describes an internship report submitted by students from Dawood University of Engineering and Technology and Institute of Space Technology to Peoples Steel Mills Ltd. The report provides an overview of Peoples Steel Mills' production processes including scrap collection, refractory development, electric arc furnace melting, ladle furnace refining, vacuum degassing, ingot casting, continuous casting, rolling mills, forging shops, and quality control labs. It also includes descriptions of the students' internship duration and group members.
Steel mills, also known as steelworks, are industrial factories that specialize in the production of steel. They typically smelt down iron and carbon, mixing the two together in a specific ratio to create steel.
Megatherm deals in Metal Heating & Melting and possesses the strength to meet Thermal Challenges through Induction. This report is based on the site visit.
The document discusses the sintering process used at the Rourkela Steel Plant in India. It describes how iron ore fines, limestone, dolomite and other raw materials are blended and formed into nodules. These nodules are then processed through a sintering machine, where combustion of coke forms sintered agglomerates. The sinter is cooled, crushed, and screened before use as a raw material input for blast furnaces. Key aspects of the sinter plant like the mixer, nodulizer, sinter machine, cooler and screens are explained. Parameters that affect sintering quality like raw material chemistry and size, moisture content, and suction pressure are also summarized.
The document describes the processes involved in an iron making department (IMD) and cold rolling mill (CRM) of a steel plant. The IMD contains two blast furnaces that produce pig iron, and auxiliary units like stove heating, dust collection, and ladle repair. The CRM processes hot rolled coils through pickling, annealing, tempering, slitting, shearing and galvanizing to produce cold rolled coils and sheets. It aims to produce cold rolled coils for uses requiring higher quality sheets than hot rolled products. The steel making department then prepares steel of required grades and shapes by casting slabs.
Vertical Roller Mill Gearbox Reduction Ratio CalculationsSyed Fahad Ahmed
This document presents the calculations for finding out the Gear Ratio of a 3 stage (Bevel-Helical-Planetary) gearbox for Vertical Roller Mill (VRM-3700) of a Cement plant. The capacity of this VRM is 260tons/hour and is used limestone grinding.
This document describes an internship report submitted by students from Dawood University of Engineering and Technology and Institute of Space Technology to Peoples Steel Mills Ltd. The report provides an overview of Peoples Steel Mills' production processes including scrap collection, refractory development, electric arc furnace melting, ladle furnace refining, vacuum degassing, ingot casting, continuous casting, rolling mills, forging shops, and quality control labs. It also includes descriptions of the students' internship duration and group members.
Steel mills, also known as steelworks, are industrial factories that specialize in the production of steel. They typically smelt down iron and carbon, mixing the two together in a specific ratio to create steel.
Megatherm deals in Metal Heating & Melting and possesses the strength to meet Thermal Challenges through Induction. This report is based on the site visit.
The document discusses the sintering process used at the Rourkela Steel Plant in India. It describes how iron ore fines, limestone, dolomite and other raw materials are blended and formed into nodules. These nodules are then processed through a sintering machine, where combustion of coke forms sintered agglomerates. The sinter is cooled, crushed, and screened before use as a raw material input for blast furnaces. Key aspects of the sinter plant like the mixer, nodulizer, sinter machine, cooler and screens are explained. Parameters that affect sintering quality like raw material chemistry and size, moisture content, and suction pressure are also summarized.
The document describes the processes involved in an iron making department (IMD) and cold rolling mill (CRM) of a steel plant. The IMD contains two blast furnaces that produce pig iron, and auxiliary units like stove heating, dust collection, and ladle repair. The CRM processes hot rolled coils through pickling, annealing, tempering, slitting, shearing and galvanizing to produce cold rolled coils and sheets. It aims to produce cold rolled coils for uses requiring higher quality sheets than hot rolled products. The steel making department then prepares steel of required grades and shapes by casting slabs.
Vertical Roller Mill Gearbox Reduction Ratio CalculationsSyed Fahad Ahmed
This document presents the calculations for finding out the Gear Ratio of a 3 stage (Bevel-Helical-Planetary) gearbox for Vertical Roller Mill (VRM-3700) of a Cement plant. The capacity of this VRM is 260tons/hour and is used limestone grinding.
This is a presentation about ball bearing manufacturing manufacturing process. There are mainly 6 parts of knowledge included in this presentation. Please visit
The document summarizes the key steps in the iron ore pelletization process. It describes how iron ore fines and binders are mixed and formed into green balls either using a disc pelletizer or drum pelletizer. The green balls are then indurated through drying, preheating, and firing to develop bonds between fine ore particles at high temperatures. This process produces hardened iron ore pellets that offer advantages for blast furnace operations over using iron ore fines alone.
This document provides a summary of a summer internship at JSW Steel Limited in Ballari, Karnataka, India. It was conducted by 6 interns over 4 weeks. The first week involved visiting different departments to understand steel production processes. The remaining 3 weeks focused on the Raw Material Handling Systems department, specifically studying the time motion of wagon tipplers. The document describes the company background, individual plant processes visited in the first week, and objectives and key performance metrics of the Raw Material Handling Systems department where the project was conducted.
The document discusses different types and production processes of steel. It begins by introducing different types of steel based on carbon content, such as mild steel and alloy steels. It then describes the basic steelmaking route involving iron making, primary and secondary steelmaking, and continuous casting. The main secondary steelmaking processes discussed are AOD, VOD, CLU, ladle furnace treatment, and RH degassing. Each process's purpose and functioning are explained briefly.
This internship helped me very much to demonstrate cement manufacturing process. I have learnt a lot of things especially in production department (Crusher Area, VRM Area, Preheater, kiln Area, OK Mill, Cement Mill Packing Area, Blending Silo) and cover other department like quality control, power plant, RO Plant and Waste Recovery.
This document provides information about the sintering process used in iron and steelmaking. It defines sintering as the agglomeration of iron ore fines into a porous mass through controlled combustion. It describes the main components and sections of a sinter plant, including raw material preparation, stockpiles, sinter machines, and product screening. It also explains the principles of sintering, where a permeable iron ore and additive mix is ignited to fuse particles together into agglomerates through heat generated within the mix.
Production of Direct Reduced Iron in Rotary Hearth FurnaceSateesh Kumar
The document discusses the production of direct reduced iron (DRI) using a rotary hearth furnace (RHF). DRI is produced by reducing iron ore to a purity of 90-97% iron through a process using reducing gases like hydrogen and carbon monoxide at high temperatures below iron's melting point. In an RHF, iron ore and carbon pellets are heated on a rotating hearth through burners as the iron oxides are reduced over 6-12 minutes to produce DRI pellets. The furnace uses heat transfer primarily through radiation to facilitate the exothermic reduction reactions between iron oxides and reducing gases like carbon monoxide to produce solid sponge iron. RHF allows for efficient and lower cost
The document describes a report on ball mills submitted to professors at Cairo University. It discusses the basic principles of ball mills, their components, design equations, manufacturers, and cost estimates. Ball mills are widely used in grinding materials in industries like chemical and are available in both dry and wet types. They can be batch or continuous and are efficient tools for reducing materials to fine powder.
1. The document provides details about the author's one week industrial training at the Plate Mill of Jindal Steel and Power Limited in Raigarh, India.
2. It describes the key facilities and processes at the Plate Mill, including the reheating furnace, descaler, roughing and finishing mills, entry and exit coiler furnaces, and upcoiler.
3. The summary highlights some of the major equipment used at different stages of the plate production process, from heating the slabs in the reheating furnace to rolling, cooling, and coiling the final plates.
A PROJECT REPORT ON
“Eliminating corner gap in sc mould at LD2 SNC”.
During the internship the following research is evaluated and being verified by the authorized TATA steel employee.
This document discusses the process of continuous casting of steel. It begins with an introduction and overview of the process. It then describes the three main types of continuous casting machines - vertical mould, vertical mould with bending, and curved mould. It provides details on the equipment, materials, process steps, defects, and modern developments of continuous casting. Some advantages are improved yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency compared to ingot casting. Disadvantages include the need for a large facility and efficient cooling.
The document provides information about Sinom Group Co., Ltd.'s Rolls Branch Factory, which specializes in manufacturing metal rolls. It details the factory's equipment, facilities, products, and quality certifications. The main products include various types of casting steel rolls made of materials like high chromium steel, high speed steel, alloy indefinite chilled cast iron, and spheroidal graphite pearlite. These rolls are used in applications like hot strip mills, plate mills, and other metal rolling processes.
The document is a report on a detailed study of the pellet plant at JSPL Limited in Barbil, Odisha. It was submitted by Mr. Abinash Sahu to Mr. D. Palanisamiy after a summer training. The report provides an overview of the pelletization process and details of the key components of the pellet plant including the raw material handling system, dryer, ball mill, mixer, balling disc, indurating machine, and final product handling. It describes the layout, process flow, specifications and functioning of each component in the pelletization process.
The document discusses factors that affect the generation of sinter return in the sintering process. It states that sinter return depends on the quality of input materials and the sintering process itself. The quality of input materials includes physical characteristics like particle size distribution and chemical characteristics of the iron ore fines. Maintaining the quality of inputs as per norms can minimize sinter return generation. The sintering process can also affect return generation if conditions like alumina content are not optimal. Proper particle sizes distribution of inputs and maintenance of good combustion in the sintering process help reduce return generation.
This document provides an overview of cement mill operations, including definitions, types of grinding circuits, mill dimensions, operating speeds, structure of the mill components, grinding media, ventilation, heat generation and cooling, power consumption calculations, air separators, fineness control, and storage of materials. It describes the key components of a cement mill, such as the shell, liners, partition screens, grinding balls, and separators. It also explains concepts like critical speed, power calculations, and efficiency formulas for air separators.
Iron making - Palletization process- Types of palletizers utkarshprajapati3
Detail of palletization process. Difference between Disc and drum pelletizer. Properties parameters and Norms for testings. List of difference agglomerates testings.
"A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape material mostly using a press. Like molds, dies are generally customized to the item they are used to create. Products made with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology".
This document is a presentation on a vocational training at Bhilai Steel Plant submitted to Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University. It provides an overview of Bhilai Steel Plant, which is one of the largest steel producing plants in India established in 1959. It describes the raw materials used, production processes like plate mill and foundry shop, major productions including wheels, axles, rails, and safety guidelines for the industry.
The steel making process involves three main stages:
1) Preparing iron ore by removing impurities through washing, crushing, and sieving.
2) Using a blast furnace to heat iron ore, coke, and limestone above 1500°C to produce pig iron.
3) Further processing pig iron in a converter to reduce its carbon content and remove impurities by adding oxygen and scrap, producing the final liquid steel.
The document provides an introduction and overview of the cement industry in India and Birla Corporation Limited, a major cement producer. It discusses the growth of the cement industry in India from its origins in 1914. Birla Corporation operates seven cement plants across four states with a total capacity of 57.8 million tons. It produces a variety of cement types and its brands include Birla Cement. The company has received several awards for its operations and quality systems. It is a large, diversified conglomerate involved in cement, jute, flooring and other industries.
This report summarizes quality control efforts, kaizen improvements, and 5S practices at an Indian silica refractory plant. Quality control involved analyzing brick expansion data from kilns using statistical tools to better understand non-uniformity. Probability distributions examined likelihood of bricks meeting size standards. Relationships between apparent porosity and bulk density were derived. Kaizen suggestions included layout redesign, safety precautions, and housekeeping. Pictorial recommendations illustrated paths, signage and equipment changes. Excel tools simulated processes to allow flexible analysis. The aim was improving production quality and efficiency through data-driven methods.
The document provides information about the vocational training report submitted by Ashish Ranjan on casting, forging, heat treatment, and machining processes at Heavy Engineering Corporation Ltd (HEC). It discusses the various plants at HEC - Foundry Forge Plant (FFP), Heavy Machine Building Plant (HMBP), and Heavy Machine Tools Plant (HMTP). The FFP comprises six main shops for activities like pattern making, grey iron casting, steel casting, forging, machining, and fettling. Detailed processes, equipment and products of these shops are described. The HMBP and HMTP are involved in manufacturing heavy machinery and machine tools respectively using castings and forgings from FFP.
This is a presentation about ball bearing manufacturing manufacturing process. There are mainly 6 parts of knowledge included in this presentation. Please visit
The document summarizes the key steps in the iron ore pelletization process. It describes how iron ore fines and binders are mixed and formed into green balls either using a disc pelletizer or drum pelletizer. The green balls are then indurated through drying, preheating, and firing to develop bonds between fine ore particles at high temperatures. This process produces hardened iron ore pellets that offer advantages for blast furnace operations over using iron ore fines alone.
This document provides a summary of a summer internship at JSW Steel Limited in Ballari, Karnataka, India. It was conducted by 6 interns over 4 weeks. The first week involved visiting different departments to understand steel production processes. The remaining 3 weeks focused on the Raw Material Handling Systems department, specifically studying the time motion of wagon tipplers. The document describes the company background, individual plant processes visited in the first week, and objectives and key performance metrics of the Raw Material Handling Systems department where the project was conducted.
The document discusses different types and production processes of steel. It begins by introducing different types of steel based on carbon content, such as mild steel and alloy steels. It then describes the basic steelmaking route involving iron making, primary and secondary steelmaking, and continuous casting. The main secondary steelmaking processes discussed are AOD, VOD, CLU, ladle furnace treatment, and RH degassing. Each process's purpose and functioning are explained briefly.
This internship helped me very much to demonstrate cement manufacturing process. I have learnt a lot of things especially in production department (Crusher Area, VRM Area, Preheater, kiln Area, OK Mill, Cement Mill Packing Area, Blending Silo) and cover other department like quality control, power plant, RO Plant and Waste Recovery.
This document provides information about the sintering process used in iron and steelmaking. It defines sintering as the agglomeration of iron ore fines into a porous mass through controlled combustion. It describes the main components and sections of a sinter plant, including raw material preparation, stockpiles, sinter machines, and product screening. It also explains the principles of sintering, where a permeable iron ore and additive mix is ignited to fuse particles together into agglomerates through heat generated within the mix.
Production of Direct Reduced Iron in Rotary Hearth FurnaceSateesh Kumar
The document discusses the production of direct reduced iron (DRI) using a rotary hearth furnace (RHF). DRI is produced by reducing iron ore to a purity of 90-97% iron through a process using reducing gases like hydrogen and carbon monoxide at high temperatures below iron's melting point. In an RHF, iron ore and carbon pellets are heated on a rotating hearth through burners as the iron oxides are reduced over 6-12 minutes to produce DRI pellets. The furnace uses heat transfer primarily through radiation to facilitate the exothermic reduction reactions between iron oxides and reducing gases like carbon monoxide to produce solid sponge iron. RHF allows for efficient and lower cost
The document describes a report on ball mills submitted to professors at Cairo University. It discusses the basic principles of ball mills, their components, design equations, manufacturers, and cost estimates. Ball mills are widely used in grinding materials in industries like chemical and are available in both dry and wet types. They can be batch or continuous and are efficient tools for reducing materials to fine powder.
1. The document provides details about the author's one week industrial training at the Plate Mill of Jindal Steel and Power Limited in Raigarh, India.
2. It describes the key facilities and processes at the Plate Mill, including the reheating furnace, descaler, roughing and finishing mills, entry and exit coiler furnaces, and upcoiler.
3. The summary highlights some of the major equipment used at different stages of the plate production process, from heating the slabs in the reheating furnace to rolling, cooling, and coiling the final plates.
A PROJECT REPORT ON
“Eliminating corner gap in sc mould at LD2 SNC”.
During the internship the following research is evaluated and being verified by the authorized TATA steel employee.
This document discusses the process of continuous casting of steel. It begins with an introduction and overview of the process. It then describes the three main types of continuous casting machines - vertical mould, vertical mould with bending, and curved mould. It provides details on the equipment, materials, process steps, defects, and modern developments of continuous casting. Some advantages are improved yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency compared to ingot casting. Disadvantages include the need for a large facility and efficient cooling.
The document provides information about Sinom Group Co., Ltd.'s Rolls Branch Factory, which specializes in manufacturing metal rolls. It details the factory's equipment, facilities, products, and quality certifications. The main products include various types of casting steel rolls made of materials like high chromium steel, high speed steel, alloy indefinite chilled cast iron, and spheroidal graphite pearlite. These rolls are used in applications like hot strip mills, plate mills, and other metal rolling processes.
The document is a report on a detailed study of the pellet plant at JSPL Limited in Barbil, Odisha. It was submitted by Mr. Abinash Sahu to Mr. D. Palanisamiy after a summer training. The report provides an overview of the pelletization process and details of the key components of the pellet plant including the raw material handling system, dryer, ball mill, mixer, balling disc, indurating machine, and final product handling. It describes the layout, process flow, specifications and functioning of each component in the pelletization process.
The document discusses factors that affect the generation of sinter return in the sintering process. It states that sinter return depends on the quality of input materials and the sintering process itself. The quality of input materials includes physical characteristics like particle size distribution and chemical characteristics of the iron ore fines. Maintaining the quality of inputs as per norms can minimize sinter return generation. The sintering process can also affect return generation if conditions like alumina content are not optimal. Proper particle sizes distribution of inputs and maintenance of good combustion in the sintering process help reduce return generation.
This document provides an overview of cement mill operations, including definitions, types of grinding circuits, mill dimensions, operating speeds, structure of the mill components, grinding media, ventilation, heat generation and cooling, power consumption calculations, air separators, fineness control, and storage of materials. It describes the key components of a cement mill, such as the shell, liners, partition screens, grinding balls, and separators. It also explains concepts like critical speed, power calculations, and efficiency formulas for air separators.
Iron making - Palletization process- Types of palletizers utkarshprajapati3
Detail of palletization process. Difference between Disc and drum pelletizer. Properties parameters and Norms for testings. List of difference agglomerates testings.
"A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape material mostly using a press. Like molds, dies are generally customized to the item they are used to create. Products made with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology".
This document is a presentation on a vocational training at Bhilai Steel Plant submitted to Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University. It provides an overview of Bhilai Steel Plant, which is one of the largest steel producing plants in India established in 1959. It describes the raw materials used, production processes like plate mill and foundry shop, major productions including wheels, axles, rails, and safety guidelines for the industry.
The steel making process involves three main stages:
1) Preparing iron ore by removing impurities through washing, crushing, and sieving.
2) Using a blast furnace to heat iron ore, coke, and limestone above 1500°C to produce pig iron.
3) Further processing pig iron in a converter to reduce its carbon content and remove impurities by adding oxygen and scrap, producing the final liquid steel.
The document provides an introduction and overview of the cement industry in India and Birla Corporation Limited, a major cement producer. It discusses the growth of the cement industry in India from its origins in 1914. Birla Corporation operates seven cement plants across four states with a total capacity of 57.8 million tons. It produces a variety of cement types and its brands include Birla Cement. The company has received several awards for its operations and quality systems. It is a large, diversified conglomerate involved in cement, jute, flooring and other industries.
This report summarizes quality control efforts, kaizen improvements, and 5S practices at an Indian silica refractory plant. Quality control involved analyzing brick expansion data from kilns using statistical tools to better understand non-uniformity. Probability distributions examined likelihood of bricks meeting size standards. Relationships between apparent porosity and bulk density were derived. Kaizen suggestions included layout redesign, safety precautions, and housekeeping. Pictorial recommendations illustrated paths, signage and equipment changes. Excel tools simulated processes to allow flexible analysis. The aim was improving production quality and efficiency through data-driven methods.
The document provides information about the vocational training report submitted by Ashish Ranjan on casting, forging, heat treatment, and machining processes at Heavy Engineering Corporation Ltd (HEC). It discusses the various plants at HEC - Foundry Forge Plant (FFP), Heavy Machine Building Plant (HMBP), and Heavy Machine Tools Plant (HMTP). The FFP comprises six main shops for activities like pattern making, grey iron casting, steel casting, forging, machining, and fettling. Detailed processes, equipment and products of these shops are described. The HMBP and HMTP are involved in manufacturing heavy machinery and machine tools respectively using castings and forgings from FFP.
This document is a table of contents for a student's internship report. It outlines 4 chapters that will be included: 1) Introduction, which discusses the background, company history, internship goals, and school vision/mission; 2) Report of internship activities; 3) Conclusion with a summary and recommendations; 4) Appendices with student and company details as well as the activity report and evaluation. The table of contents provides a high-level overview of the structure and contents that will be included in the full internship report.
This document is the table of contents for a student's internship report. It outlines the contents of the report, which includes an introduction discussing the background, company history, internship goals, and school vision and mission. It also lists chapters that will report on internship activities, conclusions, recommendations, and appendices with the student and company identification, daily activity log, and evaluation from the business mentor.
The document provides an overview of the automotive industry and performance of auto production in Malaysia. It discusses the governance of Malaysia and the Malaysian brand automobile PROTON, including PROTON's first product, the Proton Saga. It then analyzes the importance of the automotive industry to Malaysia and details the various investment and protective measures taken by the Malaysian government to promote auto production. It evaluates the overall and producers' performance of Malaysian auto production. It also discusses government initiatives in the automotive sector and average income and cost of living in Malaysia compared to other countries. Finally, it analyzes the influence of country, government and automaker names using numerology, astrology, bio-resonance and statistics studies.
This document discusses the need to develop a global, interoperable technology architecture to enable effective traceability in the seafood industry. It notes that current proprietary systems prevent global traceability and interoperability. The architecture aims to establish standards for data sharing and a common language (ontology) to allow information systems to communicate and share new knowledge. Key challenges include a lack of standardization in areas like species definitions. Lessons from other industries will help inform the architecture's development. The goal is to foster dialogue to produce an architecture that facilitates traceability and its benefits for risk management, costs, and revenue across complex, global seafood supply chains.
R4U Denim Factory is a jeans factory located in New Delhi, India that produces and trades jeans according to customer requirements. It aims to provide customized jeans based on customer orders through its do-it-yourself model. The business will target customers aged 15-35 in India through retail outlets in Delhi. It seeks to differentiate itself through instant preparation and delivery of customized jeans. The business will be a sole proprietorship initially with the owner investing $22,500 of the $30,000 required capital. It aims to utilize an online design portal and achieve 95% customer satisfaction within 3 years of operation.
Estrategias para el desarrollo sostenible OCDE CADAnibal Aguilar
Guia Mundial para la Planificación del Desarrollo Sostenible, aprobada por Ministros de la OCDE, FUI COORDINADOR POR AMERICA LATINA EN EJERCICIO MUNDIAL
The document summarizes key findings from interviews with five organizations that have implemented SOA in production environments. The organizations ranged from 2-6 years of experience with SOA. Case studies of each organization provided details on their business drivers for SOA, implementation approach, products used, results and lessons learned. Common themes across organizations included exponential growth once initial SOA services are established, importance of governance, value of consulting, benefits of planning, and importance of loose coupling. SOA implementations yielded benefits like reduced integration costs but also challenges like significant investment required.
The term Load Despatch Centre (LDC) was first time referred in the Electricity Supply Act 1948 vide
amendment dated 15th October 1991. The subsequent amendment in August 1998 designated the LDC
as an apex body and enumerated the roles, responsibilities and powers of LDC for ensuring smooth
and integrated grid operation. The Electricity Act 2003 further articulated these provisions and
defined real-time operations. The National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) Rules, March 2005 by
Govt. of India enumerated the functions of NLDC in detail.
The Electricity Act 2003 as well as the MoP resolution of 2005, mandated that the Central / State
Transmission Utilities shall operate the respective Load Despatch Centres until a Government
company or any authority or corporation is notified by the Central/State Government. The amendment
of the Electricity Supply Act 1948 and subsequently the Electricity Act 2003 provided for levy and
collection of fee and charges as may be specified by the appropriate Electricity Regulatory
Commission.
Back ground
The Electricity Act 2003 introduced competition in the power sector by delicensing generation,
introducing open access in transmission and emphasizing that Load Despatch Centres must be
transparent, neutral and non-discriminate. Under the changed paradigm, the issues related to the
institutional arrangement, functional autonomy, revenue streams as well as certification and incentives
for human resources were re-examined by the committees / Task Forces constituted by the MoP, GoI.
Pursuant to the recommendations of the Forum of Regulators’ report on ‘Open Access-Theory and
Practice’, the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission notified the Regulations on fees and charges
for Regional Load Despatch Centre in September 2009. Chairperson CERC and FOR, urged the
SERCs to initiate steps to frame regulations for State LDCs based on the principles laid down in the
regulations framed by CERC for the RLDC.
The income statement shows declining revenues and increasing losses for Eastman Kodak over recent years. Revenue fell from $9.4 billion in 2008 to $6 billion in 2011, while net losses increased from $442 million in 2008 to $764 million in 2011. Operating expenses exceeded operating income each year. The financial performance indicates that Kodak is struggling financially and has yet to adapt its business model to changing market conditions.
A Guide to style research performance attributionindexcalculation
http://www.indxx.com/analytics.php - The Style Research Performance Attribution Module is a holdings-based performance system, fully integrated within the Style Research Portfolio Analyzer
This document provides an overview of human resource management (HRM) practices in the textile industry in Pakistan. It discusses the history and development of HRM. It then focuses on HRM functions like recruitment, selection, training, compensation, and performance management. It also examines the role of HRM in the textile industry and some common challenges faced, like technological changes, lack of training, and low education levels. It provides strategies for HRM in textiles around recruitment, orientation, training, compensation policies, and managing employee relations. In conclusion, it emphasizes the importance of HRM in improving organizational performance and provides some recommendations.
This document discusses automotive networks and control units. It explores how to communicate with and inject data into the CAN bus of different vehicles. Various attacks are demonstrated, including manipulating vehicle speed, braking, steering and reprogramming firmware. Both normal and diagnostic CAN packets are examined for the Ford Escape and Toyota Prius. The document concludes by discussing detecting such attacks and includes an appendix with a diagnostic ECU map.
This document provides an evaluation of UNDP Iraq's Country Programme Action Plan 2011-2014 related to Outcome 5, which focuses on enabling policy frameworks to support economic recovery, inclusive growth, and private sector development. It summarizes the performance of 9 projects under this outcome related to areas such as private sector development, mine action, electricity infrastructure, aviation, and housing. It finds that while the projects have made progress towards their outputs, more can be done to strengthen output to outcome linkages and ensure sustainability. It concludes with lessons learned and guidance for future programming, emphasizing the need for government capacity building and national ownership.
This DNV document outlines the technical standards, as developed by DNV, aimed at floating gas temrinals. Similar standards can be found in DNV.COM website, under "Resources".
The document provides information about Hafiz Abdul Rehman's internship at Zealcon Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd, including:
1) Zealcon works on projects like the UCH-II Gas Development Project and provides engineering services.
2) During his internship, Hafiz worked in the piping and dehydration unit departments to learn about piping systems and the amine process.
3) The dehydration unit uses glycol to remove water from natural gas through absorption and regeneration processes.
This document provides an overview of the consumer durable industry in India. It discusses key findings globally about emerging markets for consumer durables. It then analyzes the Indian consumer durable industry through a PEST analysis, SWOT analysis, Porter's five forces model, and overview of the major players in the industry. It also provides an in-depth analysis of Whirlpool India, including its products, growth, distribution network, and perspectives from its leadership. Overall, the document analyzes the industry, major companies, and Whirlpool to provide information about the consumer durable market in India.
The document provides an overview of the hydrogen fuel industry in India. It discusses the evolution of the industry and key organizations involved, including Indian Oil Corporation Limited. A PESTEL analysis identifies political support for hydrogen initiatives, the economic benefits but also costs challenges. Technologically, research is being done on production, storage and use in vehicles. Indian Oil plans to launch the first public hydrogen fueling station in India. The need for hydrogen fuel is discussed to reduce dependence on oil imports and meet energy demand in a sustainable way.
Similar to Peoples Steel Mills Karachi Internship Report (20)
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELgerogepatton
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
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Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
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PREFERENCES
This report is submitted by the students of
Chemical Engineering, Dawood University of
Engineering And Technology, Karachi to the
QAD, Peoples Steel Mill ltd. Karachi. The
students have visited all unit shops of
industry to gain first-hand knowledge. We
have tried to summarize our knowledge
regarding internship in this report.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are greatly thankful to Mr. Pervaiz Khan, Director of DILAA,
Dawood University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi and Mr.
Nasir Hussain HR Executive, Mr. Nasir Head of QAD and Mohsin
Mumtaz for this golden opportunity of availing internship in
Peoples Steel Mill Karachi.
Specially thanks to our instructors:
o Mr. Munawar Ali Chandio (QAD)
o Mr. Jahanzaib (EAF-1)
o Mr. Muhammad Shahid (Wet Chemical Analysis)
o Mr. Zeeshan (QAD)
o Mr. Asiif Shahid (Tundish Refractory)
o Mr. Mudassir (P-2 Shop)
o Mr. Sohaib (W-Shop)
o Mr. Imran (WTP)
o Mr. Javed (RDC)
o Mr. Farhan (Workshop-QAD)
o Mr. Mushtaq (R-3)
o Mr. Noman (Q-Shop-QAD)
o Mr. Tariq Hussain (OES-QAD)
o Mr. Asim (Scrapyard)
o Mr. Shabir (N-Shop)
We are also thankful to all staff and workers of PSM to
cooperate with us in great way.
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Introduction to Industry:
Peoples Steel Mill Limited set up by government of Pakistan, is a special
and alloy steels production facility. The plant is located in Javedan Nagar
Manghopir, Karachi, having area of 500 sq.meters. The plant originally set-
up in 1974 with Japanese technology. PSM is now equipped with a modern
melting refining degassing, electro slag-re-melting, necessary casting,
rolling and forging facilities. Industry has yearly 70,000 MT in the form of
ingots, billets, plates, bars, flats, forgings and casting. PSM is
manufacturing more than 300 grades of special and high steel alloys. Mostly
are:
Special Carbon Steels
Free / Semi Free Cutting Steels
Case Hardening Steels
Spring Steels
Ball bearing Steels
Heat Resisting Steels
Cutting Tool Steels
High Speed Steels
Hot work & Die Steels
Stainless / Surgical Steels
Armour Steels
Steels for Special Applications
What is Steel?
Steel, alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content ranges up to 2 percent.
Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, it is a major component used
in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances,
and weapons. Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two crystalline
forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending
on its temperature. In the body-centered cubic arrangement, there is an iron
atom in the center and eight atoms at the vertices of each cubic unit cell; in the
face-centered cubic, there is one atom at the center of each of the six faces of the
cubic unit cell and eight atoms at its vertices. It is the interaction of the allotropes
of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon that gives steel and cast iron
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their range of unique properties. The carbon in typical steel alloys may
contribute up to 2% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other
alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in
the final steel slows the movement of those dislocations that make pure iron
ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include such
things as the hardness, quenching behavior, need for annealing, tempering
behavior, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase
in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's
ductility.
Some elements are intentionally added to iron for the purpose of attaining
certain specific properties and characteristics. Other elements are present
incidentally and cannot be easily removed. Such elements are referred to as
“trace” or “residual” elements. There are thousands of steel alloys and their
categorization is complex and varies by governing body. Most, however, can be
broadly grouped into Plain Carbon Steel, Ultra Low Carbon (ULC) Steel, High
Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steel, Alloy Steel, High Alloy Steel (including
Stainless Steel and Tool Steel) and Electrical Steel. Advanced High Strength Steel
(AHSS) is the newest classification of steels. Alloying elements often serve
different purposes in different steels. For example, Manganese contributes to
steel’s strength and hardness in the as rolled condition but another important
characteristic is its ability to increase hardenability which is critical in heat
treating. The effect of alloying elements on steel properties is a huge subject. The
following is a very cursory summary of the influence of the above elements in
common flat rolled products. More information may be found on the websites
of governing bodies and materials information societies such as ASM
International.
Chemical composition of Steel
1. Carbon:
Carbon is the principal hardening element in steel. Hardness and strength
increase proportionally as Carbon content is increased up to about 0.85%.
Carbon has a negative effect on ductility, weldability and toughness. Carbon
range in ULC Steel is usually 0.002 – 0.007%. The minimum level of Carbon
in Plain Carbon Steel and HSLA is 0.02%. Plain Carbon Steel grades go up to
0.95%, HSLA Steels to 0.13%.
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2. Manganese:
Manganese is present in all commercial steels as an addition and
contributes significantly to steel’s strength and hardness in much the same
manner but to a lesser degree than carbon. Manganese improves cold
temperature impact toughness. Increasing the Manganese content decreases
ductility and weldability. The typical Manganese content is 0.20 – 2.00%.
3. Phosphorus:
Phosphorus is most often a residual but it can be an addition. As an
addition it increases hardness and tensile strength. It is detrimental to
ductility, weldability and toughness. Phosphorus is also used in re-
phosphorized high strength steel for automotive body panels. Typical
amounts as a residual are less than 0.020%.
4. Sulphur:
Sulphur is present in raw materials used in iron making. The steelmaking
process is designed to remove it as it is almost always a detrimental impurity.
A typical amount in commercial steel is 0.012%, and 0.005% in formable
HSLA.
5. Silicon:
Silicon can be an addition or a residual. As an addition it has the effect of
increasing strength but to a lesser extent than Manganese. A typical minimum
addition is 0.10%. For post galvanizing applications the desired residual
maximum is 0.04%.
6. Copper, Nickel, Chromium, Molybdenum and Tin:
Copper, Nickel, Chromium (Chrome), Molybdenum (Moly) and Tin are
the most commonly found residuals in steel. The amount in which they are
present is controlled by scrap management in the steelmaking process.
Typically the specified maximum residual quantities are 0.20%, 0.20%, 0.15%
and 0.06% respectively for Copper Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum but
the acceptable limits depend mainly on product requirements. Copper,
Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum, when they are additions, have very
specific enhancing effects on steel. A Tin residual maximum is not usually
specified but its content in steel is normally kept to 0.03% or less due to its
detrimental characteristics.
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7. Vanadium, Columbium and Titanium
Vanadium, Columbium and Titanium are strengthening elements that are
added to steel singly or in combination. In very small quantities they can have
a very significant effect hence they are termed micro-alloys. Typical amounts
are 0.01 to 0.10%. In Ultra Low Carbon Steel Titanium and Columbium are
added as “stabilizing” agents (meaning that they combine with the Carbon
and Nitrogen remaining in the liquid steel after vacuum degassing). The end
result is superior formability and surface quality.
8. Aluminum:
Aluminum is used primarily as a deoxidizing agent in steelmaking,
combining with oxygen in the steel to form aluminum oxides which can float
out in the slag. Typically 0.01% is considered the minimum required for
“Aluminum killed steel”. Aluminum acts as a grain refiner during hot rolling
by combining with Nitrogen to produce aluminum-nitride precipitates. In
downstream processing aluminum-nitride precipitates can be controlled to
affect coil properties.
9. Nitrogen:
Nitrogen can enter steel as an impurity or as an intentional addition.
Typically the residual levels are below 0.0100 (100 ppm).
10. Boron:
Boron is most commonly added to steel to increase its hardenability but in
low carbon steels it can be added to tie up Nitrogen and help reduce the Yield
Point Elongation thus minimizing coil breaks. At the same time, when
processed appropriately, the product will have excellent formability. For this
purpose it is added in amounts up to approximately 0.009%. As a residual in
steel it is usually less than 0.0005%.
11. Calcium:
Calcium is added to steel for sulphide shape control in order to enhance
formability (it combines with Sulphur to form round inclusions). It is
commonly used in HSLA steels especially at the higher strength levels. A
typical addition is 0.003%.
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M-SHOP (Melting):
Manufacturing of Steel is commonly done with two methods; one is from iron
ore and the second is Scrap (Recycled Steel) as raw material. PSM is totally
producing steel from Scrap. In industry there are different units for different
stages for Steel manufacturing. So we visited all units step by step to acquire
advance knowledge of Steel making.
I. Scrap Yard:
Our first visit to M-Shop, a unit of industry where basic steel making process is
proceed. From Melting to casting all particulars are done in M-Shop unit. Scrap
yard is also part of M-Shop.
Steel Scrap:
Steel scrap consists of discarded steel or steel products. Iron and steel is a
valuable feedstock in producing new steel products. Steel is a unique material as
it always contains recycled steel. Every year, millions of tons of pre- and post-
consumer steel products, including used steel cans, automobile and construction
materials, appliances, are recycled by steel mills into every ton of new steel
manufactured. In fact, with the exception of the earliest methods of steel making,
recycling has always been an integral part of the production of steel. Steel is 100
per cent recyclable. It can be reused over and over again without any loss of
quality. Scrap is therefore a valuable raw material for steel production. Steel is
not only 100 per cent recyclable, it is also a very durable material that can be in
use for decades or even for centuries.
The following are the facts associated with steel scrap and its recycling.
Almost 40 % of the global steel production is made from steel scrap.
Around 500 million tons of steel scrap is being used annually for the
production of steel.
Recycling of one ton of steel saves 1.4 tons of iron ore, 0.40 tons of coal,
and 0.055 tons of limestone.
CO2 emissions are reduced by 58 % through the use of steel scrap.
Recycling one ton of steel scrap saves 2.3 Cu m of landfill space.
Recycling of steel scrap uses 75 % less energy compared to creating steel
from raw materials.
Steel scrap recycling uses 90 % less virgin materials and 40 % less water. It
also produces 76 % fewer water pollutants, 86 % fewer air pollutants and
97 % less mining waste.
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Steel automobile frames contain at least 25 % recycled steel scrap and a
typical electrical appliance will usually be made of 75 % recycled steel
scrap. Steel cans consist of at least 25 % recycled steel scrap.
There are more than 2000 types of scraps in the world used for steelmaking but
PSM manufacture steel using 4 types of scrap.
1. Heavy Metal Scrap
2. Bundle Scrap
3. Shredded Scrap
4. Rail & Wheel Scrap
HMS SCRAP:
Heavy melting steel (HMS) or heavy
melting scrap is a designation for
recyclable steel and wrought iron. It
may and will consist of cut lengths of
pipe, re-bar, angles, steel poles, H or
I beams, ships plate. It is broken up
into two major categories: HMS 1 and
HMS 2, where HMS 1 does not
contain galvanized and blackened
steel, whereas HMS 2 does. The Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries
(ISRI) breaks up the categories further.
ISRI 200 (HMS 1): Wrought iron or steel scrap 1
⁄4 inch (6.35 mm) and larger in
thickness. All pieces must be smaller than 60 in × 24 in (1,524 mm × 610 mm)
ISRI 201 (HMS 1): Same as ISRI 200 except pieces must be smaller than 36 in
× 18 in (914 mm × 457 mm).
ISRI 202 (HMS 1): Same as ISRI 200 except pieces must be smaller than 60 in
× 18 in (1,524 mm × 457 mm).
ISRI 203 (HMS 2): Wrought iron or steel scrap, black and galvanized, 1
⁄8 inch
(3.175 mm) and larger in thickness.
ISRI 204 (HMS 2): Same as ISRI 203 except pieces [1]
must be smaller than 36 in
× 18 in (914 mm × 457 mm).
ISRI 205 (HMS 2): Same as ISRI 204 except it may contain automotive scrap
except for thin gauge material.
ISRI 206 (HMS 2): Same as ISRI 205 except pieces must be smaller than 60 in
× 18 in (1,524 mm × 457 mm).
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BUNDLES SCRAP:
Bundle consists of new black steel sheet scrap, clippings or skeleton scrap that
are compressed into a bundle of not less than 75 pounds per cubic foot, so that
the material can be handled with a
magnet. It may include black,
galvanized and zinc coated materials
whose dimensions must not exceed
4’x2’x2’. #1 Bundles may include Stanley
balls or mandrel wound bundles or
skeleton reels, tightly secured. It may
also include chemically detained
material. Wrought iron and/or steel
scrap above 1/8 inch in thickness
compressed to charging box size and weighing not less than 75 pounds per cubic
foot and free of all metal-coated material can be classified under #1 Bundle scrap.
Bundle must not contain metal coated, limed, vitreous enameled and electrical
steel containing more than 0.5% silicon. It may not include old auto body or
fender stock.
As per the latest Scrap Specifications Circular 2017 released by the Institute of
Scrap Recycling Industries (ISRI), Bundle steel scrap are referenced by codes 208,
217 and 235.
SHREDDED SCRAP:
Shredded scrap is a large part of the
recycling industry and can be utilized in
multiple circumstances. The classification
of shredded scrap is outlined to give a
better understanding of what goes into this
category. The shredded scrap grade
consists of homogeneous iron and steel
scrap, which is magnetically separated,
originating from automobiles, including
but not limited to unprepared no. 1 and no. 2 steel, miscellaneous baling, and
sheet scrap. For shredded scrap, the average density ranges from fifty (50)
pounds per cubic foot, to seventy (70) pounds per cubic foot, as specified by the
Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries.
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RAIL & WHEEL SCRAP:
Unused rails and wheel of trains are recycled in PSM for the steelmaking.
Railroad scrap (wheels, axles, parts of locomotives and carriages. Railroad rail cut
2 to 4 feet in length, may include joint bars and splices. May be broken, sheared
or torch cut to size. All other railroad scrap including bolsters, side frames, car
sides and roofs, railroad rail, brakes, linkages, cast iron in any form, manganese
in all forms.
All these scrap are imported from UAE, England, South Africa, and European
countries. Scrap is stored in scrap yard and before charging all types of scrap is
cut into pieces of 3-4 feet of length and this purpose of cutting is for easy and best
way to melt in furnaces because small size is easy to melt and occupy less area in
furnaces. The scrap is weighted in Buckets with the help of Scrap Carrier
Magnets. There are nine buckets with different capacity and weight mentioned
below.
1. Bucket-A 6170 kg
2. Bucket-B 6055 kg
3. Bucket-C 6330 kg
4. Bucket-D 6295 kg
5. Bucket-E 6040 kg
6. Bucket-F 6175 kg
7. Bucket-G 2375 kg
8. Bucket-H 6030 kg
9. Bucket-I 5655 kg
The scrap is charged to furnaces with its requirement and need. The scrapyard
operator is always linked to the furnaces operators for their requirement and
desire. The scrap is send on their choice. The scrap is not loaded with single type,
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also it is loaded in bucket with all mixing scrap. Shredded scrap is loaded at
bottom in bucket for easy charging, after then different types of scrap with
minimum required size and length. In one heat, all different types of scrap is
charged, because the percentages of elements are different with different types
of scrap, some scrap have high percentage of required elements of steelmaking
and some have less, so it will be easy to load different types so requirement is
achieved easy.
The melting process is also done in M-Shop. For the melting of scrap there
are two Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs) are installed in M-Shop in PSM.
II. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF):
An electric arc furnace (EAF) is a furnace that heats charged material by means
of an electric arc. Arc furnaces differ from induction furnaces in that the charge
material is directly exposed to an electric arc and the current in the furnace
terminals passes through the charged material. The main advantage of the
Electric Arc Furnaces over the Basic Oxygen Furnaces (BOF) is their capability to
treat charges containing up to 100% of scrap. About 33% of the crude steel in the
world is made in the Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF). This furnace is AC type. The
capacity of furnace is 15 ton. The temperature of furnaces varies up to 1700o
C.
Construction:
The furnace consists of a spherical hearth (bottom), cylindrical shell and a
swinging water-cooled dome-shaped roof.
The roof has three holes for consumable graphite electrodes held by a clamping
mechanism. The mechanism provides independent lifting and lowering of each
electrode.
The water-cooled electrode holders serve also as contacts for transmitting
electric current supplied by water-cooled cables (tubes). The electrode and the
scrap form the star connection of three-phase current, in which the scrap is
common junction.
The furnace is mounted on a tilting mechanism for tapping the molten steel
through a tap hole with a pour spout located on the back side of the shell.
The charge door, through which the slag components and alloying additives are
charged, is located on the front side of the furnace shell. The charge door is also
used for removing the slag (de-slagging). Here is the components of furnace:
The Shell: The Shell is wall of furnace made up of metal.
The Top: The top cap is fitted with walls of water circulating system and
inlet for 3 electrodes. Bottom of cap is pasted with castabales material as a
refractory purpose.
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The Bottom: The bottom is also covered with refractory bricks of High
Alumina with pasting of Magnesite Mass.
Refractory Bricks: After shell there is 1.5” thick line of Magnesite Mass
with lining of Magnesia Carbon Bricks.
Figure 1.1: Electric Arc Furnace
Operation of an Electric Arc Furnace:
There were two furnaces on working at that time we entered in the M-Shop, We
were lead to the Electric Arc Furnace-1, where Sir Jahanzaib has instructed all
about the process very well. The following steps are observed;
Scrap charging;
Melting;
Refining;
Slag Formation
Tapping the steel;
Scrap charging
Scrap charging is batch process. Scrap is charged for one heat of furnace is mostly
in 2-3 steps. One bucket carrying scrap weight roundly about 5-6 ton is loaded in
furnace for heating. Total 3 buckets are charged for one heat in furnace. The scrap
used in charging is mix up, shredded scrap is used for bottom feeding and then
HMS is used for melting, because it will be easy to melt light weight metal first
with starting temperature and using shred type scrap will also not affect the
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furnace. Using scrap for steel making purpose is it is Controllable and Quality
of Steel.
Note: One Heat is equal to the process of furnace from charging to tapping.
Melting
Melting process starts at low voltage (short arc) between the electrodes and the
scrap. The arc during this period is unstable. In order to improve the arc
stability small pieces of the scrap are placed in the upper layer of the charge.
The electrodes descend melting the charge and penetrating into the scrap
forming bores. The molten metal flows down to the furnace bottom.
When the electrodes reach the liquid bath the arc becomes stable and the
voltage may be increased (long arc). The electrodes are lifting together with the
melt level. Most of scrap (85%) melt during this period. The electrodes used for
arcing is made of Graphite and there are three electrodes in Electric Arc
Furnace, graphite is used because it has high melting strength. The temperature
of furnaces starts varying from 15000
C to 17000
C. Diameter of one graphite
electrode is 12 inch. Mostly three buckets are charged with interval of Half an
hour time for complete melting.
Refining:
Different composition of scrap are stored in one furnace. There are different
composition like Carbon, Magnesite, Sulpher, Phosphorus, Oxygen, Silicon,
Nickel, etc. In refining there are chemical reaction occurs with the help of
oxygen lancing.
Decarburization
Dephosphorization
Oxidation Reactions
1. Decarburization:
Decarburization is a surface degradation phenomenon in the forging and heat
treating of steels. Decarburization may be described as a metallurgical process in
which the surface of steel is depleted of carbon, by heating above the lower
critical temperature or by chemical action. Steel forgings are usually
decarburized. This process can happen as a side effect during a process, or can
be performed intentionally. The amount of carbon contained in a metal
influences its hardness. During decarburization, the carbon diffuses from the
surface of the metal, thus weakening the metal. This diffusion increases at higher
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temperatures. The effect of decarburization not only brings down the strength,
but also increases the shear strain below the metal surface. The fatigue resistance
is decreased while the rate of crack growth and wear rate is increased. In plain
carbon steel, the carbon content will decrease until the ferrite layer is reached,
after which decarburization is inhibited by the ferrite layer. Excessive
decarburization will lead to defective products. Decarburization can be
detrimental or advantageous depending on the application for which the
decarburized steel is used for.
The reaction observed in furnace is;
C + O2 CO2
2. Dephosphorization:
Phosphorus can be removed both under oxidizing as well as reducing
conditions. But removal of phosphorus under reducing conditions is not
practical since its removal is highly hazardous. Thus phosphorus removal is
practiced mostly under oxidizing conditions.
2P + 5O P2O5
Phosphorus pentoxide is unstable in slag at higher temperature we add lime
(CaO) to stabilize the phosphorus pentoxide;
By adding the lime the reaction occur is;
CaO + P2O5 CaP2O5
This compound CaP2O5 is formed as a slag and removed by other slag
compound.
Through Oxygen lancing excess amount of Silicon, Aluminum, Maganasite are
also removed through slag formation.
3. Oxidation Reactions:
The principle reactions in steelmaking comprise of oxidation of impurity
elements by oxygen dissolved in hot metal or FeO content of slag.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
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(5)
All reactions are exothermic.
C is removed as gas.
Except C, all other impurities are removed as oxides and all these oxides
float on the surface of the molten metal during refining of hot metal to
steel.
Iron oxidation is unavoidable. Oxidation of Fe is loss in productivity;
hence its oxidation must be controlled.
Oxygen must be dissolved to remove an impurity from the hot metal.
Slag Formation:
During the steel production a considerable amount of slag is produced.
Physical properties:
Steel making slag aggregates are highly angular in shape and have rough surface
texture. They have high bulk specific gravity and moderate water absorption (less
than 3 percent). Typical physical properties of steel making slag are as follows:
Specific gravity – > 3.2
Bulk density – 1.6 – 1.9 tons per cubic meter
Absorption – Up to 3 %
Chemical properties:
The chemical composition of steel making slag is usually expressed in terms of
simple oxides calculated from elemental analysis determined by x-ray
fluorescence. The following is the range of compounds present in steel making
slag from a typical base oxygen furnace. Virtually all SMS slags fall within these
chemical ranges but not all steel making slags are suitable as aggregates. Of more
importance is the mineralogical form of the slag, which is highly dependent on
the rate of slag cooling in the steel making process. The following composition is
formed within slag:
CaO SiO2 MgO Al2O3
MnO FeO P2O5 S
Steel making slag is mildly alkaline, with a solution pH generally in the range of
8 to 10. However, the pH of leachate from steel making slag can exceed 11, a level
that can be corrosive to aluminum or galvanized steel pipes placed in direct
contact with the slag.
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Uses of steel making slag:
Steel making slag is recycled in sinter plant as sinter feed since it has high
percentage of CaO and MgO. It is used as railroad ballast and as a road base. Steel
making slag is also used for soil treatment, hot mix asphalt and as a land fill.
Tapping Steel
After 2 hour of process of melting, a sample is taken for composition analysis and
after perfection of composition result, then tapping process is done, tapping is
done in ladle. Before starting tapping, ladle is poured slightly with Chroma Based
Sand for protection of damaging plates.
Partial addition of ferroalloys before tapping is processed. Ladle is preheated to
avoid shocking of molten steel. Ferroalloys are added partially according to grade
that is being made on furnace. The listed below ferroalloys are used;
Ferromagnetic
Ferrosilicon
Silicon chrome
Ferrochrome
Silico manganese
As completion of tapping the ladle is send to ladle furnace for further treatment.
III. Ladle Furnace:
A ladle furnace is used to relieve the
primary process of steel making of
many of the secondary refining
operations. The temperature of ladle
furnace for holding process is 1630-
500
C and maximum temperature for
finalizing the process is 17000
C. For
Low Grade Carbon high temperature
is required.
The main functions of a ladle furnace
are as follows.
Reheating of liquid steel by electric
power which is conducted by
graphite electrodes.
Homogenization of steel temperature and chemistry through inert gas
rinsing.
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Formation of slag layer that protects refractory from arc damage,
concentrates and transfer heat to the liquid steel, trap inclusions and metal
oxides, and provides means for desulphurization.
Additions of ferro alloys to provide for bulk or trim chemical control.
Cored wire addition for trimming and morphology control.
Provide a means for deep desulphurization.
Provide a mean for dephosphorization.
Act as a buffer for downstream equipment and process.
1. Rinsing /Purging:
For achieving a homogeneous bath temperature and composition, the steel in the
ladle is normally rinsed by means of argon/nitrogen gas bubbling. For moderate
gas bubbling rates (e.g. less than 0.6 N cum/min) porous refractory plugs are
used, usually mounted in the bottom of the ladle. The function of the porous plug
is to provide gas stirring of the molten metal to promote homogenization.
Normal stirring operations are performed by percolating argon gas through the
porous plug. At ladle furnace the purging of nitrogen is very effective and very
economically as compared to argon.
2. Alloying
Alloying of ferroalloys is mandatory as per grade requirement. According to steel
grade or specialty the alloying is processed.
The following ferroalloys are used for alloying;
Ferroalloys are master alloys containing iron and one or more non-ferrous metals
that are used as the most economical way to introduce an alloying element in the
steel melt. Their main benefits are an improvement in steel tensile strength,
regular strength and resistance to wear and tear and corrosion. All of this is
achieved by:
A change in the chemical composition of the steel
The removal of harmful impurities such as Sulphur, nitrogen or oxygen
A change in the solidification process, for example, upon inoculation.
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1. Ferrosilicon:
This product has many applications in steel production and casting. It
contributes an increase in hardness and
deoxidizing properties but also with an
improvement in strength and quality of iron
steel products. Using it to manufacture
inoculants and modularizes can give specific
metallurgical properties to the final products
produced, which can be:
Stainless steel: for superior corrosion
resistance, hygiene, aesthetic and wear-
resistance qualities
Carbon steels: used extensively in suspension bridges and other structural
support material and in automotive bodies
Alloy steel: other types of finished steel
2. Ferro Manganese:
Ferro manganese is an alloy of iron and manganese
containing usually about 80% manganese. Ferro
manganese is used mainly to counteract the bad
effects of sulfur. It also acts as a deoxidizer and
combines with sulfur, thereby improving the hot-
working properties of the product. It imparts
metallurgical properties such as increased strength,
hardness toughness and hardenability.
There are two types of Ferro Manganese are used one is High Carbon and Second
is Low Carbon, that use is with respect to carbon requirement in respective grade.
3. Ferro Chrome:
Ferrochrome, or Ferrochromium (FeCr) is a type of ferroalloy, that is, an alloy
between chromium and iron, generally containing 50% to 70% chromium by
weight. Over 80% of the world's ferrochrome is utilized in the production of
stainless steel. In 2006 28 Mt of stainless steel were produced. Stainless steel
depends on chromium for its appearance and its resistance to corrosion. The
average chrome content in stainless steel is approximately 18%. It is also used
when it is desired to add chromium to carbon steel. FeCr from Southern Africa,
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known as "charge chrome" and produced from a Cr containing ore with a low
carbon content, is most commonly used in stainless steel production.
Alternatively, high carbon FeCr produced from high grade ore found in
Kazakhstan (among other places) is more commonly used in specialist
applications such as engineering steels where a high Cr to Fe ratio and
minimum levels of other elements such as sulfur, phosphorus and titanium are
important and production of finished metals takes place in small electric arc
furnaces compared to large scale blast
furnaces.
For chrome addition the PSM also use
Stainless Steel Scrap (SS Scrap). Shredded
type of SS Scrap give 12% yield of chrome
for effective alloying.
4. Ferro molybdenum
Ferro molybdenum is an
important iron-
molybdenum metal alloy, with a
molybdenum content of 60-75% It is
the main source for molybdenum
alloying of HSLA steel.
Ferromolybdenum is an alloy formed
by combining iron and molybdenum.
It is an extremely versatile alloy used
primarily in high-strength low alloys
and stainless steels. It has numerous
beneficial properties and can be used
even in cast irons, some high-speed tool steels, and super alloy applications.
Adding ferromolybdenum to a material helps to improve weldability, corrosion
and wear resistance as well to increase ferrite strength.
5. Ferro Vanadium:
Ferro Vanadium is an alloy which is formed by combining iron and vanadium
with a vanadium content range of 35%-85%. Ferro Vanadium is a universal
hardener, strengthener and anti-corrosive additive for steels like high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) steel, tool steels, as well as other ferrous-based products.
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Ferro Vanadium was first used in the production of the Ford Model T and is
still used in the automobile industry today. Ferro Vanadium, as an additive to the
production process of ferrous metals, will impart several desirable properties
upon the resulting new compound. One of
the primary benefits of adding Ferro
Vanadium to an alloy is its stability against
alkalis as well as sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids. Additionally, the
adding of Ferro Vanadium to an alloy can
result in a steel product less susceptible to
corrosion of any type. Ferro Vanadium is
also used to reduce weight while
simultaneously increasing the tensile
strength of the material.
3. Refining:
The refining of steel in the ladle is broadly defined here as comprising of the
operations such as deoxidation, desulphurization, Dephosphorization,
controlled additions of alloying elements and inclusion modification.
The refining steel in the ladle is usually done by deoxidation of steel with ferro-
manganese, ferrosilicon, silico-manganese, and aluminum. The steel is first
deoxidized partially with silico manganese, ferromanganese, and/or ferrosilicon
followed by a final deoxidation with aluminum. Such a practice has several
advantages including minimization of nitrogen pick up, minimization of
phosphorus reversion and minimization of aluminum losses during primary steel
making.
In certain steel grades, a very low sulphur content is specified e.g. 20 ppm and
less. These low sulphur contents can only be achieved by steel desulphurization
in the ladle in the presence of a calcium aluminate slag when the steel is fully
killed. For the required degree of desulphurization to take place within a practical
time span, good mixing of steel and slag is essential. The rate, at which the
sulphur can be removed, is strongly recommended by the gas flow rate during
rinsing of steel. Another method for achieving very low sulphur content is by the
injection of fluxes into the ladle. A typical flux used for desulphurization contains
70 % CaO and 30 % CaF2. Desulphurization achieved through powder injection
is around 15 % faster than the desulphurization with a top slag only, combined
with the gas rinsing. Desulphurization of steel in the ladle is accompanied by a
decrease in the temperature of the steel bath and hence needed reheating.
Calcium treatment of liquid steel is normally adopted to modify the morphology
of the inclusions. As a result of the treatment with calcium, the alumina and silica
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inclusions are converted to liquid calcium aluminates or calcium silicates.
These liquid inclusions are globular in shape because of sulphur tension effects.
This change in inclusion composition and shape is commonly known as inclusion
morphology control or modification. Since the boiling point of calcium is 1491
deg C, calcium is a vapour at the steel making temperature. Hence when adding
calcium to the liquid steel, special measures are required to be taken to ensure
its proper recovery in the steel bath. Calcium or calcium alloys are added to the
liquid steel bath at the greatest possible depth so as to make use of the increased
pressure from the ferrostatic head to prevent the calcium from evaporating.
Further calcium retention frequency decreases with increasing quantity of
calcium injected. The quantity of calcium to be injected has to be adjusted in
accordance with the degree of cleanliness of the steel and its total oxygen
content.
IV. Vacuum Degassing (VD):
During the primary steelmaking process, gases like oxygen (O2), hydrogen (H2)
and nitrogen (N2) dissolve in the liquid steel. These gases have a harmful effect
on the mechanical and physical properties of steel. Dissolved O2 from liquid steel
cannot be removed as molecular O2 and its removal is termed as deoxidation.
The term degassing is used for the removal of H2 and N2 gases from liquid steel.
Since the degassing process of liquid steel is carried out under vacuum, it is also
known as vacuum degassing of liquid steel. Vacuum degassing processes are
carried out in steel teeming ladles.
As molten steel in ladle brought to VD Area, First its covered with a cap and
sealed by Fire clay refractory. Purpose of vacuum is to remove gases for this the
internal pressure is reduce to 1 atm or 760 torr. For this purpose two pump are
used;
1. Water Pump: 2 Water Pumps
2. Stream Ejection Pump: 4 Stream Ejectors Pump
Purging in VD is done with Argon because of its affectivity. Fire Clay refractor
used for covering ladle cap gap to obtaining good vacuum. Sometimes that
covered are damaged by high temperature and over boiling occurs, when slag is
highly viscous and for this operator use Aluminum bar that reduce boiling rate.
For Desulphurization wiring casing is used. In Wire casing Wires of Calcium and
Silicon are introduced in process. Dolomite is also used for making slag viscous
and removable.
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1. Water Pump:
One of the vacuum pump systems used for vacuum degassing combines both
steam ejectors with liquid ring pumps and involves putting several ejectors in
series, followed by the liquid ring pump. The liquid ring pump is considered a
positive displacement, wet style pump.
Like all wet style pumps, the liquid ring pump relies on a liquid to provide the
seal between the rotating vanes and the pump housing. In vacuum degassing
applications the pump is preceded by steam ejectors, which inject steam into the
system. This steam condenses in the condensation stage producing a liquid,
which is used as the pump seal.
2. Steam Ejectors:
Steam jet ejectors use the venturi principle to create a vacuum by forcing steam
through a nozzle. The nozzle provides controlled expansion of the steam, which
effectively converts pressure into velocity, producing a vacuum. This draws in
and entrains any gases present which enter at the bottom. The steam is mixed
with the pumped gases and passes out of the ejector.
Vacuum degassing plays a critical role in the manufacture of steel. The vacuum
degassing process allows the production of high quality, low carbon and ultra-
low carbon steels and stainless steels, with minimal oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen contamination. The main benefits include:
Reducing hydrogen content to avoid embrittlement of steel.
Reducing oxygen content to enhance microcleanliness.
Improving the distribution of alloying elements and other additives.
Controlling the composition of the steel to tighter chemistry
specifications.
Improving mechanical properties such as uniform transverse ductility,
fatigue resistance, and high temperature performance.
Achieving exceptionally low carbon content steel heats beyond those
obtainable by conventional means.
V. Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD)
The VOD unit is mainly used for the production of stainless steel, it provides the
most suitable condition for extensive decarburization and achievement of high-
purity and cleanness. The unit is basically a tank degasser equipped with an
oxygen lance, but specifically configured to withstand the heat load from an
intense CO emission
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It is normally used for deep decarburization of high alloy steel grades, usually
to remove carbon without affecting chromium content in the production of
stainless steel grades.).
VI. Continuous Casting (CC):
Continuous casting allows metals and alloys to be stretched, shaped and
solidified without the need for an interruption reducing waste while improving
yield, cost efficiency, and quality. About 55 percent of the world’s liquid steel
production is solidified in continuous casting processes, the most widely used of
which feeds liquid steel continuously into a short, water-cooled vertical copper
mold and, at the same time, continuously withdraws the frozen shell, including
the liquid steel it contains.
1. Process:
In continuous grid manufacturing, molten lead is ladled into the casting
machine, where it is then molded, cooled and stretched into the finished product.
Though different machines offer various advantages, the basic process is the
same. Here is how the process unfolds, step by step:
1. Liquid alloy is ladled into a tundish, which directs the flow of the material
into the mold. The tundish acts as a reservoir, continuing the flow of metal
while the ladle refills.
2. Right below a mold is attached with help of two small shroud pipe. Molten
Steel flow from tundish to mold for shaping. The mold has a particular
shape in it according to product shape.
3. The semi-solid grids are sent through the strand guide, continuing to
stretch the material to the desired thickness while cooling persists in the
secondary cooling stage.
4. The fully solidified grids are sent through straighteners, where they
achieve their final dimensions.
5. The finished grids are wound into a roll.
6. For cutting into desire length shearing machine are installed with it.
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2. Tundish:
To transfer liquid steel from a teeming ladle to the continuous casting machine
mould, an intermediate vessel, called a tundish, is used. Tundish is a rectangular
big end up, refractory lined vessel. The tundish bottom has two nozzle ports with
stopper rod for controlling the flow of liquid steel. Tundish is often divided into
two sections namely (i) an inlet section, which generally has a pour box and
where liquid steel is fed from the steel teeming ladle, and (ii) an outlet section
from which liquid steel is fed into the continuous casting machine mould.
The continuous casting tundish serves as a buffer and links the discontinuous
process of the secondary steelmaking in the ladle with the continuous casting
process in the mould. It acts as a reservoir during the ladle change periods and
continues to supply liquid steel to the mould when incoming liquid steel is
stopped, making sequential casting by a number of ladles possible. The main
causes for inclusion formation and contamination of the liquid steel include
reoxidation of the liquid steel by air and carried over oxidizing ladle slag,
entrainment of tundish and ladle slag, and emulsification of these slags into the
liquid steel. These inclusions must be floated out of the liquid steel during its
flow through the tundish before being teemed into the mould.
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The capacity of tundish is 6 ton. It is preheated at roundly 1200-1250o
C for
protecting of freezing liquid. Liquid can stay in tundish maximum 15 minutes
without being freezing. Ladle and tundish is connected with a refractory pipe
known as “Shroud”. In tundish two powder are used one is casting powder and
second is covering powder as a lubricant for reducing adhesive property.
Tundish Operations:
To promote inclusion floatation by maximizing residence time
To ensure inclusion assimilation by a captive and noncorrosive slag
To reduce thermal and chemical losses from the liquid steel
To minimize short circuiting and dead zones
To offer the operator an optimal design for quality and yield.
3. Mould:
A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable
material such as plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw material. The liquid hardens
or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to a cast.
The mold is made of copper because of the high heat conductivity of that metal.
It is heavily water-cooled and oscillates up and down to avoid sticking of the
solidified shell to its walls. In addition, the mold wall is lubricated by oil or slag,
which is maintained on the steel meniscus and flows down into the gap between
mold and strand. The slag layer, when used, is formed by the continuous addition
of casting powder. Besides providing lubrication, it keeps air away from the liquid
steel, acts as a heat barrier, and absorbs inclusions. A Cobalt tube is fitted in
mould for level checking. Cooling in mould is referred as a primary cooling.
4. Products:
Billet / Square Shape
o 110 mm
o 125 mm
o 150 mm
Bloom / Square Shape
o 230 mm
VII. Ingot Casting (IC):
There are two types steel ingot casting
1. Top pouring 2. Bottom Pouring
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Bottom Pouring:
PSM used bottom pouring method for ingot casting. There is a plate on which
different shape of moulds are placed for bottom pouring. In the centre a mould
is place called trumpet. Trumpet has also refractory lining and cap on it known
as Funnel. From bottom of ladle molten steel is poured in trumpet and it will pass
the liquid to the other mould with the help of piping of refractory in plate on
which all mould are placed. The casting powder are hanged in mould. Cover
powder and anti-cover powder use to fill cavity because when metal solidify some
empty remaining then the powder are exothermic burn and produce heat and
cavity is filled. The mould are made up of cast iron. Some of high alloy and stain
less steel are used to prepare.
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ROLE OF REFRACTORY IN PSM:
1. What is Refractory?
Refractories are ceramic materials designed to withstand the very high
temperatures (in excess of 1,000°F [538°C]) encountered in modern
manufacturing. More heat-resistant than metals, they are used to line the hot
surfaces found inside many industrial processes. In addition to being resistant to
thermal stress and other physical phenomena induced by heat, refractories can
withstand physical wear and corrosion caused by chemical agents.
Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic, porous and heterogeneous materials
composed of thermally stable mineral aggregates, a binder phase and additives.
The principal raw materials used in the production of refractories are normally
the oxides of silicon, aluminum, magnesium, calcium and zirconium. There are
some non-oxide refractories like carbides, nitrides, borides, silicates and
graphite.
1. Acidic Refractory:
Acid refractories are those which are attacked by basic slags. These are not
affected by acid slags and hence, can be safely used where the environment
is acidic. Examples of acid refractories are:
1. Silica (Most acidic)
2. Semi - Silica
3. Alumino - Silicate Refractories.
High Alumina (exception, for they react with basic slags)
Fireclay groups e.g. LHD (Low Heat Duty), HHD (High Heat Duty), SD
(Super Duty), High Grog
Kyanite, Sillimanite, Andalusite.
Here in case of Fireclay bricks one thing to be kept in mind is that the
higher the percentage of Al2O3 the higher is the fusion point & greater is
the resistance to basic slags.
2. Basic Refractory:
Basic refractories are those which are attacked by acid slags. Since they do
not react with basic slags so, these refractories are of considerable
importance for furnace linings where the environment is basic for
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example, in furnace for non-ferrous metallurgical operations. Examples
of basic refractories are: Magnesite, Mag-Chrome, Chrome-Mag,
Dolomite, Forsterite.
3. Neutral Refractory:
These are the refractories that are neither attacked by acid nor by basis
slags. Examples are:
Graphite (Most inert)
Chromites
Artificial refractories like - Zirconium Carbide, Silicon Carbide
(depending on the amount of oxidation & type of bond in the
material, it reacts with basic slags to form an acid refractory).
Out of these Graphite is the least reactive and is extensively used in
metallurgical furnaces where the process of oxidation can be controlled.
2. REFRACTORY DEVELOPMENT CENTRE:
I. Magnesia Carbon Bricks:
Magnesia carbon brick series used for the electric furnace are made by
adoption of fused magnetite, high-purity
magnesium sand and graphite as
principal raw material, through high-
pressure molding and low-temperature
treatment. This product is mainly used
for electric furnace lining, which enjoys
advantages including high temperature
resistance strength, corrosion and
spalling resistance. According to the
smelting conditions and the kind of
smelting steel, different brands magnesia carbon bricks are available.
Magnesia-carbon bricks are resin bonded bricks containing high-purity
fused and or sintered magnesia and flake graphite as their main
ingredients. Magnesia Carbon Brick has excellent corrosion resistance
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together with good thermal shock properties. It offers good oxidation
resistance due to use of high purity flake graphite.
Magnesia Carbon brick in PSM is totally imported. In RDC only High
Alumina Brick is manufacture.
II. High Alumina Bricks:
High alumina bricks are refractory materials used in the linings of various
kilns, stoves and furnaces for cement, metallurgy, power and
petrochemical industry. It is a kind of neutral refractory, quality bauxite as
the main raw material. The main composition of the brick is Al2O3, which
is up to more than 48%. A high alumina brick can withstand high
temperature and thermal shock, has a low thermal conductivity and a
stable bulk size.
Due to its excellent features and properties,
high alumina bricks are usually used in
building blast furnaces, reverberator
furnace, electric arc furnaces, rotary kiln,
hot air stoves, converters, melting furnace,
heating furnaces, soaking furnaces, and
heat treatment furnace, etc.
This kind of bricks has an excellent
performance under extreme temperature, it
has the refractoriness of up to 1770℃. The
refractoriness provides the product a fine
quality to be used as furnace and kiln linings.
High Alumina Bricks is made by mixing of following components;
Flint Clay
Shmot (70%)
Plastic Clay
Magnesite Powder
Sagar 71 Cement
After mixing this component, mixture is again mix with green mortar
(Acidic Binder) in Mixer. The yield product is High Alumina and its brick
is made in Screw friction press with pressure of 250 ton. The size of brick
is standard (75x230).
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III. Insulation Bricks:
Insulation Brick is a class of brick, which consists of highly porous fireclay
or kaolin. Insulation Bricks are lightweight, low in thermal conductivity,
and yet sufficiently resistant to temperature to be used successfully on the
hot side of the furnace wall, thus permitting thin walls of low thermal
conductivity and low heat content. The low
heat content is particularly important in
saving fuel and time on heating up, allows
rapid changes in temperature to be made,
and permits rapid cooling. Insulation Brick
is characterized by the presence of large
amount of porosity in it. The pores are
mostly closed pores. The presence of
porosity decreases the thermal conductivity
of the insulating bricks.
Following process machinery were observed in RDC.
Rotary Kiln
Crusher
Grinder
Ball Mill
Mixer
Screw Friction Press
IV. Electric Arc Furnace Refractory Lining:
Bottom:
o Magnesia Carbon Bricks
Inside:
o Magnesite Mass Pasting
Gunning Powder
Thickness 1-15”
o Magnesia Carbon Bricks
11-lines
V. Ladle Refractory Lining:
Shell
o Thickness: 16-30 mm
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o Mild Steel
Micro Theum
o Heat Proof (5-7 mm)
Insulation Tile
o 32 mm
Safety Lining
o Alumina Tile
o Magnesite Tile
o Magnesite Chrome Tile
Working Line
o Slag Zone
Magnesia Carbon Brick
o Metal Zone
Magnesia Carbon
Dolomite
Magnesia Chrome
VI. Tundish Refractory Lining:
Shell
o Mold Steel
Insulation Brick
o Silica Base
High Alumina Brick
Mortar
o Alumina Base
o Tundish Gunning Mix
R-SHOP (Forging):
Forging: (R-1)
Forging is a manufacturing process that results in the shaping of metal by using
calculated force. Forging is executed with a power hammer or a die during the
shaping process to produce the intended design of the forged metal object.
Forging also has multiple classifications, identified according to the temperature
at which the forging process is being performed. This includes cold forging or hot
forging, each offering its own distinct advantages. Forged parts could range in
size from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons and be customized to
fit any shape or size desired.
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Open Die Forging
Open die forging is the process of deforming a piece of metal between multiple
dies that do not completely enclose the material. The metal is altered as the dies
“hammer” or “stamp” the material through a series of movements until the
desired shape is achieved. Products formed through open forging often need
secondary machining and refining to achieve the tolerances required for the
finished specifications. Open die forging is widely used for the products in small
quantity that are simple, rather than complex, such as discs, rings, sleeves,
cylinders and shafts. Custom shapes can also be produced with open die forging.
The strength of the grain structure will be increased during the deformation
process due to the repeated working of the steel billet. Another benefit of open
die forging is that the fatigue resistance and strength of products will be
improved. Besides, voids could be effectively reduced after open die forging.
Closed Die Forging:
Closed die forging (also known as an impression die forging) is a metal
forming process that compress a piece of metal under high pressure to fill an
enclosed die impression. For some special shapes, second forging operation is
required to reach final shapes and dimensions. The type of material, tightness of
tolerances, and need for heat treatment can determine the cost of a closed die
forged part.
Machinery:
Machinery Capacity / Pressure Quantity
Reheating
Furnace
50 kg 1
100 kg 4
200 kg 5
400 kg 1
Free Forging Hammer
½ ton 2
1 ton 1
Drop Forging Hammer ½ ton 2
Die Forging Hammer 3.15 1
Counter Flow Hammer 6 ton 1
Band Saw Machine - 1
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Input:
Round Bars (D38-66mm)
Flat Bars
Square Bars
Output:
Round Bars (12-50 mm)
Square (12-50 mm)
Rectangle
Hexagonal
Hollow sleeves
Gear Blank
Dummy Bars
Crown Wheel
Chisel
Press Forging (R-3):
Press forging may be defined as the process of shaping a metal that is placed
between two dies by applying mechanical or hydraulic pressure. Press forging is
usually done on a forge press - a machine that applies gradual pressure on the
forging dies. The shape of the metal is usually accomplished by a single stroke of
the press for each die station.
Deforms the work piece completely
Compression rate of the work piece can be controlled
More economical for high volume productions
Any size and shape can be created
Requires less draft and produces lesser scrap.
Input:
SQ-700
SQ-1250
OCT-8000
OCT-5000
OCT-3000
ESR-400-600-800-1000-1250
Output:
Round Bar (200-500 mm)
Square Block/Bar (450 mm)
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Rectangular Bars (150-400 mm)
Disk (200 mm)
Ring (1500-2000 mm)
Rectangular Block
Machinery:
Machinery
Capacity / PressureReheating
Furnace 2 MT
4 MT
10 MT
40 MT
Hydraulic Press
(Water + Air) Based
1700 ton
Rail Bonded Manipulator 15 ton
Rotary Trolley
Top Hat Electrical
Furnace
1.5 ton
LONG FORGING MACHINE (P-1)
The perfect equipment to provide excellent quality and flexibility in shapes and
sizes for the production of super alloys.
Characteristic:
Radial Direction
o Forging from all direction.
Forging Defects:
Crack
Seam
Chips
Folding
Computer Numerical Control
Program Logic Control
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2- Manipulator
o Check Head-A
o Check Head-B
Pressure 400 tons
o Normally use 200-250 ton
Reduction Passes 30mm
Input:
Oct-230
Bloom-230
Round-230
Output:
D50
SQ50
FL (30-50)
OCT-230-50
Maximum Length of Product
o 6m
Machinery:
Walking Beam
o Reheating Furnace
o Steps of Walking
o 60 ton per hour
o Gas Fired
o 3-Zones
Zone-1: 8000
C
Zone-2: 9500
C
Zone-3: 11500
Cs
Austrian Made Furnace
o Heat Treatment Furnace
Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening, Tempering
o Capacity 15 MT
o 3-Zones
o Boggy Type
o Gas Fired
o 14 Burners
o Temperature Variation (±20
C)
o PLC Control
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Chinese Made Furnace
o Heat Treatment Furnace
Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening, Tempering
o Capacity 10 MT
o Boggy Type
o Gas Fired
o 6 Burners
o 3-Zones
o PLC Control
o Temperature Variation (±200
C)
Straightening Machine
Peeling Machine
Q-SHOP (Bar-Rolling)
Roughing Mill/ Hot Rolling Mill:
Rolling process is one of the most important and widely used industrial metal
forming operations. It provides high production and close control of the final
product. Shapes are processed by hot rolling by passing them through plain or
grooved cylindrical rotating rolls to produce plates, sheets, rods, structural
sections, and tubes etc. It accounts for 90 % of all metals produced by metal
working processes. Rolling of steel is a metal forming process in which steel is
passed through a pair of rotating rolls for plastic deformation of the steel. Plastic
deformation is caused by the compressive forces applied through the rotating
rolls. High compressive stresses are as a result of the friction between the rolls
and the steel stock surface. The steel material gets squeezed between the pair of
rolls, as a result of which the thickness gets reduced and the length gets
increased. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the steel rolled. If
the temperature of the steel is above its recrystallization temperature, then the
process is termed as hot rolling. If the temperature of the steel is below its
recrystallization temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. Three rolls
are rotating. Rotation of center roll is anticlockwise and others are clockwise. The
Rolls are 3HI-Non Reversing. Input is got from M-Shop usually. There are Guide
Box are installed in Mill Bar for accurate passing. 750 KW motor is functions for
rotating bars with 90 RPM. Product is Round Bar, Flat and Deform shape with
help of input only billet or bloom.
Finishing Mill:
The function of finishing mill is same as roughing mill. Its only increase length
according to requirement and make finished product. There are 4 finishing mill
are equipped in Q-shop. For a particular shape and length, then it is cut down in
Shearing Machine. After cutting in length it is the product is taken for MPI Test.
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MPI Test: Magnetic Particle Inspection Test for checking out defects such as
Cracks, Folding, Seam, Roughness etc and these are removing by grinding.
MPI Test is taken in a way that bundle of bars are placed on electrical
conductivity frame and electricity is passed through and MPI ink is spray on it
and cracks are easily available.
N-SHOP (Rolling):
Rolling:
The material is heated in reheating furnace then processed in 2HI-Reversing
Rolling Mill which increase the length of bar by decreasing the thickness. After
that a Shear Machine is placed at right after rolling mill for cutting pieces into
desire length. For leveling cut piece is passed through leveler.
2HI-Reversing
o Motor : 1000 KW
2-Roller
o Rotating in opposite direction with each other.
Max. RPM: 80 RPM
Current Load: 400 A
Hot Rolling
Reheating Furnace
o Capacity 9 ton/hr
o Fuel and Air mixture
Natural Gas (1:10)
o 3-Zones
Top
Bottom
Soaking
Crystallization Heat Temperature
o Greater
Hot Roller
o Below
Cold Rolling
Input:
Slab
Bloom
o 230
Billet
Square Ingot
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Output:
Flatting
Round Bar / Billet
o 90,130
Gothic Bar
o 76x76
Bloom
o SQ: 200-230
Peeling Bay:
1. Slab Grinder
o Fixed Machine
o Input
Flat Ingot, Round ingot, Octagonal
o Defects Remover
Crack
Folding
Seam
o Casting/rolling/forging defects renovation
2. Billet Grinder
o Movable
o Input
Octagonal, Square, Billet
100-180
Bloom 230
3. Hand Grinder:
o Round Bar, Flat
o Tolerance Control
WATER TREATMENT PLANT:
Water Treatment:
Water treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it
more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial
water supply, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely
returned to the environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and
undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water
becomes fit for its desired end-use.
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Chemical Treated Water Supply:
Electric Arc Furnace 1 & 2
o 3-Heat Exchanger
Plate Type, Tube Type
o 2-Cooling Tower
o 6- Compressors
Continuous
Ladle Furnace 1 & 2
Vacuum Degassing
Vacuum Oxygen Degassing
Boiler
CC
o Primary Cooling
o Secondary Cooling
Done by Fresh Water
Untreated Water
Also For Transformer Oil Cooling
Treatment
o Fresh Water
Filter
Softening
2-Softerner
A & B
Done by Sodium Zeolite Bed
o Removing of Hardness
Ca & Mg
o Back Wash after treatment
Recovery of NaZ Bed
Brine Tank
Rock Salt
Ammonia Buffer
Reagent
Eriochrome Black T
Chemical Addition
Corroshield NT4209
o Corrosion Protection
o 3 liters on 1000 liters
Test for Treatment
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PH
Iron
o Removing of Iron
Nitrate Test
o Minimum (500-800 ppm)
Hardness
o Titration Method
Quality Assurance Department (QAD)
1. Workshop:
Sample Handling
o From EAF 1 & 2, LF 1 & 2, VD/VOD, CC & IC
o Cooled down by water
o Grinding
Circulator Centre Grinder Machine
Polishing
Machines
o Lathe Machine
o Drill Machine
o Grinding Machine
2. Optical Emission Spectrometer
Optical emission spectrometry involves applying electrical energy in
the form of spark generated between an electrode and a metal sample,
whereby the vaporized
atoms are brought to a high
energy state within a so-
called “discharge plasma”.
These excited atoms and
ions in the discharge plasma
create a unique emission
spectrum specific to each
element, as shown at right.
Thus, a single element
generates numerous
characteristic emission
spectral lines. Therefore,
the light generated by the
discharge can be said to be a collection of the spectral lines generated
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by the elements in the sample. This light is split by a diffraction
grating to extract the emission spectrum for the target elements. The
intensity of each emission spectrum depends on the concentration of
the element in the sample. Detectors (photomultiplier tubes) measure
the presence or absence or presence of the spectrum extracted for each
element and the intensity of the
spectrum to perform qualitative
and quantitative analysis of the
elements. In the broader sense,
optical emission spectrometry
includes ICP optical emission
spectrometry, which uses an
inductively coupled plasma
(ICP) as the excitation source.
The terms "optical emission
spectrometry" and
"photoelectric optical emission spectrometry," however, generally refer
to optical emission spectrometry using spark discharge, direct-current
arc discharge, or glow discharge for generating the excitation discharge.
Shimadzu optical emission spectrometers feature Pulse Distribution
Analysis (PDA) to enhance the measurement reproducibility (accuracy).
This method involves statistical processing of the spark pulse-generated
emission spectra obtained from spark discharges in an argon
atmosphere. The optical emission spectrometer offers rapid elemental
analysis of solid metal samples, making it indispensable for quality
control in steel making and aluminum metallurgy processes.
Metal Testing
No Oxides Testing
Only polished piece
Table Stand
o Sample Hold
o Electrode
Tungsten
High Energy Emission
Photon (Energy)
o Spark
2-3 times
Average taken
Within one minute
o All composition got
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Followed by According to Specification
Detection in Optics
o Greeting
UV visible
22 Elements: 22 Focus: 22 Separator
3. XRF-Spectrometer
ED-XRF Spectrometer, X-Ray Fluorescence, X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis
X-Ray fluorescence analysis
using ED-XRF spectrometers
is a commonly used
technique for the
identification and
quantification of elements in
a substance. SPECTRO`s
stationary ED-XRF
spectrometers are based on
the energy-dispersive-X-ray-
fluorescence analysis
method. The atoms in the
sample material, which could
be any solid, powder or
liquid are excited by X-Rays
emitted from an X-Ray tube
or radioisotope. For increasing sensitivity, the primary excitation radiation can
be polarized by using specific targets between the X-Ray tube and the sample
(ED-P (polarization)-XRF). All element specific X-Ray fluorescence signals
emitted by the atoms after the photoelectric ionization are measured
simultaneously in a fixed mounted semi-conductor detector or sealed gas-
proportional counter.
The radiation intensity of each element signal, which is proportional to the
concentration of the element in the sample, is recalculated internally from a
stored set of calibration curves and can be shown directly in concentration
units.
Wavelength obtained by Bragg’s Equation
o nλ = 2 d sin θ
Phenomenon
o X-ray Phenomenon
Generation
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o Emission on Sample
Sample Generate Secondary X-ray
Unique Wavelength
3. Wet Chemical Analysis:
Chemical Analysis
o Chemical composition metal, alloys and non-metals.
o Raw Material
Ferroalloy
Ferrosilicon, Ferromanganese, Ferrochrome,
Ferrovanadium
Analyzer
o Si-Mn-P-Cr-Ni-Ti-W etc
Ferrous
Cast Iron-Pig Iron- High Carbon Steel- Low Carbon
Steel- Medium Carbon-Stainless Steel- Tool Steel-
Non-Ferrous
Brass-Bronze-Tin
Ingredients: Cr-Pb-Sn-Al-Fe-Cd-C-Ca
Refractory
Fire Clay- Dolomite-Fluorspar-Chrome Manganese
Ingredients
o SiO2- Al2O3-CaO-P2O5- MnO-ZrO2-MgO2
o Standards
ASTM
Mostly
British
ISO
Japanese
Chinese
Water Analysis
o Total Hardness
o PH
o TDS
Instruments
o 2-Oven Dryer
o PH
meter
o Shaker Balance
o Run Operator
o Muffer Furnace
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Max. Temperature 11000
C
o Bulk Density Operator
o Spectro photo meter
U.V Spectroscopy
Lower Range (0.1-2 ppm)
Si, Mn, Cr, Ni, P analyze
4. Mechanical Analysis
Test
o Hardness
o Ultimate Tensile Test
o Toughness
o Ductility
o Compressive
1. Hardness
o Brittle Harness Test
Tungsten Carbide ball use in Intender
Force 3000 kg
We use brinell when sample width double the sheet
We hold 10-15 sec to resist elasticity
o Rockwell Hardness Test
Start minor force then HRB-100 kg-HRC-150 kg force
HRB-ball intender use, HRC diamond cone intender use
Size limitation in brinell we use Rockwell because in brinell thin sample
test.
2. Universal Tensile Machine
A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is used to test both
the tensile and compressive strength of materials.
Universal Testing Machines are named as such because
they can perform many different varieties of tests on an
equally diverse range of materials, components, and
structures. Most UTM models are modular, and can be
adapted to fit the customer’s needs.
Universal Testing Machines can accommodate many
kinds of materials, ranging from hard samples, such as
metals and concrete, to flexible samples, such as rubber
and textiles. This diversity makes the Universal Testing
Machine equally applicable to virtually any
manufacturing industry.
The UTM is a versatile and valuable piece of testing
equipment that can evaluate materials properties such as
tensile strength, elasticity, compression, yield strength,
elastic and plastic deformation, bend compression, and strain hardening. Different models of
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Universal Testing Machines have different load capacities, some as low as 5kN and others as
high as 2,000kN.
Tests can also be performed in controlled environmental conditions. This is achieved by
placing the Universal Testing Machine into an environmental room or chamber. For example,
metals testing can be conducted at extreme temperatures: from -196°C (-321°F) to over 1000°C
(1800°F).
5. Metallography:
Metallography is the study of the microstructure of all types of metallic alloys.
It can be more precisely defined as the scientific discipline of observing and
determining the chemical and atomic structure and spatial distribution of the
constituents, inclusions or phases in metallic alloys. By extension, these same
principles can be applied to the characterization of any material.
A. Sampling:
Cut the sample through micro cutting machine.
B. Mounting:
Mounting through mounting machine using plastic material like Bakelite
mounting machine temperature max 180-2000
C. Mounting machine
pressure 150 kg.
C. Grinding:
Grinding through rough and fine grinding paper, grinding starts with
rough paper then grade of grinding paper increase unless the surface
becomes flat.
D. Polishing:
After grinding specimen is polished clothes and mirror like surface is
obtained.
E. Etching:
The purpose of etching is to make visible the many structural
characteristics of the metal or alloy. The selection of appropriate etching
reagent is determined by the metal or alloy and specific structure desired
for viewing.