Part 2 (Thinking Critically)

PART 2
1
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHO-
LOGICAL SCIENCE
2
THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS ASK AND ANSWER QUESTIONS?
3 STATISTICAL REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
4 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY
SECTIONS
Ѱ
2
Psychology, Twelfth Edition (Myers, D. G.)
© T.G. Lane 2018

PART2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Compare and contrast each of the three research
method categories used in psychology
• Discuss what it means to have a scientific attitude
• Operationally define a dependent research variable
• Describe how to conduct an experiment that shows
causation
• Differentiate between negative and positive correlations
• Identify whether two sample variables are statistically
significant
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
© T.G. Lane 2018

PART2
SECTION
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
THE NEED FOR
© T.G. Lane 2018

THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE1PART2:THINKINGCRITICALLYWITH
PSYCHOLOGICALSCIENCE
• Going outside with your hair wet will cause you to go sick
• Cold weather in general makes you sick
• Eating and then swimming can cause cramps
• Cracking your knuckles leads to arthritis
• Sugar makes kids hyper
• A cold shower can dampen your sex drive
• Eating carrots improves your vision
• Cutting your hair makes it grow faster
• You should feed a cold and starve a fever
• Reading in the dark will ruin your eyes
Which of these statements below are true?
© T.G. Lane 2018

THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE1
Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more
reliable than those based on intuition and common sense?
1:
• Relying on intuition alone can often lead to incorrect out-
comes– humans often overestimate on their assumptions.
• Empirical research help researchers generalize more
accurately to the population.
• Researchers use an empirical approach by relying
on facts in order to answer important psychological
questions.
THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
PART2:THINKINGCRITICALLYWITH
© T.G. Lane 2018

THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
What are three main components of the scientific attitude?2:
Researchers must have:
curiosity: a passion to explore and under-
stand without misleading or being mislead
skepticism: challenging “truths”
humility: an awareness of one’s own vul-
nerability to error and an openness to sur-
prises and new perspectives
That feeling that makes your eyebrow
raise– causing you to think to yourself,
“Really is this true?”
© T.G. Lane 2018

CRITICAL THINKING
• Having a scientific attitude help psychologists develop more
into critical thinkers
• critical thinking: examines assumptions, discerns
hidden values, evaluates evidence, and
assesses conclusions (also called smart-
thinking). HUH!?!
• Critical thinkers ask questions (e.g.
Does the evidence justify a cause-effect
conclusion?) and don’t blindly accept
arguments and conclusions.
© T.G. Lane 2018

SECTION
AND ANSWER QUESTIONS?
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS ASK
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCEPART2
© T.G. Lane 2018

HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS ASK AND ANSWER QUESTIONS?2
What type of method do scientists use to test theories?3:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
THEORY explains, organizes,
predicts
HYPOTHESIS a testable prediction,
implied by a theory
RESEARCH a method used to test a
theory
THEORIES
+
HYPOTHESIS
RESEARCH &
OBSERVATIONS
1 2
3
© T.G. Lane 2018

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• As a check on researchers’ biases, psychologists report their
research with precise operational definitions of procedures
and concepts.
• operational definition: a statement of the procedures
(operations) used to define research variables (e.g.
hunger, defined as “hour without eating”)
• Careful use of words when defining variables should allow
others to replicate (repeat) the original observers of an
experiment.
• replication: repeating the essence of a research
study, usually with different participants in different
situations, to see whether the basic findings extends
to other participants and circumstances
© T.G. Lane 2018

RESEARCH METHODS
Video
Psychology:
The Human Experience
Research Methods
© T.G. Lane 2018

How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?4:
DESCRIPTIVE
CORRELATIONALEXPERIMENTAL
Case Study
Surveys
Naturalistic
Observation
© T.G. Lane 2018

DESCRIPTIVE
• One of the oldest research methods are case studies.
• case study: an observation technique in which one
person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing
universal principles
• Case studies generally make it difficult to generalize to the
larger population, but they often are good for suggesting
directions for further study.
The Case Study
© T.G. Lane 2018

DESCRIPTIVE
Naturalistic Observation
• Naturalistic observation strongly considers the natural environ-
ment when gathering research.
• naturalistic observation: involves observing and
recording behavior in naturally occurring situations
without trying to manipulate and control the
situation
• This descriptive method does not explain but rather describes
it. It offers a snapshot into everyday life.
© T.G. Lane 2018

DESCRIPTIVE
The Survey
• The survey method looks at many cases in less depth
• survey: a technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by
questioning a representative, random sample of the
group
• Developing survey questions, and answers often depends on
the way questions are worded and respondents are chosen.
• It is important for researchers to avoid basing conclusions on
vivid cases and instead consider the representative
population
© T.G. Lane 2018

DESCRIPTIVE
The Survey (Random Sampling)
• Obtaining a representative sample requires choosing a group
of randomly sampled participants that represent a particular
total population.
• population: all the cases in a group being studied,
from which samples may be drawn
• random sample: a sample that fairly represents a
population because each member has equal chance
of inclusion
• Larger representative samples are better than smaller ones.
© T.G. Lane 2018

PART2
Video Game Usage
Self Report
SURVEY EXAMPLE:
© T.G. Lane 2018

HYPOTHESIS
• The more time spent by a person playing video games in their
real life, the more aggressive behavior they will exhibit
© T.G. Lane 2018

SURVEY PARTICIPANTS
Research Population Sample of Population
draw from
• males and female
• those that frequently
or infrequently play
video games
representative
=
N = 8000 n = 426
© T.G. Lane 2018

CORRELATION
What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they
enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?
5:
• Surveys and naturalistic observations often show how one
trait or behavior correlates.
• correlate: a measure of the extent which two factors
vary together, and thus of how well either factor
predicts the other (e.g. Does number of hours studying
predict how well one scores on an exam?)
• correlation coefficient: a statistical index/measure of
the relationship between two things (-1 to +1)
© T.G. Lane 2018

CORRELATION
• Researchers use scatterplots to illustrate the range of possible
correlations from a perfect positive to a perfect negative
• scatterplots: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which
represents the values of two variables. The slope of the
points suggest the direction of the relationship between
the two variables.
• The amount of the scatter suggests the strength of the
correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
© T.G. Lane 2018

CORRELATION
• A positive correlation occurs if two sets of scores rise or
fall together.
Perfect positive correlation (+1.00)
(x)
(y)
STUDYING
TEST PERFORMANCE
OR
Both Up
Both Down
© T.G. Lane 2018

CORRELATION
• A negative correlation occurs if two sets of scores rise relate
inversely (one set goes up as the other set goes down).
Perfect negative correlation (-1.00)
(x)
(y)
TEETH BRUSING
DECAY
One Up
One Down
© T.G. Lane 2018

CORRELATION
• There is no relationship when two sets of scores are widely
spread apart from one another or show no consistent pattern.
No relationship (0.00) (x)
(y)
© T.G. Lane 2018

CORRELATION
Correlation and Causation
• Correlations help to predict behavior but correlations do
not suggest causation (e.g. depression does not cause low
self-esteem or vice versa).
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)
Depression
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition Depression
Low self-esteem
could cause
could cause
could cause
or
or
EXAMPLE
© T.G. Lane 2018

PART2
Is there a relationship between
violent video games and
aggression?
CORRELATIONAL EXAMPLE:
© T.G. Lane 2018

HYPOTHESIS & RESEARCH METHOD
• The more time spent by a person playing video games in their
real life, the more aggressive behavior they will exhibit
Initial Research Method:
Surveys were collected on each of
the research participants.
Surveys were used to assess:
(1) level of video game exposure
(2) trait aggressiveness
Continued…
© T.G. Lane 2018

PART2THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Variable 1 Variable 2
Video Game
Exposure
Aggression in
Past Year
AGGRESSIVEBEHAVIOR
VIDEO GAME EXPOSURE
RESULTS
HYPOTHESIS
© T.G. Lane 2018

EXPERIMENTATION
• Researchers can isolate cause and effect with an experiment.
• experiment: a research method in which an investi-
gator manipulates one or more factors (independent
variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or
mental process (the dependent variable). By random
assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to
control other relevant factors
How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify
cause and effect?
6:
• An experiment manipulates a factor to determine its
effect.
© T.G. Lane 2018

• By randomly assigning subjects in an experiment, researchers
are able to eliminate alternative explanations in order to
support their conclusion.
• random assignment: assigning participants to exper-
imental and control groups by chance, thus
minimizing preexisting differences between those
assigned to the different groups
Random Assignment
EXPERIMENTATION
• Random assignment allows researchers to conclude that any
later differences between people in an experimental and
control group are most likely the result of the treatment.
© T.G. Lane 2018

• In an experiment, a researcher must create an experimental
group and control group.
• experimental group: in an experiment, the group that
is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of
the independent variable
• control group: in an experiment, the group that is not
exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the exper-
imental group and serves as a comparison for
evaluating the effect of the treatment
EXPERIMENTATION
Random Assignment
© T.G. Lane 2018

EXPERIMENTATION
• In order to conduct an experiment, a researcher must deter-
mine both the independent and dependent variables.
Independent and Dependent Variables
• independent variable: the experimental factor that is
manipulated; the variable whose effect is studied
• dependent variable: the outcome factor, the variable
that may change in response to manipulations of the
independent variable
• Both variables are given operational definitions, which specify
the procedures that manipulate the independent variable or
measure the dependent variable.
© T.G. Lane 2018

PART2
Does playing violent video
games cause aggression?
EXPERIMENT EXAMPLE:
© T.G. Lane 2018

HYPOTHESES
• Playing violent video games in a laboratory setting will cause
an increase in aggressive behavior
an increase in aggressive thoughts
an increase in aggressive emotions
© T.G. Lane 2018

RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
Research Population Sample of Population
draw from
• males and female
• those that play video
games
• differing trait agress-
iveness
representative
N = 6500
n = 284
© T.G. Lane 2018

RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
SAMPLE
n = 284
n = 142
n = 142
Experimental
Group
Control
Group
=
=
© T.G. Lane 2018

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
+
Control Group
=
Participants not playing a violent
video game (i.e., those not re-
ceiving the treatment) – pro-
cedures operationally defined
+
Experimental Group
=
Participants playing a violent
video game (i.e., those receiving
the treatment) – procedures
operationally defined
- random/representative sample
- random/representative sample
© T.G. Lane 2018

DEPENDENT VARIABLE
=
Aggressive behavior was operationally
defined as the level in which participants
delivered loud noise bursts (i.e., punish-
ment settings)
Operationally Defined
Volume levels are expected
to increase according to
the different group types/
independent variables
Increases with aggression?
© T.G. Lane 2018

RESULTS
an increase in aggressive behavior
an increase in aggressive thoughts
an increase in aggressive emotions
© T.G. Lane 2018

3
DESCRIBING DATA
STATISTICAL REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
How can we describe data with variation?7:
• Once researchers have gathered data they must organize this
information in a meaningful way.
• One easy way to do this can be through illustrations such as
charts and graphs
• Measures of central tendency (e.g., the mean) are often used
to determine averages in sample data
• Knowing the amount of variation in data is useful in determining
how similar or diverse scores are (e.g. basketball points scored
in each season)
© T.G. Lane 2018

3
MAKING INFERENCES
What principles can guide our making generalizations from samples
and deciding whether differences are significant?
8:
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.
2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that
are more variable.
3. More cases (i.e., subjects) are better than fewer.
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
• Keep in mind that generalizations based on a few unrepresent-
ative cases are unreliable.
© T.G. Lane 2018

3
DESCRIBING DATA
When is a Difference Significant?
• When sample averages are reliable and the difference between
them is relatively large, this difference would be considered to
have statistical significance.
• statistical significance: a statistical statement of how
likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
• For most psychologists, proof beyond a reasonable doubt means
not making much of a finding unless the odds of it occurring by
chance is less than 5 percent or .05 (an arbitrary criterion).
© T.G. Lane 2018

3
DESCRIBING DATA
(x)
(y)
NON VIOLENT
AGGRESSIONAFTERTRIALS
VIOLENT
V2
Significance:
V1
Aggressive Behavior
p < .05
Control
Group
Experimental
Group
© T.G. Lane 2018

3
DESCRIBING DATA
(x)
(y)
NON VIOLENT
VIOLENT
V2
V1
Aggressive Thoughts
p < .05
Significance:
Experimental
Group
Control
Group
© T.G. Lane 2018

3
DESCRIBING DATA
(x)
(y)
NON VIOLENT
VIOLENT
V2
V1
Aggressive Emotions
p >.05
Significance:
Control
Group
Experimental
Group
© T.G. Lane 2018

What are the major differences and similarities in each research
method category?
9:
COMPARING RESEARCH METHODS
RESEARCH METHOD BASIC PURPOSE WHAT IS MANIPULATED WEAKNESSES
Descriptive
To observe and
record behavior
Nothing No control of variables;
single cases may be
misleading
Correlational
How well one
variable predicts
another
Nothing Does not specify cause
and effect
Experimental
To explore cause
and effect
The independent
variable(s)
Sometimes not feasible;
results may not generalize
to other contexts
© T.G. Lane 2018

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY4
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?10:
• A laboratory experiment lets psychologists recreate psycho-
logical forces under controlled conditions.
• An experiment’s purpose is not to recreate the exact behaviors
of everyday life but to test theoretical principles (e.g. slapping vs.
shocking– both are forms of aggressive behavior).
• Psychologists’ concerns lie less with particular behaviors than
with the general principles that help explain many behaviors.
© T.G. Lane 2018

• Psychologists often study animals to learn about people, by
doing experiments permissible only with animals; human
physiology resembles that of many other animals.
Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment
on animals?
11:
• The same processes by which humans see, exhibit emotion,
become obese are present in rats and monkeys.
• The American Psychological Association has set guidelines that
mandate the comfort, health, and humane treatment of ani-
mals, and of minimizing infection, illness, and pain of animal
subjects.
© T.G. Lane 2018

Is it ethical to experiment on people?12:
• Researchers must follow guidelines when conducting research
with human participants; they are urged to:
1. obtain a informed consent of potential participants
2. protect participants from harm and discomfort
3. treat information about individual participants confidentially
4. fully explain the research afterward
• The idea is for a researcher to be sufficiently informative and con-
siderate that participants will leave feeling at least as good about
themselves as when they came in for the study.
© T.G. Lane 2018

Part 2 (Thinking Critically)

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Part 2 (Thinking Critically)