Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Routing Protocols for Ad-Hoc Networks. This is a book for Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
&
DSR: The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Multi-Hop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks. November 2011,
Authors : Giorgos Papadakis & Manolis Surligas
Routing Protocols for Ad-Hoc Networks. This is a book for Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
&
DSR: The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol for Multi-Hop Wireless Ad Hoc Networks. November 2011,
Authors : Giorgos Papadakis & Manolis Surligas
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Surveying Engineering
Traversing Practical part 1
Plane and Applied surveying 2
Report number(2)
• Report name :Gales Traverse Table(Horizontal angle
measurement (FL)of closed traversing
• Apparatus
• Theodolite Instrument
• Tripod
• Compass
• Pin
• Tape
• Range pole
Object
• To conducted survey work in a closed traversing and calculate
in depend coordinates and area calculation by coordinate rule.
Procedure Traverse;
Calculations Traverse .Dada Sheet and Table method work clock wise surveying
-Gales Traverse Table.
*Traverse Calculations
-Traverse Calculation.
-Coordinate conversions.
-Signs of Departures and Latitudes.
*Balancing latitude and departure
-Correction for ∆E& ∆N:
Bowditch adjustment or compass method
-The example…
-Vector components (pre-adjustment)
*The adjustment components
Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. Salar K.Hussein
Mr. Kamal Y.Abdullah
Asst.Lecturer. Dilveen H. Omar
Erbil Polytechnic University
Technical Engineering College
Civil Engineering Department
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Surveying Engineering
Traversing Practical part 1
Plane and Applied surveying 2
Report number(2)
• Report name :Gales Traverse Table(Horizontal angle
measurement (FL)of closed traversing
• Apparatus
• Theodolite Instrument
• Tripod
• Compass
• Pin
• Tape
• Range pole
Object
• To conducted survey work in a closed traversing and calculate
in depend coordinates and area calculation by coordinate rule.
Procedure Traverse;
Calculations Traverse .Dada Sheet and Table method work clock wise surveying
-Gales Traverse Table.
*Traverse Calculations
-Traverse Calculation.
-Coordinate conversions.
-Signs of Departures and Latitudes.
*Balancing latitude and departure
-Correction for ∆E& ∆N:
Bowditch adjustment or compass method
-The example…
-Vector components (pre-adjustment)
*The adjustment components
Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. Salar K.Hussein
Mr. Kamal Y.Abdullah
Asst.Lecturer. Dilveen H. Omar
Erbil Polytechnic University
Technical Engineering College
Civil Engineering Department
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Part 10 : Routing in IP networks and interdomain routing with BGPOlivier Bonaventure
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Slides supporting the "Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and Practice" ebook. The slides can be freely reused to teach an undergraduate computer networking class using the open-source ebook.
Understanding User Behavior with Google Analytics.pdfSEO Article Boost
Unlocking the full potential of Google Analytics is crucial for understanding and optimizing your website’s performance. This guide dives deep into the essential aspects of Google Analytics, from analyzing traffic sources to understanding user demographics and tracking user engagement.
Traffic Sources Analysis:
Discover where your website traffic originates. By examining the Acquisition section, you can identify whether visitors come from organic search, paid campaigns, direct visits, social media, or referral links. This knowledge helps in refining marketing strategies and optimizing resource allocation.
User Demographics Insights:
Gain a comprehensive view of your audience by exploring demographic data in the Audience section. Understand age, gender, and interests to tailor your marketing strategies effectively. Leverage this information to create personalized content and improve user engagement and conversion rates.
Tracking User Engagement:
Learn how to measure user interaction with your site through key metrics like bounce rate, average session duration, and pages per session. Enhance user experience by analyzing engagement metrics and implementing strategies to keep visitors engaged.
Conversion Rate Optimization:
Understand the importance of conversion rates and how to track them using Google Analytics. Set up Goals, analyze conversion funnels, segment your audience, and employ A/B testing to optimize your website for higher conversions. Utilize ecommerce tracking and multi-channel funnels for a detailed view of your sales performance and marketing channel contributions.
Custom Reports and Dashboards:
Create custom reports and dashboards to visualize and interpret data relevant to your business goals. Use advanced filters, segments, and visualization options to gain deeper insights. Incorporate custom dimensions and metrics for tailored data analysis. Integrate external data sources to enrich your analytics and make well-informed decisions.
This guide is designed to help you harness the power of Google Analytics for making data-driven decisions that enhance website performance and achieve your digital marketing objectives. Whether you are looking to improve SEO, refine your social media strategy, or boost conversion rates, understanding and utilizing Google Analytics is essential for your success.
APNIC Foundation, presented by Ellisha Heppner at the PNG DNS Forum 2024APNIC
Ellisha Heppner, Grant Management Lead, presented an update on APNIC Foundation to the PNG DNS Forum held from 6 to 10 May, 2024 in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.
2.Cellular Networks_The final stage of connectivity is achieved by segmenting...JeyaPerumal1
A cellular network, frequently referred to as a mobile network, is a type of communication system that enables wireless communication between mobile devices. The final stage of connectivity is achieved by segmenting the comprehensive service area into several compact zones, each called a cell.
Italy Agriculture Equipment Market Outlook to 2027harveenkaur52
Agriculture and Animal Care
Ken Research has an expertise in Agriculture and Animal Care sector and offer vast collection of information related to all major aspects such as Agriculture equipment, Crop Protection, Seed, Agriculture Chemical, Fertilizers, Protected Cultivators, Palm Oil, Hybrid Seed, Animal Feed additives and many more.
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Our Animal care category provides solutions on Animal Healthcare and related products and services, including, animal feed additives, vaccination
Bridging the Digital Gap Brad Spiegel Macon, GA Initiative.pptxBrad Spiegel Macon GA
Brad Spiegel Macon GA’s journey exemplifies the profound impact that one individual can have on their community. Through his unwavering dedication to digital inclusion, he’s not only bridging the gap in Macon but also setting an example for others to follow.
Meet up Milano 14 _ Axpo Italia_ Migration from Mule3 (On-prem) to.pdfFlorence Consulting
Quattordicesimo Meetup di Milano, tenutosi a Milano il 23 Maggio 2024 dalle ore 17:00 alle ore 18:30 in presenza e da remoto.
Abbiamo parlato di come Axpo Italia S.p.A. ha ridotto il technical debt migrando le proprie APIs da Mule 3.9 a Mule 4.4 passando anche da on-premises a CloudHub 1.0.
Gen Z and the marketplaces - let's translate their needsLaura Szabó
The product workshop focused on exploring the requirements of Generation Z in relation to marketplace dynamics. We delved into their specific needs, examined the specifics in their shopping preferences, and analyzed their preferred methods for accessing information and making purchases within a marketplace. Through the study of real-life cases , we tried to gain valuable insights into enhancing the marketplace experience for Generation Z.
The workshop was held on the DMA Conference in Vienna June 2024.
Instagram has become one of the most popular social media platforms, allowing people to share photos, videos, and stories with their followers. Sometimes, though, you might want to view someone's story without them knowing.
5. Datagram mode
• Early work on this concept that lead to the
current Internet was done in France
• Cyclades project lead by Louis Pouzin
http://goo.gl/lwdlwS
6. Agenda
• Building a network
• Network basics
• Distance Vector routing
• Link State routing
• Supporting applications
7. What is the distance vector
sent by R5 after
convergence ?
R1
R2
R3 R4
R5
R6
4
4
1
0
9
Default link weight is 1
8. Question
• How does a router using distance vectors
detect the failure of a link ?
9. DV sent by R4 when link
fails ?
R1
R2
R3 R4
R5
R6
3
4
1
0
9
Default link weight is 1
10. How to react ?
All routes that use a failed link are advertised
with an infinite cost
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B :
C :
E :
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A : 2 [West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B : 2 [North]
A=0;B= ;C= ;D=1;E=
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A :
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
12. Question
• A distance vector router accepts a route
towards destination d on link l if any of three
conditions is met. What are these three
conditions ?
• d is not already in the routing table
• d is already in the routing table, but with a shorter path
• d is already in the routing table, but with a longer path
• the sequence number of the distance vector is larger than
the previous one
• d is already in the routing table, but the route was learned
from another link than l
• d is already in the routing table, and the route was learned
on link l
13. Reception of DV
Received(Vector V[],link l)
{ /* received vector from link l */
for each destination=d in V[]
{
if (d isin R[])
{ if ( ((V[d].cost+l.cost) < R[d].cost) OR
( R[d].link == l) )
{ /* better route or change to current route */
R[d].cost=V[d].cost+l.cost;
R[d].link=l;
}
}
else
{ /* new route */
R[d].cost=V[d].cost+l.cost;
R[d].link=l;
}
}
14. Example
D must remove all the routes learned from
North that are announced with an ∞ cost
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B :
C :
E :
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A : 2 [West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B : 2 [North]
A=0;B= ;C= ;D=1;E=
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A :
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
15. Example
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B :
C :
E :
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A : 2 [West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B :
D=0;B= ;A=1;C=2;E=11
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A :
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
16. Example
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B :
C : 3 [South]
E : 2 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A : 2 [West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B :
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A :
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
B=0;A= ;C=1;E=1;D=2
B=0;A= ;C=1;E=1;D=2
17. Example
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B :
C : 3 [South]
E : 2 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A :
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B :
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A :
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
E=0;A=2;D=1;C=1;B=1
E=0;A=2;D=1;C=1;B=1
E=0;A=2;D=1;C=1;B=1
18. Example
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B :
C : 3 [South]
E : 2 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A: 3 [South-West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B : 2 [East]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 3 [South]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
A=1;B=2;C=2;D=1;E=1
• Everything is ok ?
19. Another failure
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B : 3 [South]
C : 3 [South]
E : 2 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A: 3 [South-West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 1 [East]
C : 2 [East]
B : 2 [East]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 3 [South]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
A=1;B= ;C= ;D=1;E=
20. Another failure
But A could also send its distance vector before
D
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B : 3 [South]
C : 3 [South]
E : 2 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A: 3 [South-West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E :
C :
B :
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 3 [South]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
A=0;D=1;B=3;C=3;E=2
21. Another failure
D updates its routing table
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B : 3 [South]
C : 3 [South]
E : 2 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A: 3 [South-West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 3 [North]
C : 4 [North]
B : 4 [North]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 3 [South]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
D=0;A=1;E=3;C=4;B=4
22. Another failure
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B : 5 [South]
C : 5 [South]
E : 4 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A: 3 [South-West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 3 [North]
C : 4 [North]
B : 4 [North]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 3 [South]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
A=0;D=1;B=5;C=5;E=4
23. Another failure
C
D E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
D : 1 [South]
B : 5 [South]
C : 5 [South]
E : 4 [South]
A B C
D E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
D : 2 [South-West]
A: 3 [South-West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
D : 1 [West]
A : 2 [West]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
D : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [North]
E : 5[North]
C : 6 [North]
B : 6 [North]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 3 [South]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
D : 2 [South]
A=1;D=0;B=6;C=6;E=5
• This problem is called counting to infinity
• How can we prevent it ?
25. DV sent by R3 to R1 with
split horizon?
R1
R2
R3 R4
R5
R6
3
4
1
0
9
Default link weight is 1
26. Limitations of split
horizon with poisoning
C
E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
B :
C :
E :
A B C
E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
A : 2 [West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table
E : 0 [Local]
A : 2 [North]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [West]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
A=2;B=1; C=0;E=
A= ;B=0; C=1;E=
A= ;B=0; C= E=1
27. Limitations
E will send its own distance vector
B will discover a new route towards A
via E and will advertise it to C
New count to infinity problem
C
E
Routing table
A : 0 [ Local ]
B :
C :
E :
A B C
E
Routing table
C : 0 [Local]
E : 1 [South-West]
A : 2 [West]
B : 1 [West]
Routing table after B’s vector
E : 0 [Local]
A :
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table after C’s vector
E : 0 [local]
A : 3 [North-East]
C : 1 [North-East]
B : 1 [North]
Routing table
B : 0 [Local]
A : 1 [West]
C : 1 [East]
E : 1 [South]
A= ;B=0; C=1;E=
A=2;B=1; C=0;E=
28. Operational issue
Operation
At each expiration of its 30-sec timer, each router
sends its own distance vector and restarts its
timer
Problem
After a power failure, all routers might restart at
same time and have synchronized timers
Each router will need to process bursts of DV
messages
29. Loop-free routing
• What guarantees the fact that packets
sent to destination d will eventually reach
destination d ?
30. Agenda
• Building a network
• Network basics
• Distance Vector routing
• Link State routing
• Supporting applications
31. How to set link costs ?
• By manual configuration
• Based on link bandwidth
• By measurements
• Only strictly positive link weights
32. Question
• Which of the following informations are
contained in a link state packet ?
• sequence number
• list of paths to reach known destinations
• list of pairs (known dest, cost)
• age of the link state packet
• clock time
• list of pairs (neighbor, cost to this
neighbor)
• CRC
33. Link state packet sent by R4
?
R1
R2
R3 R4
R5
R6
3
4
1
0
9
Default link weight is 1
35. Transient problems
when a link fails
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : East
C : South
D : East
D's FIB
A : North
B : North
C : North
C's FIB
A : North
B : North
D : North
B's FIB
A : West
C : West
D : South
A and B are not yet
aware of failure
Packets will be lost
36. A detects the failure
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : East
C : South
D : East
D's FIB
A : North
B : North
C : North
C's FIB
A : North
B : North
D : North
B's FIB
A : West
C : West
D : South
B not yet aware of failure
A cannot reach B/D
Packets continue to be lost
37. A recomputes Dijkstra
and sends its LSP
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : South
C : South
D : South
D's FIB
A : North
B : North
C : North
C's FIB
A : North
B : North
D : North
B's FIB
A : West
C : West
D : South
B not yet aware of failure
A loops towards B/D
Packets continue to be lost
A:1 C=1
38. B detects the failure
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : South
C : South
D : South
D's FIB
A : North
B : North
C : North
C's FIB
A : North
B : North
D : North
B's FIB
A : West
C : West
D : South
B cannot reach A/C
A loops towards B/D
Packets continue to be lost
A:1 C=1
39. B recomputes Dijkstra
and sends its LSP
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : South
C : South
D : South
D's FIB
A : North
B : North
C : North
C's FIB
A : North
B : North
D : North
B's FIB
A : South
C : South
D : South
B cannot reach A/C
A loops towards B/D
Packets continue to be lost
B:1 D=1
40. C recomputes Dijkstra
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : South
C : South
D : South
D's FIB
A : North
B : North
C : North
C's FIB
A : North
B : East
D : East
B's FIB
A : South
C : South
D : South
B loops towards A/C
A can reach everyone
Packets continue to be lost
41. D recomputes Dijkstra
A B
C D
100
A's FIB
B : South
C : South
D : South
D's FIB
A : West
B : North
C : West
C's FIB
A : North
B : East
D : East
B's FIB
A : South
C : South
D : South
B can reach everyone
A can reach everyone
Network has been updated
42. Router failures
• Planned failures
• Router reboot to upgrade OS
• Sudden failure
• due to power outage, software or
hardware crash
43. Comparing routing
protocols
• Neighbour detection
• Detecting link failures
• Detecting router failures
• Link weights
• What information is distributed ?
• How often ?
• How are forwarding tables built ?
44. Agenda
• Building a network
• Supporting applications
• Transport services
• Reliable transport protocols
45. Question
• What are the characeristics of the network
service in the Internet ?
• packets can get lost
• packets can get duplicated
• transmission errors can affect packet
payload
• packets can be reordered
57. Connection
establishment
• How to reliably open a connection ?
Connect.req
Connect.ind
CR
CA
Connection established
Connect.resp
Connect.conf
Connection established
Connections
A<->B : ...
Connections
A<->B : ...
60. Delayed segments
• How to deal with delayed segments ?
• Network level guarantee
• No packet will survive more than MSL
seconds inside the network
• Transport entities use on a local clock to
detect duplicated connection
establishment requests
61. Three way handshake
CR (seq=x)
CA (seq=y, ack=x)
CA (seq=x, ack=y)
Sequence number x read
from local transport clock
Local state :
Connection to B :
- Wait for ack for CR (x)
- Start retransmission timer
Sequence number y read from
local transport clock
CA sent to ack CR
Local state :
Connection to A :
- Wait for ack for CA(y)
Received CA acknowledges CR
Send CA to ack received CA
Local state :
Connection to B :
- established
- current_seq = x
The sequence numbers used
for the data segments will start
from x
The sequence numbers
used for the data segments
will start from y
D(x)
D(y)
Local state :
Connection to A :
- established
- current_seq=y
Connection established
Connection established
Host A Host B
62. Reliable transfert
• How to reliably transport data ?
• Selective repeat is a good starting point
• variable delays cause reordering
• be careful with duplications
• variable delays will influence timers
63. Closing a connection
• Two different approaches
• abrupt release
• send a segment that immediately closes the
connection –> may lead to losses
• graceful release
• send a marker that indicates the end of the date,
once the marker is acked, all data has been
received and connection is closed
• independent release of the two directions
Editor's Notes
Pseudocode
Every N seconds:
for each link=l
{ /* one different vector for each link */
Vector=null;
for each destination=d in R[]
{
if (R[d].link<>l)
{
Vector=Vector+Pair(d,R[d].cost);
}
}
Send(Vector);
}
The Synchronization of Periodic Routing Messages , Floyd, S., and Jacobson, V. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, V.2 N.2, p. 122-136, April 1994.
In this example, the duplicate CR is likely to be a previous retransmission of the CR that was delayed in the network.