Panorama of the European Non-residential Construction Sector

i
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A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SUPPLY FOR EVERYONE
Final report
-Confidential-
By: Sven Schimschar, Jan Grözinger, Henning Korte, Thomas Boermans, Velizara Lilova, Riadh Bhar
Date: 9 December 2011
Project numbers: PSTRDE101875
PSTRDE102060
Panorama of the European non-residential
construction sector
© Ecofys 2011
by order of:
European Copper Institute
Ecofys Germany GmbH
Am Wassermann 36
50829 Cologne
Germany
W: www.ecofys.com
T: +49 221 270 70 100
F: +49 221 270 70 011
E: info@ecofys.com

II
Table of contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
2 Composition of the non-residential building stock .................................... 2
2.1 Methodology ............................................................................................. 1
2.2 Reference countries ................................................................................... 2
2.2.1 Germany ...................................................................................... 4
2.2.2 Hungary ....................................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Poland.......................................................................................... 6
2.2.4 Spain ........................................................................................... 7
2.2.5 Sweden ........................................................................................ 8
2.3 Non-residential building stocks in representative countries.............................. 8
2.3.1 Summary...................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Germany .....................................................................................11
2.3.3 Poland.........................................................................................17
2.3.4 Spain ..........................................................................................20
2.3.5 Sweden .......................................................................................23
2.4 Extrapolation of data to European scale.......................................................26
2.5 Distribution of non-residential buildings by size classes .................................29
2.6 Definition of reference buildings .................................................................31
3 Typical cost benchmarks......................................................................... 31
3.1 New construction costs..............................................................................32
3.1.1 Methodology ................................................................................32
3.1.2 Results ........................................................................................32
3.2 Renovation costs ......................................................................................33
3.3 Annual operating costs ..............................................................................33
3.3.1 Methodology ................................................................................33
3.3.2 Relative operating cost distribution in Germany ................................37
3.3.3 Results on country level per square meter .......................................41
3.3.4 Results on country level per reference building .................................44
4 New built-, renovation- and demolition activity...................................... 44
4.1 New construction rates..............................................................................45
4.1.1 Methodology ................................................................................45
4.1.2 Results ........................................................................................45
4.2 Demolition rate ........................................................................................49
4.3 Renovation activity ...................................................................................50
4.3.1 Renovation behaviour....................................................................50
4.3.2 Renovation rates...........................................................................54
4.4 Summary of results and extrapolation to European scale ...............................59
5 Lifecycle profile of different non-residential buildings............................ 60

III
Annex ........................................................................................................... 76
References.................................................................................................... 72

IV
List of tables
Table 1. Characteristics of EU27 countries divided by region.............................................................................3
Table 2. Overview of selected representative countries and progress of work ..................................................4
Table 3. Number of non-residential buildings in Germany [1,000 units]..........................................................11
Table 4. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Germany [Mio m²].....................................................12
Table 5. Number of non-residential buildings in Hungary [1,000 units]...........................................................14
Table 6. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Hungary [Mio m²].....................................................15
Table 7. Number of non-residential buildings in Poland [1,000 units] .............................................................17
Table 8. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Poland [Mio m²] ........................................................18
Table 9. Number of non-residential buildings in Spain [1,000 units]................................................................20
Table 10. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Spain [Mio m²].........................................................21
Table 11. Number of non-residential buildings in Sweden [1,000 units] ..........................................................23
Table 12. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Sweden [Mio m²] ....................................................24
Table 13. Extrapolated EU27 building stock excluding “Other buildings”........................................................26
Table 14. Extrapolated EU27 building stock including “Other buildings”.........................................................27
Table 15. Number of non-residential buildings in the EU27 [1,000 units]........................................................28
Table 16. Floor area of the non-residential building stock in the EU27 [Mio m²].............................................28
Table 17. Typical office-, educational- and hospital reference building in the German building stock ............31
Table 18. Typical office-, educational- and hospital reference building in the Hungarian building
stock .................................................................................................................................................................31
Table 19. Typical office-, educational- and hospital reference building in the Polish building stock................31
Table 20. Typical office-, educational- and hospital reference building in the Spanish building stock.............31
Table 21. Typical office-, educational- and hospital reference building in the Swedish building stock............31
Table 22 Investment costs of new construction activities in the non residential building sector of
representative countries [€/m²] .......................................................................................................................32
Table 23. Ratios of electricity consumption and electricity prices....................................................................34
Table 24. Fuel prices for end users (2011 prices) (€/kWh)................................................................................36
Table 25. Overview of the comparative price levels of final consumption by private households
including indirect taxes (Germany=1)...............................................................................................................36
Table 26. Overview of the operating costs in Germany disaggregated by electricity, fuel,
maintenance and other costs per building type ...............................................................................................41
Table 27. Overview of the operating costs in Sweden disaggregated by electricity, fuel, maintenance
and other costs per building type.....................................................................................................................41
Table 28. Overview of the operating costs in Hungary disaggregated by electricity, fuel,
maintenance and other costs per building type ...............................................................................................41
Table 29. Overview of the operating costs in Poland disaggregated by electricity, fuel, maintenance
Table 30. Overview of the operating costs in Spain disaggregated by electricity, fuel, maintenance
Table 31. Specific annual miscellaneous operation costs in Germany, disaggregated by building
category in €/m²...............................................................................................................................................42
Table 32. Specific annual miscellaneous operation costs for Sweden, disaggregated by building
category in €/m²...............................................................................................................................................42

V
Table 33. Specific annual miscellaneous operation costs for Hungary, disaggregated by building
category in €/m²...............................................................................................................................................42
Table 34. Specific annual miscellaneous operation costs for Poland, disaggregated by building
category in €/m²...............................................................................................................................................43
Table 35. Specific annual miscellaneous operation costs for Spain, disaggregated by building
category in €/m²...............................................................................................................................................43
Table 36. Annual operating costs for the reference buildings in Euro per year in Germany ............................44
Table 37. Annual operating costs for the reference buildings in Euro per year in Hungary .............................44
Table 38. Annual operating costs for the reference buildings in Euro per year in Poland................................44
Table 39. Annual operating costs for the reference buildings in Euro per year in Spain..................................44
Table 40. Annual operating costs for the reference buildings in Euro per year in Sweden ..............................44
Table 41. Average new construction rates in representative European countries ...........................................47
Table 42. New construction rates in Germany between 2005 and 2009..........................................................47
Table 43. Average new construction rate in Hungary between 2005 and 2010 ..............................................47
Table 44. New construction rates in Poland between 2005 and 2009 .............................................................48
Table 45. New construction rates in Spain between 2005 and 2009................................................................48
Table 46. New construction rates in Sweden between 2005 and 2010............................................................48
Table 47. Demolition rates in 2009 in selected European countries.................................................................49
Table 48. Detailed modernization activities in the German non-residential building sector............................51
Table 49. Lifetime cycles of selected building components..............................................................................53
Table 50. Split of non-residential renovation turnover in the selected countries by type of renovation..........54
Table 51. Estimated separation of renovations into energy and not energy related activities........................55
Table 52. Defined renovation cost benchmarks for different renovation tapes in the selected
countries for the calculation of the renovation activity via the turnover of the construction industry............55
Table 53. Calculated renovation rates in the selected countries, divided by energy related and not
energy related renovations ..............................................................................................................................58
Table 54. Renovation rates in the selected countries, divided by renovation type and energy and not
energy related renovations ..............................................................................................................................58
Table 55. Summary of metabolism rates in representative countries and EU27..............................................59
Table 56. Lifetime costs of a German office building........................................................................................62
Table 57. Lifetime costs of a German health facility. .......................................................................................63
Table 58. Lifetime costs of a Hungarian office building....................................................................................64
Table 59. Lifetime costs of a Hungarian health facility. ...................................................................................65
Table 60. Lifetime costs of a Polish office building...........................................................................................66
Table 61. Lifetime costs of a Polish health facility............................................................................................67
Table 62. Lifetime costs of a Spanish office building........................................................................................68
Table 63. Lifetime costs of a Spanish health facility.........................................................................................69
Table 64. Lifetime costs of a Swedish office building. ......................................................................................70
Table 65. Lifetime costs of a Swedish health facility. .......................................................................................71
Table 66. Electricity consumption In kWh/m² (including cooling demand)......................................................76
Table 67. Fuel consumption in kWh/m2...........................................................................................................76
Table 68. Operational costs in offices...............................................................................................................76
Table 69. Operational costs in offices (continued) ...........................................................................................77
Table 70. Operational costs in offices (continued) ...........................................................................................77
Table 71. Operational costs in industrial buildings...........................................................................................77

VI
Table 72. Operational costs in industrial buildings (continued) .......................................................................78
Table 73. Operational costs in industrial buildings (continued) .......................................................................78
Table 74. Operational costs in laboratories......................................................................................................79
Table 75. Operational costs in banks................................................................................................................79
Table 76. Operational costs in educational buildings.......................................................................................79
Table 77. Operational costs in sport facilities...................................................................................................80
Table 78. Operational costs in health buildings................................................................................................80

VII
List of figures
Figure 1. Separation of European countries into sub-regions (left: without representative countries,
right: including) ..................................................................................................................................................4
Figure 2. Comparison of total non-residential floor area in [Mio m²] ................................................................9
Figure 3. Comparison of total non-residential floor area in [Non-residential m²/capita] ..................................9
Figure 4. Comparison of building type distribution in the considered countries including “Other
buildings”..........................................................................................................................................................10
Figure 5. Comparison of building type distribution in the considered countries excluding “Other
buildings”..........................................................................................................................................................10
Figure 6. Structure of the German non-residential building stock....................................................................11
Figure 7. Age structure of non-residential floor area in Germany, divided by building type............................12
Figure 8. Distribution of German non-residential building stock by construction period.................................13
Figure 9. Structure of the Hungarian non-residential building stock................................................................14
Figure 10. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Hungary, divided by building type.....................15
Figure 11. Distribution of Hungarian non-residential building stock by construction period...........................16
Figure 12. Structure of the Polish non-residential building stoc.......................................................................17
Figure 13. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Poland, divided by building type .......................18
Figure 14. Distribution of Polish non-residential building stock by construction period ..................................19
Figure 15. Structure of the Spanish non-residential building stock ..................................................................20
Figure 16. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Spain, divided by building type..........................21
Figure 17. Distribution of Spanish non-residential building stock by construction period................................22
Figure 18. Structure of the Swedish non-residential building stock..................................................................23
Figure 19. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Sweden, divided by building type......................24
Figure 20. Distribution of Swedish non-residential building stock by construction period...............................25
Figure 21. Structure of EU27 non-residential floor area (excluding “other buildings”)....................................27
Figure 22. Structure of EU27 non-residential floor area (including “other buildings”).....................................27
Figure 23. Distribution of EU27 non-residential floor area by building category and construction
period ...............................................................................................................................................................28
Figure 24. Distribution of Swedish non-residential buildings to different size classes......................................29
Figure 25. Distribution of Swedish non-residential floor area to different size classes ....................................30
Figure 26. Development of the weighted average benchmark for new construction in Spain.........................33
Figure 27. General operating cost distribution in office buildings....................................................................37
Figure 28. Distribution of infrastructural FM-costs in office buildings .............................................................37
Figure 29. Distribution of technical FM-costs in office buildings......................................................................37
Figure 30. Distribution of supply and disposal costs in office buildings............................................................38
Figure 31. General operating cost distribution in industrial buildings..............................................................38
Figure 32. Distribution of IFM-costs in industrial buildings ..............................................................................38
Figure 33. Distribution of TFM-costs in industrial buildings .............................................................................38
Figure 34. Distribution of supply and disposal costs in industrial buildings .....................................................38
Figure 35. General operating costs distribution in educational buildings ........................................................38
Figure 36. Distribution of IFM-costs in educational buildings ..........................................................................39
Figure 37. Distribution of TFM-costs in educational buildings .........................................................................39
Figure 38. Distribution of supply and disposal costs in educational buildings..................................................39
Figure 39. General operating cost distribution in health buildings ..................................................................39

VIII
Figure 40. Distribution of IFM-costs in health buildings...................................................................................39
Figure 41. Distribution of TFM-costs in health buildings..................................................................................39
Figure 42. Distribution of supply and disposal costs in health buildings ..........................................................40
Figure 43. General operating cost distribution in sport facilities......................................................................40
Figure 44. Distribution of IFM-costs in sport facilities ......................................................................................40
Figure 45. Distribution of TFM-costs in sport facilities .....................................................................................40
Figure 46. Distribution of supply and disposal costs in sport facilities .............................................................40
Figure 47. Realized modernisations, divided by modernisation activity [%].....................................................50
Figure 48. Step 1 of the methodology for the calculation of renovated floor area by means of
insulation market data .....................................................................................................................................57
Figure 51. Approach for the development of reference building lifecycle profiles ...........................................60
Figure 52. Renovations according to renovation activity in the German building stock during the
lifetime of an office building.............................................................................................................................62
Figure 53. Realized renovation measures in a German reference office building during its lifetime ...............62
Figure 54. Renovations according to renovation activity in the German building stock during the
lifetime of a health facility................................................................................................................................63
Figure 55. Realized renovation measures in a German reference health facility during its lifetime................63
Figure 56. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Hungarian building stock during the
Figure 57. Realized renovation measures in a Hungarian reference office building during its lifetime ...........64
Figure 58. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Hungarian building stock during the
Figure 59. Realized renovation measures in a Hungarian reference health facility during its lifetime............65
Figure 60. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Polish building stock during the
Figure 61. Realized renovation measures in a Polish reference office building during its lifetime...................66
Figure 62. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Polish building stock during the
Figure 63. Realized renovation measures in a Polish reference health facility during its lifetime....................67
Figure 64. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Spanish building stock during the
Figure 65. Realized renovation measures in a Spanish reference office building during its lifetime................68
Figure 66. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Spanish building stock during the
Figure 67. Realized renovation measures in a Spanish reference health facility during its lifetime.................69
Figure 68. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Swedish building stock during the
Figure 69. Realized renovation measures in a Swedish reference office building during its lifetime ...............70
Figure 70. Renovations according to renovation activity in the Swedish building stock during the
Figure 71. Realized renovation measures in a Swedish reference health facility during its lifetime................71

1
1 Introduction
The European Copper Institute - the driving force
behind the Leonardo ENERGY initiative - is a joint
venture between the world's mining companies,
represented by the International Copper
Association, and the European copper industry. Its
mission is to promote copper's benefits to modern
society across Europe, through its Brussels office
and a network of eleven Copper Development
Associations.
Managed by European Copper Institute and its
European network, the Leonardo ENERGY initiative
is dedicated to building information centres to
serve designers, engineers, contractors, architects,
general managers, teachers and students,
professionally or otherwise involved with electrical
power.
The ECI offers several programmes to its members,
promoting Cu-using technologies in buildings, such
as heat pumps, building automation, UPS/gensets,
transformers that improve power quality,
efficiency of motors in buildings, dimensioning of
cables etc.
With the requested information and together with
information on market penetration of the
technologies listed above, the ECI is interested to
calculate the copper-potential in the European
non-residential building sector. The present study
should provide necessary background information
for this undertaking and therefore contains
detailed information about the European non-
residential building stock.
For research on building stocks, independent from
the direction or detailed field of interest, the
structure of the specific stock has to be known.
When analyzing building stocks, not only the total
number of buildings respectively floor area in the
building stock is an important factor, but also the
age structure and metabolism rates. The age
structure together with metabolism rates (new
construction-, renovation- and demolition rate)
allows assumptions about the future development
of the building stock. Thus, different refurbishment
cycles can be applied on the respective age groups
and the yearly amount of floor space which is
added and detached can be considered. .
Therefore we conducted a comprehensive
research about the European non-residential
building sector. Specifically, we carried out the
following tasks:
• Analysis of the total amount of floor area
and number of buildings in the stock, all
disaggregated by different age groups
(construction years) and building
categories.
• Distribution of non-residential buildings
by size classes
• Definition of reference buildings
• Development of typical cost benchmarks
(for new constructions, different
renovations and operating costs)
• Analysis of new built-, renovation- and
demolition activity
• Development of typical lifecycle profiles
for different non-residential building types
The initially proposed work packages are
represented by the chapters 2 (work package 1) to
1 (work package 4).
At this point, the authors would like to thank the
Leonardo ENERGY initiative for granting this very
interesting research.

2
2 Composition of the non-residential building stock
2.1 Methodology
The non-residential building sector is a very
heterogeneous sector with various building types,
different building sizes and energy characteristics.
In the present study, the non- residential building
stock was divided into different sub groups
according to their utilization:
• Non-government owned offices
• Trade facilities
• Gastronomic facilities
• Health facilities
• Educational facilities
• Industrial buildings
• Public buildings
• Other buildings
These main non-residential building types are
aggregated of subcategories, typically as follows:
• Trade facilities: Trade, retail, wholesale,
mall etc.
• Gastronomic facilities: Hotels, restaurants,
pubs, cafés etc.
• Health facilities: Hospitals, surgeries etc.
• Educational facilities: Schools, colleges,
academies, universities, nurseries etc.
• Industrial buildings: Factories and
workshops
• Public buildings: Administration, police,
military etc.
• Other buildings: Warehouses, storage,
religious worships, recreation facilities
The national statistics differ in their classifications
and definitions. In some categories e.g. the
building type “educational facilities”, the
understanding of which building types are defined
as educational are rather similar. In other
categories the classification can differ. In the
chapters 2.2.1 to 2.2.5, the country specific
differentiations are described and we explain how
the data was obtained, aggregated/ disaggregated
and in some cases extrapolated.
2.2 Reference countries
The present study was conducted by investigating
five reference countries and extrapolating the
results to European scale. For this purpose we
characterised all EU27 countries in regard to their
population, development status, climate and
economics and based on this data, defined five
European sub-regions. For each of these regions
we have chosen one representative country which
we have investigated in more detail and afterwards
extrapolated the results, population weighted, to
European scale. This way it was possible to take
into account the whole variety of differences in the
European Union and simultaneously keep the
necessary working demand relatively small.
Table 1 presents the EU27 countries including their
above described characteristics. It already
distinguishes between the five developed sub-
regions Northern Europe, Western Europe, North-
Eastern Europe, South-Eastern Europe and
Southern Europe. This separation is also illustrated
in Figure 1.

3
Table 1. Characteristics of EU27 countries divided by region
Country
Population
[Number]
GDP per
capita
[PPP US $
2005]
HDI GINI
HDD
[Kd/a]
CDD
[Kd/a]
Solar
Irradiation
(horizontal)
[kWh/m²a]
Northern Europe
Denmark 5,432,335 33973 0.949 25.0 3,482 32 976
Finland 5,223,442 32,153 0.952 27.0 5,078 27 869
Sweden 9,001,774 32,525 0.956 25.0 4,735 33 876
Western Europe
Austria 8,184,691 33,700 0.948 29.1 3,060 158 1,077
Belgium 10,364,388 32,119 0.946 33.0 2,619 110 923
France 62,911,523 30,386 0.952 32.7 2,265 202 1,278
Germany 82,431,390 29,461 0.935 28.3 3,095 91 1,000
Ireland 4,015,676 38,505 0.959 34.3 2,806 0 952
Luxembourg 468,571 60,228 0.944 n. a. 3,534 63 1,037
Netherlands 16,407,491 32,684 0.953 30.9 2,669 70 988
United
Kingdom
60,441,457 33,238 0.946 36.0 2,669 42 949
North-Eastern Europe
C. Republic 10,241,138 20,538 0.891 25.4 3,268 125 1,022
Estonia 1,332,893 15,478 0.860 35.8 4,396 39 964
Latvia 2,290,237 13,646 0.855 37.7 4,212 38 998
Lithuania 3,596,617 14,494 0.862 36.0 4,116 37 998
Poland 38,557,984 13,847 0.870 34.5 3,494 83 1,011
Slovakia 5,431,363 15,871 0.863 25.8 3,100 201 1,088
South-Eastern Europe
Bulgaria 7,450,349 9,032 0.824 29.2 2,706 304 1,460
Hungary 10,006,835 17,887 0.874 26.9 2,834 254 1,226
Romania 22,329,977 9,060 0.813 31.0 3,088 290 1,351
Slovenia 2,011,070 22,273 0.917 28.4 2,904 207 1,205
Southern Europe
Cyprus 780,133 22,699 0.903 n. a 512 1.290 1,738
Greece 10,668,354 23,381 0.926 34.3 1,155 958 1,460
Italy 58,103,033 28,529 0.941 36.0 1,442 561 1,424
Malta 398,534 19,189 0.878 n. a 634 916 1763
Portugal 10,566,212 20,410 0.897 38.5 886 325 1,570
Spain 40,341,462 27,169 0.949 34.7 1,161 748 1,588
Source: [United Nations Development Programme, 2010] and own calculations
Explanation of abbreviations in table:
HDI
The Human Development Index is a composite
statistic used to rank countries by level of "human
development" and separate developed (high
development), developing (middle development),
and underdeveloped (low development) countries.
The statistic is composed from data on life
expectancy, education and per-capita GDP (as an
indicator of standard of living) collected at national
level.
GINI
The Gini index measures the extent to which the
distribution of income (or consumption) among
individuals or households within a country deviates
from a perfectly equal distribution. A value of 0
represents absolute equality, a value of 100
absolute inequality.
HDD
Heating degree days express the severity of the
cold over a specific time period taking into
consideration outdoor temperature and room
temperature. Therefore the higher the HDD is, the
more a building in that region has to be heated
(higher heating demand)
CDD
Cooling degree days (Same as HDDs, just
transferred to the cooling demand)

4
Based on the development of European sub-
regions, we defined for each region one
representative country which we analysed in detail
for this study. The defined countries are presented
in Table 2 and their locations on a European map
are shown in Figure 1.
Table 2. Overview of selected representative countries and progress of work
Region Representative country
Northern Europe Sweden
Western Europe Germany
North-Eastern Europe Poland
South-Eastern Europe Hungary
Southern Europe Spain
Figure 1. Separation of European countries into sub-regions (left: without representative countries, right: including)
2.2.1 Germany
In Germany various statistics of non-residential
buildings exist. Mainly there were used the
following studies: [Schlomann, B., Gruber, E., et al.
2004; Schlomann, B., Gruber, E., et al. 2009;
Kleemann, Hansen 2005; Hans Erhorn,Erhorn-
Kluttig, 2005; Kleemann, Heckler et al., 2000a;
Kleemann, Heckler et al., 2000b; IFO, 1999]. The
studies differ slightly in the total amount of floor
area in the building stock due to differences in the
approach and base year of the study. Whereas e.g.
Kleemann uses older data he separates in much
more categories than newer data which allows
further refining newer, less detailed data.
The mentioned studies normally present their data
in floor area [m²]. Data regarding the number of
buildings is hardly found. The number of buildings
was calculated based on data on the average floor
area per building type [Schlomann, B., Gruber, E.,
et al. 2009].
The following section describes the peculiarities of
non-residential building categories in Germany.
Non-government offices: contain also former state
owned offices (e.g. from “Deutsche Post”)

5
Public buildings: contain public administration,
public non-profit-organisations, do not contain
military buildings
Other buildings: contain buildings in agri- and
horticulture, airport, warehouse, sport facilities,
public bath and laundry. Buildings with culture and
religious function were not mentioned; military
facilities are included in this category and not in
the category public buildings and could not be
separated
2.2.2 Hungary
Non-government owned offices
No official statistics exist on private office buildings
(only on public administration buildings). However,
relatively detailed data could be obtained on office
space in Budapest from real estate companies and
professional organizations, especially the Real
Estate Research Association RERA [RERA, 2010].
No reliable data sources covering Hungary as a
whole (rather than just the Budapest region) could
be located, though. To estimate countrywide
figures, a direct relation between economic
performance (in terms of GDP) and office space
was assumed. The numbers for Budapest were
thus scaled up to the country level in proportion
with the share of Budapest in the GDP of the whole
of Hungary.
Source data was almost exclusively focusing on the
floor area of office space but not on the number of
buildings. To estimate the number of office
buildings, average floor area sizes for different age
brackets were calculated based on a RERA
database containing a sample of approx. 300
individual office buildings, and the total numbers
of buildings estimated based on these average
sizes [RERA, 2010].
For the distribution into the different age groups,
precise figures were only available from 1990
onwards. The majority of non-government office
buildings operating today in Hungary have been
built during the last 20 years, as private companies
requiring significant office space didn’t play a
significant role in Hungary during socialism, i.e.
until 1989. Buildings from that period being used
as private offices nowadays were typically built as
public administrative buildings originally. For the
age distribution of pre-1990 office buildings it was
therefore assumed that their age structure was
proportionally in line with the age split of public
administration buildings.
Trade facilities
Data on trade facilities was aggregated from
official statistics from the Hungarian Central
Statistical Office, supplemented by data from
major trading companies as well as real estate
professionals to adequately reflect the boom in
shopping centre and big box store construction in
Hungary in recent years [Hungarian Central
Statistical Office (KSH), 2011].
For traditional trade facilities predominantly built
before 1990, neither statistics nor experts could
provide reliable data on the age structure, though.
Assuming that trade facilities typically (apart from
the effects of economic system transformation
after the fall of socialism) develop in parallel with
residential developments, shops being opened
when and where populations grow and new
residential areas are evolving, the age distribution
of trade facilities built before 1990 was estimated
to be in line with the age structure of Hungary’s
residential building stock.
Gastronomic facilities
Total numbers of the different types of
gastronomic facilities and their floor areas could be
aggregated from statistics of the Hungarian Central
Statistical Office (KSH). However, neither official
statistics nor industry experts could provide any
concrete data on the age structure of gastronomic
facilities built before 2000. For lack of any more
reliable indications it was therefore assumed that
they developed broadly in line with trade facilities,
thus assuming the same age group division
[Hungarian Central Statistical Office (KSH), 2011].

6
Health facilities, educational facilities, public
buildings
The availability of data on these different
categories of public buildings was basically
satisfying. The required figures could largely be
aggregated from different statistics and inventories
on state-owned real estate of the Hungarian
Central Statistical Office (KSH) as well as reliable
findings from experts such as Katarina Korytarova,
who wrote her PhD dissertation at the Department
of Environmental Sciences and Policy of Central
European University on public buildings in Hungary
and their energy performance, and Tamás Csoknyai
from the Department of Building Technology of the
University of Debrecen [Csoknyai Tamás
(Department of Building Technology of the
University of Debrecen), 2011; Hungarian Central
Statistical Office (KSH), 2011; Korytarova Katarina,
forthcoming].
Industrial buildings
Data availability on buildings accommodating
factories and workshops is very limited and mostly
confined to anecdotal reports on narrow slices of
the whole building stock. Neither any official
statistics nor Chambers of Commerce and Industry,
real estate companies and other experts contacted
by the research team could provide any useable
figures on numbers and floor area of industrial
buildings in Hungary or even certain regions of the
country. Considering the advantages and
disadvantages of different approaches to
estimating these figures, the following
methodology was adopted: The number of
buildings was assumed to correspond to the
number of companies registered in Hungary in the
relevant branches of industry (manufacturing etc.)
requiring this type of buildings. As the large
majority of these companies are small and medium
enterprises, most of them are indeed likely to
operate in one single industrial building. Naturally,
there are also bigger companies using several
buildings on the one hand and very small
companies or intertwined companies sharing the
same buildings on the other hand. As it is
impossible to estimate the respective shares of
such companies, it could only be assumed that
these effects counterbalance each other to some
extent, leaving the original number of buildings
(based on the number of companies) unchanged.
The floor area was calculated based on average
building sizes derived from a sample of 1297
factory and workshop buildings currently listed on
www.ingatlan.com, a leading database on real
estate for sale or to let in Hungary [Leading
database on Real Estate].
Other buildings
Several data sources were combined to obtain the
numbers of other buildings, including different
statistics from the Hungarian Central Statistical
Office (KSH) as well as church statistics (for
religious buildings). Floor area figures were
available for some building types (e.g. warehouses)
but had to be estimated for others (especially
churches and sports facilities) by collecting a
significant number of sample buildings in these
categories on which floor area data could be
obtained and applying their average sizes to
calculate the overall floor area [Hungarian Central
Statistical Office (KSH), 2011; Leading database on
Real Estate].
Useful information on the age structure was not
available for any of these other buildings, though.
Due to the very diverse nature of this category,
calculating the age structure in accordance with
the overall age structure of all other non-
residential building categories in Hungary was the
only viable method to estimate the age
composition.
2.2.3 Poland
Official statistics for the non-residential sector exist
for the building stock from 1950 onwards. From
1955 onwards the official statistics divide into
different subcategories that are investigated in this
study. Gastronomic facilities, private offices and
public buildings are not disaggregated but are
presented on aggregated level included in other
subcategories. Newer statistics on construction
activity disaggregate further. On that basis it was

7
possible to extrapolate the categories not given in
the official statistics. However this has a specific
level of uncertainty because the statistics on
construction activity only refer to 5 years [Central
statistical office, 1959-2009].
There is no data of the total building stock of
Poland because the first data found, refers to the
non-residential building stock from 1950.
Therefore it was taken an average derived from
the other countries (German, Sweden, and
Hungary) whereas Hungary was weighted four
times. We assumed a higher correlation of the
Polish and the Hungarian building stock due to
more similarities in structure and politics,
especially regarding building types such as private
and public buildings. In total, it was calculated that
in average 32 % of the total area of the non-
residential building stock was built before 1950. On
that basis the number of the total floor area was
extrapolated. A cross check with a study on the
Polish residential building stock showed that 28 %
of the residential buildings have been built before
1950 [Plewako, Kozáowski et al., 2007]. Therefore
it was assumed that this number is reasonable.
The number of public buildings was not available
neither on disaggregated level; here the same
methodology was applied as described above. It
was calculated as a percentage of the total building
stock in Poland on basis of a weighted average
from Spain, Hungary, Germany and Sweden,
whereas Hungary was weighted four times.
non-residential building categories in Poland:
• Hotel buildings: Hotels, motels, pensions
and similar lodging buildings with or
without restaurants; detached restaurants
and bars
• Office buildings: Buildings used as places
of business, e.g. banks, post offices
• Wholesale and retail trade buildings:
Shopping centres, shopping malls,
department stores, detached shops and
boutiques, halls used for fairs, auctions
and exhibitions, indoor markets, services
stations, pharmacies, filling stations, etc.
• Industrial buildings: Covered buildings
used for industrial production e.g.
factories, workshops, factory bays,
slaughterhouses, breweries, assembly
plants
• Educational: Buildings used for pre-
primary, primary and secondary
education, formal education schools,
buildings used for higher education and
research, etc.
• Hospital or institutional care buildings:
Institutions providing medical and surgical
treatment and nursing care for ill or
injured people; sanatoria, long-stay
hospitals and nursing homes, psychiatric
hospitals, dispensaries, maternity
facilities, maternal and child welfare
centres; university hospitals, hospitals of
penitentiaries, prisons or armed forces;
institutional buildings with combined
residential/lodging services and nurse or
medical care for the elderly, for
handicapped people, etc.
• Others: transport, communication,
storage, buildings for public
entertainment, museums and libraries,
sports halls, non-residential farm
buildings, buildings used for worship and
religious activities
2.2.4 Spain
For the characterization of the non-residential
building stock of Spain, different studies were
used. The main sources used for this study are
EUROPARC study [IFO, 1999], containing data on
the Spanish non-residential building stock until
1998 and statistics from the Ministry of Fomento
[Ministerio de Fomento, 2010a; Ministerio de
Fomento, 2010b] containing detailed data from
2000-2008. The Europarc study [IFO, 1999] does
not provide information on hotels and public
buildings, only on aggregated level. The newer
statistics from the ministry of Foment provides
disaggregated information, including the building
category “hotels”. On that basis the share of hotels

8
was extrapolated to the older data (before 1998).
For the health facilities, statistics from the ministry
of health and the national statistic institute have
been used [Instituto Nacional Estadistica, 1981;
Instituto Nacional Estadistica, 1991; Ministerio de
Sanidad Politica Social y Equidad, 2010].
The share of the public buildings has been derived
by applying a split based on the data from regional
statistics that were quite comprehensive [Instituto
de estadistica de Andalucía, 2010]. In addition, the
statists of the autonomous region of Andalucia
were used to cross check the number, as they
make a comparison of their results to those of the
total building stock of Spain for the period from
1990 onwards.
For the year 1999 there was no data available so
this year was extrapolated on the basis of the data
from the Ministry of Fomento.
The mentioned studies normally present their data
in floor area [m²]. Data regarding the number of
buildings is only given in the newer data for the
years 2000-2008. On basis of that data the number
of buildings before was derived, calculating with an
average floor area per building category.
non-residential building categories in Spain:
• Other buildings: warehouses, sports,
culture and leisure time buildings,
agriculture (livestock, storage),
transportation and communication
2.2.5 Sweden
In Sweden various statistics of non-residential
buildings exist. Mainly we used statistics from
Sweden from 2009 and 2010 [Statistics Sweden,
2010; Statistics Sweden (Sveriges Officiella
Statistik), 2009] and reports as [Dascalaki, 2005]
and [Itard,Meijer, 2008]. The Sweden statistics
contain information about the different building
type categories and disaggregates public buildings
and non-government offices. Information on the
industrial buildings were not found as part of the
national statistics but was obtained through
personal communication with the agency
[Stengård, 2011].
The age structure of the building stock was
available, whereas information about the industrial
building category is partly limited and the age
structure was therefore derived from the average
of the other building categories.
non-residential building categories in Sweden:
• Industrial buildings: It is not given any
information of the subcategories
contained in the category industry
building. We assume that due to a
relatively high share in comparison with
the other studied countries warehouses
are included in this category
• Other buildings: buildings for cultural (e.g.
theatre) and religious events (e.g. church),
heated garages, sport facilities and public
bath
2.3 Non-residential building stocks in
representative countries
This chapter presents the results of the floor area
and the number of buildings in the representative
countries. First it gives an overview of the five
countries and compares the results of the
countries. Afterwards it presents the detailed
results on country level.
2.3.1 Summary
The following figures give an overview of the total
non-residential floor area in Germany, Hungary,
Poland, Spain, and Sweden (Figure 2), of the non-
residential floor area per capita (Figure 3) and of
the distribution of the floor area of each building
type per country (Figure 4 and Figure 5).

9
Figure 2. Comparison of total non-residential floor area in [Mio m²]
Figure 3. Comparison of total non-residential floor area in [Non-residential m²/capita]
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
Germany Sweden Spain Hungary Poland
Floorarea[Miom²]
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Non-residentialm²/capita
m²/cap(including other buildings) m²/cap(excluding other buildings)

10
Figure 4. Comparison of building type distribution in the considered countries including “Other buildings”
Figure 5. Comparison of building type distribution in the considered countries excluding “Other buildings”
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Other buildings
Public buildings
Industrialbuildings
Educational facilities
Healthfacilities
Tradefacilities
Privateoffices
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Public buildings
Industrialbuildings
Educational facilities
Healthfacilities
Tradefacilities
Privateoffices

11
2.3.2 Germany
Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of the non-
residential building stock in Germany according to
the floor area. It is relatively evenly distributed
with the biggest share (20 %) represented by trade
facilities. Following tables illustrate the age
structure of the building stock disaggregated by
number of buildings (Table 3) and by floor area
(Table 4). The relative distribution of the floor area
is shown in Figure 7 and the age of the buildings in
Figure 8.
Figure 6. Structure of the German non-residential building
stock
Table 3. Number of non-residential buildings in Germany [1,000 units]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1870 19.0 21.6 37.2 3.2 5.0 28.2 13.8 15.4 144.6
1871-
1918
47.4 54.4 93.3 8.1 12.4 70.6 34.7 38.4 359.3
1919-
1948
28.5 32.6 56.0 4.8 7.4 42.3 20.8 23.0 215.6
1949-
1965
40.6 46.5 79.6 6.9 10.6 59.8 29.7 32.6 306.3
1966-
1978
33.4 35.6 61.0 3.3 5.0 37.3 24.3 20.3 220.0
1979-
1988
67.4 46.1 101.3 5.1 3.5 73.8 49.0 40.2 386.4
1989-
1998
110.2 74.3 43.5 5.0 2.6 31.7 79.3 17.3 364.8
1999-
2008
48.6 81.1 10.2 3.6 1.1 44.6 35.3 24.3 248.8
Total 395.0 392.3 482.2 40 47.5 388.4 286.9 211.5 2,244.9
Source: [Kohler, Hassler et al., 1999; Schlomann, Gruber et al., 2009; Kleemann, Heckler et al., 2000a; Kleemann, Heckler et al., 2000b; IFO,
1999; DESTATIS, 1999-2009; Hans Erhorn,Erhorn-Kluttig, 2005]
12%
20%
8%
11%12%
16%
12%
9%
Private offices
Trade facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
Other buildings

12
Table 4. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Germany [Mio m²]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1870 14.5 27.2 15.1 20.8 31.1 28.2 13.9 15.4 166.2
1871-
1918
36.2 68.0 38.0 51.9 77.9 70.6 34.7 38.4 415.7
1919-
1948
21.8 40.8 22.8 31.1 46.7 42.3 20.8 23.0 249.3
1949-
1965
31.0 58.1 32.4 44.3 66.5 59.8 29.7 32.6 354.5
1966-
1978
25.5 44.5 24.8 20.8 31.1 37.3 24.3 20.3 228.6
1979-
1988
51.5 57.6 41.2 32.5 21.9 73.8 49.0 40.2 367.7
1989-
1998
84.2 92.9 17.7 32.3 16.2 31.7 79.3 17.3 371.5
1999-
2008
37.2 101.4 4.2 23.3 6.6 44.6 35.3 24.3 277.8
Total 301.9 490.4 196.2 257.1 298.0 388.4 286.9 211.5 2,430.3
Source: [Kohler, Hassler et al., 1999; Schlomann, Gruber et al., 2009; Kleemann, Heckler et al., 2000a; Kleemann, Heckler et al., 2000b; IFO,
1999; DESTATIS, 1999-2009; Hans Erhorn,Erhorn-Kluttig, 2005]
Figure 7 illustrates the age structure of the non-residential floor area disaggregated by building type:
Figure 7. Age structure of non-residential floor area in Germany, divided by building type
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
1999-2008
1989-1998
1979-1988
1966-1978
1949-1965
1919-1948
1871-1918
until 1870

13
Figure 8. Distribution of German non-residential building stock by construction period
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
until 1870 1871-1918 1919-1948 1949-1965 1966-1978 1979-1988 1989-1998 1999-2008
Millionm²
Construction period

14
2.3.3 Hungary
residential building stock in Hungary according to
the floor area. It can be observed that the majority
of the non-residential buildings are industrial
buildings, represented with a share of 33 %.
Following tables illustrate the age structure of the
building stock disaggregated by number of building
(Table 5) and by floor area (Table 6). The relative
distribution of the floor area is shown in Figure 10
and the age of the buildings in Figure 11.
Figure 9. Structure of the Hungarian non-residential building
stock
Table 5. Number of non-residential buildings in Hungary [1,000 units]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Before
1900
0.03
29.7 9.6
0.3 1.4
8.3
3.4
4.7
5.1
1901-1945 0.08 1.0 3.1 8.3 64.3
1946-1959 0.04 16.5 5.1 0.5 1.5 4.6 4.1 2.3 34.6
1960-1969 0.06 32.2 10.0 0.8 2.0 9.0 5.7 4.3 64.0
1970-1979 0.1 32.2 10.0 1.1 2.8 9.0 7.8 4.5 67.5
1980-1989 0.06 37.2 11.6 0.6 1.7 10.4 4.8 4.8 71.1
1990-1999 0.3 14.1 4.4 0.3 0.6 3.9 1.8 1.8 27.3
2000-2010 0.5 16.3 6.0 0.3 0.6 4.6 3.0 2.5 33.7
Total 1.1 178.2 56.4 4.8 13.7 49.6 38.8 25.0 367.6
Source: [Csoknyai Tamás (Department of Building Technology of the University of Debrecen), 2011; Hungarian Central Statistical Office
(KSH), 2011; Korytarova Katarina, forthcoming; Leading database on Real Estate; Novikova, 2008; RERA, 2010; Ürge-Vorsatz, Koeppel et al.,
2006]
4%
14%
13%
5%
6%33%
10%
15%
Private offices
Trade facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
Other buildings

15
Table 6. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Hungary [Mio m²]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Before
1900
0.2
5.0 5.0
0.7 1.5
12.1
1.9
6.7
4.3
1901-1945 0.5 2.3 3.5 4.7 39.7
1946-1959 0.3 2.8 2.8 1.2 1.7 6.7 2.3 3.2 20.9
1960-1969 0.4 5.4 5.4 2.0 2.2 13.0 3.4 5.7 37.5
1970-1979 0.5 5.4 5.4 2.5 3.2 13.0 4.6 6.2 40.7
1980-1989 0.3 6.3 6.2 1.4 2.0 15.1 2.7 6.1 40.1
1990-1999 1.9 2.4 2.4 0.6 0.7 5.7 1.1 2.8 17.5
2000-2010 4.7 4.6 3.2 0.6 0.7 11.2 1.7 3.6 30.4
Total 8.8 32.0 30.3 11.2 15.5 76.8 22.4 34.3 231.2
Source: [Csoknyai Tamás (Department of Building Technology of the University of Debrecen), 2011; Hungarian Central Statistical Office
(KSH), 2011; Korytarova Katarina, forthcoming; Leading database on Real Estate; Novikova, 2008; RERA, 2010; Ürge-Vorsatz, Koeppel et al.,
2006]
Figure 10. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Hungary, divided by building type
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
2000-2010
1990-1999
1980-1989
1970-1979
1960-1969
1946-1959
1901-1945
Before1900

16
Figure 11. Distribution of Hungarian non-residential building stock by construction period
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
until 1870 1871-1918 1919-1948 1949-1965 1966-1978 1979-1988 1989-1998 1999-2008
Millionm²
Construction period

17
2.3.4 Poland
residential building stock in Poland according to
the floor area. It can be observed that there are
two major shares that prevail in the chart – other
types of non-residential buildings and facilities
used by the industry. Following tables illustrate the
age structure of the building stock disaggregated
by number of building (Table 7) and by floor area
(Table 8). The relative distribution of the floor area
is shown in Figure 13 and the age of the buildings
in Figure 14.
Figure 12. Structure of the Polish non-residential building stock
Table 7. Number of non-residential buildings in Poland [1,000 units]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Before
1950
4.2 64.0 21.1 3.5 8.5 59.4 34.8 234.5 430.0
1950-1954 1.9 13.4 3.0 0.8 1.4 10.5 6.6 43.6 81.2
1955-1960 0.6 4.4 0.5 0.1 1.6 7.7 5.3 45.5 65.7
1961-1965 1.6 11.2 0.8 0.2 2.2 8.7 4.0 20.7 49.3
1966-1970 2.6 18.1 1.4 0.3 2.4 14.2 6.8 38.1 83.9
1971-1975 2.0 14.0 2.2 0.6 1.8 19.1 6.0 28.5 74.3
1976-1980 0.9 6.6 3.4 0.9 1.2 12.7 4.2 22.0 52.0
1981-1985 0.2 1.1 0.5 0.1 0.2 1.6 0.5 2.2 6.5
1986-1989 0.2 1.3 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.8 0.6 2.4 7.5
1990-1999 5.4 37.9 12.8 3.3 2.0 25.2 20.4 145.1 252.2
2000-2009 5.3 37.3 7.7 2.0 1.8 12.0 16.7 123.9 206.7
Total 25.0 209.5 53.8 12.0 23.5 172.9 105.9 706.5 1,309.1
Source: [Central statistical office, 1959-2009]
4%
17%
3%
1%
8%
28%
11%
28%
Private offices
Trade facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
Other buildings

18
Table 8. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Poland [Mio m²]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Before
1950
5.3 39.3 8.6 2.9 22.7 72.5 27.5 76.0 254.8
1950-1954 1.6 5.5 0.8 0.4 2.3 8.5 3.3 8.7 31.1
1955-1960 0.7 2.4 0.3 0.2 3.6 7.0 3.2 13.0 30.4
1961-1965 1.0 3.5 0.6 0.3 5.5 8.7 3.4 8.8 31.8
1966-1970 2.5 8.4 0.8 0.4 5.6 15.3 5.7 14.7 53.4
1971-1975 2.3 7.9 1.3 0.7 5.0 24.5 7.5 18.5 67.7
1976-1980 1.8 6.2 1.5 0.8 3.6 22.4 7.4 23.5 67.2
1981-1985 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.7 1.9 0.7 2.0 6.7
1986-1989 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.1 0.9 2.1 0.7 1.6 6.6
1990-1999 4.6 15.7 3.0 1.5 5.5 12.1 8.4 31.7 82.5
2000-2009 13.0 43.9 4.6 2.3 7.0 44.4 17.0 27.8 160.0
Total 33.4 134.4 22.0 9.7 62.4 219.5 84.8 226.4 792.2
Source: [Central statistical office, 1959-2009]
Figure 13. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Poland, divided by building type
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
2000-2009
1990-1999
1986-1989
1981-1985
1976-1980
1971-1975
1966-1970
1961-1965
1955-1960
1950-1954
Before1950

19
Figure 14. Distribution of Polish non-residential building stock by construction period
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Before1950 1950-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1989 1990-1999 2000-2009
Millionm²
Construction period

20
2.3.5 Spain
residential building stock in Spain according to the
floor area. It can be assessed that for the largest
share account the gastronomic facilities with 31 %,
followed by other buildings and trade facilities with
24 % and 19 %, respectively. Following tables
illustrate the age structure of the building stock
disaggregated by number of building (Table 9) and
by floor area (Table 10). The relative distribution of
the floor area is shown in Figure 16 and the age of
buildings in Figure 17.
Figure 15. Structure of the Spanish non-residential building
stock
Table 9. Number of non-residential buildings in Spain [1,000 units]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1978 2,997 33,177 10,322 4,334 14,748 103,180 749 101,342 270,850
1978 -1987 1,804 10,083 2,915 2,427 10,137 15,658 451 22,940 66,415
1987 -1998 3,260 10,376 2,853 2,964 7,321 14,149 815 20,962 62,700
1999-2008 4,502 9,439 3,804 4,345 1,751 68,209 1,126 104,031 197,207
Total 12,563 63,076 19,894 14,071 33,956 201,196 3,141 249,276 597,172
Source: [Kontoyiannidis, 2005; Instituto de estadistica de Andalucía, 2010; Instituto Nacional Estadistica, 1981; Instituto Nacional
Estadistica, 1991; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, 2008; Ministerio de Educación, 2010; Ministerio de Fomento, 2010a; Ministerio de
Sanidad Politica Social y Equidad, 2010]
5%
19%
7%
3%
9%31%
2%
24%
Private offices
Trade facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
Other buildings

21
Table 10. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Spain [Mio m²]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1978 10.0 80.0 29.9 7.9 33.5 130.3 3.7 78.4 373.7
1978 -1987 6.0 24.3 8.4 4.4 23.0 19.8 1.8 17.8 105.5
1987 -1998 10.9 25.0 8.3 5.4 16.6 17.9 3.0 16.2 103.3
1999-2008 15.1 22.8 11.0 7.9 4.0 86.1 3.8 80.5 231.1
Total 42.0 152.1 57.6 25.6 77.2 254.0 12.2 192.9 813.6
Source: [Kontoyiannidis, 2005]; [Instituto de estadistica de Andalucía, 2010]; [Instituto Nacional Estadistica, 1981]; [Instituto Nacional
Estadistica, 1991]; [Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, 2008]; [Ministerio de Educación, 2010]; [Ministerio de Fomento, 2010a]; [Ministerio
de Sanidad Politica Social y Equidad, 2010]
Figure 16. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Spain, divided by building type
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
1999-2008
1987 -1998
1978 -1987
before 1978

22
Figure 17. Distribution of Spanish non-residential building stock by construction period
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
before 1978 1978 -1987 1987 -1998 1999-2008
Millionm²
Construction period

23
2.3.6 Sweden
residential building stock in Sweden according to
the floor area. It can be observed that the
structure of the non-residential building stock of
Sweden differs greatly from the countries
represented above. Here, a very high proportion of
41 % is accounted to the industrial buildings,
followed by educational facilities with 22 %.
Following tables illustrate the age structure of the
building stock disaggregated by number of building
(Table 11) and by floor area (Table 12). The relative
distribution of the floor area is shown in Figure 19
and the age of the buildings in Figure 20.
Figure 18. Structure of the Swedish non-residential building
stock
Table 11. Number of non-residential buildings in Sweden [1,000 units]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1940 2.6 0.8 2.0 0.4 2.1 12.9 0.5 3.5 24.7
1941-1960 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.7 4.0 12.7 0.2 2.3 22.1
1961-1970 1.9 1.8 0.8 1.3 4.4 19.1 0.4 4.7 34.4
1971-1980 2.1 2.6 0.6 1.1 2.7 15.5 0.4 3.2 28.1
1981-1990 2.2 1.0 1.1 0.5 1.3 10.3 0.4 2.6 19.5
1991-2000 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.3 1.3 6.9 0.2 1.5 12.9
2001-2008 0.5 1.3 0.4 0.2 0.8 5.0 0.1 1.1 9.5
missing
data
0.5 0.2 n. a. 0.2 2.3 6.8 0.1 1.9 12.0
Total 12.1 9.3 5.9 4.9 18.9 89.0 2.3 20.7 163.1
Source: [Dascalaki, 2005; Itard,Meijer, 2008; Statistics Sweden (Sveriges Officiella Statistik), 2009; Statistics Sweden, 2010b Statistics
Sweden, 2010]
10%
6%
2%
7%
22%
41%
2%
10%
Private offices
Trade facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
Other buildings

24
Table 12. Floor area of non-residential building stock in Sweden [Mio m²]
Age
structure
Non-
govern-
ment
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1940 4.7 1.1 1.8 1.5 5.2 12.9 0.9 3.6 31.7
1941-1960 2.2 0.8 0.4 2.2 10.1 12.7 0.4 2.4 31.2
1961-1970 3.5 2.6 0.7 4.5 11.1 19.1 0.6 4.9 47.0
1971-1980 3.8 3.7 0.5 3.8 6.8 15.5 0.7 3.3 38.1
1981-1990 4.0 1.5 1.0 1.8 3.2 10.3 0.8 2.7 25.3
1991-2000 1.9 1.5 0.5 1.1 3.2 6.9 0.3 1.6 17.0
2001-2008 0.9 1.9 0.4 0.7 2.1 5.0 0.2 1.1 12.3
missing
data
0.8 0.3 0.0 0.7 5.9 6.8 0.2 2.0 16.7
Total 21.8 13.4 5.3 16.3 47.6 89.0 4.1 21.6 219.1
Source: [Dascalaki, 2005; Itard,Meijer, 2008; Statistics Sweden (Sveriges Officiella Statistik), 2009; Statistics Sweden, 2010b Statistics
Sweden, 2010]
Figure 19. Age structure of the non-residential floor area in Sweden, divided by building type
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
missing data
2001-2008
1991-2000
1981-1990
1971-1980
1961-1970
1941-1960
Before1940

25
Figure 20. Distribution of Swedish non-residential building stock by construction period
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Before1940 1941-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2008 missing data
Millionm²
Construction period

26
2.4 Extrapolation of data to European scale
As already described in chapter 2.1, the obtained
data on national level was population weighted
extrapolated to EU27 level. For this purpose we
first calculated for the reference countries specific
values which refer to one capita in the respective
country and afterwards multiplied this value with
the number of capita in the respective European
sub-region as illustrated in Table 1. The result of
this calculation procedure is presented in Table 13
and Table 14. As in Poland, the considered
buildings in the “Other building” class partly differs
enormously from the other countries and
therefore also exceeds the shares of those
countries, we separated the results in two cases;
One includes the “Other building” class, the other
does not.
Table 13. Extrapolated EU27 building stock excluding “Other buildings”
Non-
government
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Total
Northern Europe EU27
Buildings 27,134 16,679 6,597 20,288 59,247 194,613 5,103 329,662
Floor area
[Mio m²]
47.7 29.3 11.6 35.6 104.1 194.6 9.0 431.9
Western Europe EU27
Buildings 1,200,354 1,192,100 1,465,150 121,663 144,214 1,180,094 871,799 6,175,374
Floor area
[Mio m²]
917.4 1,490.1 596.0 781.1 905.4 1,180.1 871.8 6,742
North Eastern Europe EU27
Buildings 39,860 333,388 85,764 19,043 37,356 275,103 168,553 959,066.3
Floor area
[Mio m²]
53.1 213.8 35.0 15.5 99.3 349.3 135.0 900.9
South Eastern Europe EU27
Buildings 4,627 734,185 232,186 19,887 56,246 204,413 159,798 1,411,343
Floor area
[Mio m²]
36.1 131.7 124.7 46.3 63.7 316.4 92.3 811.2
Southern Europe EU27
Buildings 86,395 312,650 118,469 52,653 158,694 522,299 25,090 1,276,251
Floor area
[Mio m²]
117.7 426.0 161.4 71.7 216.2 711.6 34.2 1,738.8
Total EU27
Buildings
EU27
1,358,370 2,589,001 1,908,167 233,535 455,757 2,376,522 1,230,343 10,151,695
Floor area
EU27
1,171.9 2,291.0 928.7 950.2 1,388.7 2,752.0 1,142.3 10,624.7

27
Table 14. Extrapolated EU27 building stock including “Other buildings”
Non-
government
owned
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastrono
mic
facilities
Health
facilities
Education
al
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Northern Europe EU27
Buildings 27,134 16,679 6,597 20,288 59,247 194,613 27,134 26,885 356,547
Floor area
[Mio m²]
47.7 29.3 11.6 35.6 104.1 194.6 9.0 47.2 479.1
Western Europe EU27
Buildings 1,200,354
1,192,1
00
1,465,150 121,663 144,214 1,180,094 871,799 642,660 6,818,034
Floor area
[Mio m²]
917.4 1,490.1 596.0 781.1 905.4 1,180.1 871.8 642.7 7.384.6
North Eastern Europe EU27
Buildings 39,860 333,388 85,764 19,043 37,356 275,103 168,553 1,124,362 2,083,428
Floor area
[Mio m²]
53.1 213.8 35.0 15.5 99.3 349.3 135.0 360.3 1,261.2
South Eastern Europe EU27
Buildings 4,627 734,185 232,186 19,887 56,246 204,413 159,798 103,114 1,514,456
Floor area
[Mio m²]
36.1 131.7 124.7 46.3 63.7 316.4 92.3 141.2 952.5
Southern Europe EU27
Buildings 86,395 312,650 118,469 52,653 158,694 522,299 25,090 396,655 1,672,906
Floor area
[Mio m²]
117.7 426.0 161.4 71.7 216.2 711.6 34.2 540.4 2,279.2
Total EU27
Buildings
EU27
1,358,370
2,589,0
01
1,908,167 233,535 455,757 2,376,522 1,230,343 2,293,676 12,455,371
Floor area
EU27
1,171.9 2,291.0 928.7 950.2 1,388.7 2,752.0 1,142.3 1,731.8 12,356.6
Figure 21. Structure of EU27 non-residential floor area
(excluding “other buildings”)
Figure 22. Structure of EU27 non-residential floor area (including
“other buildings”)
11%
21%
9%
9%13%
26%
11%
Private offices
Trade facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
9%
19%
8%
8%
11%
22%
9%
14%
Private Offices
Trade Facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Healthfacilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public buildings
Other buildings

28
Figure 23. Distribution of EU27 non-residential floor area by building category and construction period
Table 15. Number of non-residential buildings in the EU27 [1,000 units]
Age
structure
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1980 594.2 1,566.7 1,291.4 143.9 333.7 1,636.2 687.4 1.841.1 8.102.7
1980 -1989 223.1 329.7 373.5 29.9 71.7 329.3 173.5 183.6 1701.8
1990 -1999 373.3 459.1 207.2 38.4 56.1 237.1 318.1 505.7 2,190.9
2000-2009 197.3 481.3 99.7 35.3 22.2 377.6 177.0 601.0 1,999.5
Total 1,387.8 2,836.8 1,971.8 247.6 483.1 2,580.2 1,356.0 3,131.4 13,994.8
Table 16. Floor area of the non-residential building stock in the EU27 [Mio m²]
Age
structure
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastro-
nomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educa-
tional
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
Until 1980 507.6 1,247.5 609.2 611.8 1,124.5 1,867.0 619.3 1,190.3 7,783.1
1980 -1989 185.8 272.1 176.0 121.7 152.4 362.5 169.0 205.6 1,642.2
1990 -1999 307.4 409.4 97.4 123.1 124.6 219.4 279.0 202.9 1,757.1
2000-2009 210.3 520.2 71.7 104.9 60.6 561.5 175.7 400.1 2,108.2
Total 1,211.2 2,449.2 954.3 961.5 1.462.1 3,010.4 1,242.9 1,999.0 13,290.6
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Gastronomic
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Public
buildings
Other
buildings
Total
before 1980 1980 -1989 1990 -1999 2000-2009

29
2.5 Distribution of non-residential buildings by size classes
Sweden statistics allows giving an overview of the
distribution of size classes within the whole
Swedish non-residential building stock.
Unfortunately, in the other considered countries of
the study, such statistical separation was not
available; therefore we can just present the size
distribution within the Swedish stock.
Figure 24 presents the distribution of non-
residential buildings to different size classes.
As can be seen, about 50 % of the total amount of
buildings is not larger than 500 m². To understand
the total structure of the non-residential stock, we
also calculated how the size distribution referred
to the floor area looks like. Therefore, we assumed
different average floor areas per size class and
afterwards calculated the distribution of non-
residential floor area to different size classes. The
result is presented in Figure 25.
It can be seen that this distribution is different to
that one presented in Figure 24. When we refer to
the floor area and not to the buildings, just about
10 % the total Swedish non-residential floor area is
located in buildings with smaller than 500 m², but
more than 50 % of the total floor area is in
buildings with a floor area larger than 3,000 m².
Figure 24. Distribution of Swedish non-residential buildings to different size classes
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
> 3001 m²
2001-3000 m²
1001-2000 m²
501-1000 m²
200-500 m²

30
Figure 25. Distribution of Swedish non-residential floor area to different size classes
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
>3001 m²
2001-3000 m²
1001-2000 m²
501-1000 m²
200-500 m²

31
2.6 Definition of reference buildings
For different analyses to be conducted in the later
work packages, reference buildings are needed. A
reference building is a building that represents a
typical building of the building stock. Thus, it is
possible to analyse an entire building stock by
conducting analyses on bottom-up level, for
different reference buildings. For the purpose of
this study, we will conduct different analyses for
three types of non-residential reference buildings:
An office building, an educational building and a
hospital. Partly based on the research for chapter
2.3 “Composition of the non-residential building
stock”, we investigated the typical construction
characteristics of the considered building types,
e.g. size, geometries, insulation level by regulation,
kind and size of windows, etc.
Table 17 to Table 21 give an overview of the
defined reference buildings in the selected
countries. Presented are just the most important
values. We calculated the average floor area
comparing the total number of buildings with the
total floor area in a country. However, in the case
of Hungary where the data on the number of
buildings is uncertain, we decided to use the
average square meters of the last ten years. For
this period, sound data from the national statistics
agency is available. For offices and hospitals we
estimated an average number of stories of 4, for
educational facilities we expected that they are
typically constructed with two stories. Educational
facilities and hospitals are expected to be detached
buildings, office buildings typically semi-detached.
Table 17. Typical office-, educational- and hospital reference
building in the German building stock
Unit Office Education Hospital
Window north [m²] 48 102 143
Window east [m²] 0 68 95
Window south [m²] 48 102 143
Window west [m²] 64 68 95
External wall [m²] 299 1021 1429
Ground floor [m²] 191 3,139 1,605
Roof [m²] 191 3,139 1,605
Total floor area [m²] 764 6,278 6,420
building in the Hungarian building stock
Ground floor [m²] 426 567 582
Roof [m²] 426 567 582
Total floor area [m²] 1,702 1,133 2,327
building in the Polish building stock
Ground floor [m²] 333 1.329 203
Roof [m²] 333 1.329 203
Total floor area [m²] 1,332 2,658 812
building in the Spanish building stock
Ground floor [m²] 896 1.608 425
Roof [m²] 896 1.608 425
building in the Swedish building stock
External wall [m²] 459 647 1.051
Ground floor [m²] 450 1.261 868
Roof [m²] 450 1.261 868

32
3 Typical cost benchmarks
The construction and operation costs in the
different EU27 countries vary significantly. The
construction costs mainly consist of the planning-,
material- and realization costs for both, new
building constructions and refurbishment
activities. The operation costs are largely
characterized by the energy related quality of a
building, which is significantly characterised by its
heating and cooling demand (insulation, thermal
mass etc), its HVAC equipment (efficiency) and the
energy prices. The analyses of this work package
has been conducted on both reference area (m²)
and reference building level as described in
chapter 2.6.
For the analyses it is necessary to investigate the
typical construction characteristics of the
considered building types, e.g. size, geometries,
insulation level by regulation, kind and size of
windows etc.
After defining those reference buildings and
calculating their energy demand (taking into
account the different heating and cooling degree
days, results can be find in the ANNEX), we will
investigate the typical new-construction and
renovation costs for the considered building types
and based on the energy prices, also calculate the
operating costs of those reference buildings.
Explicitly, we investigated the following
benchmarks for the considered reference
buildings:
• Typical new construction costs
• Typical renovation costs
• Typical annual operating costs. We divided
these costs as detailed as possible into
electricity costs, costs for thermal purposes,
preventive maintenance costs, as well as
miscellaneous costs (personnel, cleaning,
insurance etc.) and also present the
considered energy costs per kWh.
3.1 New construction costs
3.1.1 Methodology
The cost benchmarks for new constructions are
calculated by using the top-down investments per
non-residential sub category as analysed by
Euroconstruct [Euroconstruct, 2010] and applying
those numbers to the newly constructed floor
area. Thus it is possible to obtain average new
construction cost benchmarks in EURO/m² of
constructed floor area, also disaggregated by non-
residential sub-category. The cost benchmarks for
renovation are strongly connected with the
different types of renovation and will therefore be
discussed and presented in chapter 4.3.
3.1.2 Results
The benchmarks for 2009 for the new construction
of non-residential buildings in the investigated
countries are presented in Table 22. The weighted
benchmarks give an overview of the average
benchmark per country. This benchmark was
calculated excluding the category “other buildings”
due to the high heterogeneity of this group. Table
22 presents the benchmarks for 2009 for all
selected countries.
Table 22 Investment costs of new construction activities in the non residential building sector of representative countries [€/m²]
Country
Private
offices
Trade
facilities
Health
facilities
Educational
facilities
Industrial
buildings
Other
buildings
Weighted
average*
Germany 1,735 511 2,696 2,884 1,064 1,313 1,020
Sweden 1,650 1,255 2,073 1,554 760 1,437 1,184
Spain 2,671 2,074 1,595 1,242 1,402 709 1,805
Hungary 1,082 681 858 1,168 506 353 720
Poland 1,068 382 1,137 2,023 435 310 579
* The weighted average does exclude the category other buildings.
Sources: [Euroconstruct, 2005a; Euroconstruct, 2005b; Euroconstruct 2006a; Euroconstruct, 2006b; Ministerio de Fomento, 2010b;
Euroconstruct, 2010]

33
Due to lack of sound data for Spain in 2009, we
calculated the benchmark for Spain based on 2008
data. According to the results, Spain has the
highest benchmark for new construction and
Poland the lowest. We expected Hungary and
Poland to have lower benchmarks as Sweden and
Germany; however it is astonishing to us that Spain
has the highest benchmark. However looking also
at the past years, it can be seen that the
benchmark continuously increased since 2006. The
data we used is sound and therefore we conclude
that Spain has overtaken the other countries.
Figure 26 illustrates the development in Spain in
recent years.
Figure 26. Development of the weighted average benchmark
for new construction in Spain
3.2 Renovation costs
A detailed description of typical renovation cost
benchmarks in the different regions and for
different non-residential building categories can be
found in chapter 4.3.2. We assumed that it would
be better to have all relevant information
continuously inside one chapter than have it
distributed over different parts of the report.
3.3 Annual operating costs
In this study we separate the operating costs into
electricity costs (including cooling), fuel costs for
thermal purposes as space and water heating as
well as cooking and ‘miscellaneous operating
costs’. The methodology for calculating the
operating costs for different building types in the
selected countries is explained in chapter 3.3.1.
Afterwards, in chapter 3.3.2, we present in detail
the results for the German non-residential
buildings sector. Then, in chapter 3.3.3 we present
the results on country level per square meter and
finish on country level per reference building (see
chapter 3.3.4).
The results of different data sources for operating
costs of non-residential buildings vary extremely,
depending on the building type, country and the
type of operating costs. The data availability for
electricity consumption is not the same as for fuel
consumption and not always all building types are
covered. Additionally, due to the heterogeneity of
the category ‘other buildings’ it is not always
reasonable to calculate a benchmark for this
category. Instead, the operating costs are given
exemplarily for a building that is considered to fall
within the ‘other building’ category, as e.g. sports
facilities.
3.3.1 Methodology
Calculation of electricity costs
Information on electricity consumption in
Germany, Spain, Sweden, Hungary and Poland is
provided in the Odyssey database [Enerdata,
2010]. However, the provided data for non-
residential buildings in this database does not
seem reliable to us, as the range of specific
electricity consumption ranges from 868 kWh/m²
in the Spanish offices to 3 kWh/m² in educational
and health buildings in Hungary and Poland and
furthermore the total amounts do not add up. In
contrast, the data for residential buildings is rather
comprehensive and seems reliable, as we
crosschecked it with other figures. Another source,
[Gruber, Mannsbart et al., 2005], also provides
information on the electricity consumption
disaggregated by building type for Germany, Spain,
and Sweden. However there are a lot of unknowns
and uncertainties. The main difficulties in the
mentioned sources are that the exact year in which
the data have been collected is not always known
exactly nor are the categories the countries use.
Therefore we decided not to use this data because
it seemed rather arbitrary to us.
-
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Euro/m²

34
A recent published study from Rotermund
Ingenieure and the German facility Management
Association (GEFMA) provides detailed and sound
data for different building types, containing data
for electricity, fuel and other operating costs;
however only for Germany [Rotermund,KG, 2010].
This report investigates more than 2,800 non-
residential buildings with a gross floor area (GFA)
of more than 10.5 million square. The study
provides data for health facilities, offices,
educational buildings, industrial buildings and
sports facilities. Due to the deficiency and
inconsistency of other available data and in order
to produce reasonable and sound results, we
decided to base the calculation of specific
electricity prices mainly on data of the citied study
from Rotermund Ingenieure [Rotermund,KG,
2010]. This data is extrapolated to Sweden, Spain,
Poland and Hungary, taking into account regional
differences in electricity consumption and prices.
We assume that the difference in the specific
electricity consumption in non-residential buildings
is similar to the specific electricity consumption in
residential buildings in different countries. In
contrast to the data for the non-residential sector,
the data for the residential sector from the
Odyssey is comprehensive and consistent.
Therefore, we extrapolated the electricity
consumption of Germany to the other countries
applying 1) the relative difference of electrical
consumption found in the residential sector and 2)
national electricity prices. Table 23 gives an
overview of the ratio of electricity consumption in
residential buildings as well as the electricity prices
used for the calculation in the selected countries.
Costs for cooling are only available on aggregated
level of appliances and therefore are not presented
independently.
Table 23. Ratios of electricity consumption and electricity prices
Country
Relative electricity consumption in
comparison to Germany in the residential
sector for lighting and appliances in 2008
Electricity prices for end users (2011
prices) (€/kWh)
Germany 1.00 0.25
Sweden 1.42 0.15
Hungary 0.83 0.18
Poland 0.70 0.15
Spain 0.97 0.19
Source: [ENERDATA, 2010; Europe's Energy Portal, 2011]
Calculation of fuel costs
In order to calculate the fuel costs per country and
building type, we first calculated the useful energy
demand for space heating and hot water with our
BEAM model [Ecofys & Bettgenhäuser, K., 2010]. In
order to calculate the fuel costs per square meter,
we transferred the useful energy demand to end
energy consumption
1
. The Rotermund report
[Rotermund,KG, 2010] provides data on the energy
consumption of various building types; however
only for Germany. Due to these circumstances, we
used the same methodology as for the calculation
1 Taking into account national efficiencies of typical heating
systems.
of the electricity consumption. We applied the
ratios of the useful energy demand calculations of
the different countries to the end energy
consumption of non-residential buildings in
Germany, also taking into account the efficiencies
of typical heating systems in these countries.
The resulting heating energy consumptions in the
selected countries can be found in the Annex Table
66. For the cost calculations, we applied national
fuel mixes [Statistics Sweden (Sveriges Officiella
Statistik), 2009; BMWI, 2011; IEA, 2010; AGEB,
2009] and national prices [IEA, 2011]. These
numbers are presented in Table 24.

35
Miscellaneous operating costs
We summarized all other operating costs with
exception of electricity and fuel costs in this
category
2
. There is hardly reliable data available on
country level on operating costs. Exceptions are a
few case studies that provide data on a very
specific level (e.g. window cleaning, operation hall
cleaning) [Diez, 2007; Lívia, 2010]. These case
studies however do not permit to compare the
total operating costs of different building types
due to inconsistent building types and different
focuses. Therefore we discarded it as basis for our
analysis and rather used it for crosschecking the
data. We decided to use the data from the
Rotermund study [Rotermund,KG, 2010] because it
contains data on fairly disaggregated level.
In order to determine the operating costs for
Sweden, Hungary, Poland and Spain, we
extrapolated the data on basis of the data for the
German operating costs. There are few
comparative price levels available for EU27
countries that are suitable for this purpose. But as
none of these is directly related to the non-
residential sector, we used the comparative price
levels of final consumption of private households,
as we felt it is the most appropriate way to
extrapolate the costs [Eurostat, 2011]. These price
levels for private consumption may reflect very
well the price developments for working hours
and/or insurances etc that are main drivers for
other operating costs. Table 25 illustrates the
comparative price levels of final consumption of
private households including indirect taxes.
Germany is the basis and therefore set to 1.
2 These costs include e.g. maintenance, insurance or cleaning
costs.

36
Table 24. Fuel prices for end users (2011 prices) (€/kWh)
Oil Gas Electricity District heat Other (biomass)
Unit €/kWh €/kWh €/kWh €/kWh €/kWh
Germany 0.09 0.06 0.25 0.08 0.05
Spain 0.09 0.05 0.19 0.075 0.02
Sweden 0.13 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.06
Hungary 0.14 0.05 0.18 0.075 0.04
Poland 0.09 0.06 0.15 0.075 0.03
Source: [Heizkosten gespart, 2011; IEA, 2011; Pellets@las, 2011]
Table 25. Overview of the comparative price levels of final
consumption by private households including indirect taxes
(Germany=1)
Country
Germany 1.00
Sweden 1.02
Hungary 0.61
Poland 0.55
Spain 0.92
Source: [Eurostat, 2011]
In the chapters 3.3.3 and 3.3.4 we present the data
disaggregated on country level and by different
building subcategories of buildings, where data
was available. We aggregated the data in different
cost types, detailed data of sub-cost types are
given in the Annex. The cost types that are not
mentioned are explicitly summarized in
“Miscellaneous costs”. These costs are very
heterogenic, depending on building categories and
contain data about infrastructural facility
management (e.g. outdoor services, caretaker,
catering, car facilities), technical facility
management (e.g. documentation, energy
management), commercial facility management
(e.g. cost planning, controlling, contract
management) and costs for supply and disposal
(e.g. electricity, fuels, waste, water). Costs for
capital services are excluded. The presented cost
types are shortly explained below.
Preventive maintenance
The preventive maintenance costs contain the
spending of the two activity areas of maintenance
/ inspection and corrective maintenance.
Furthermore, all values are separated in costs for
constructional design, technical facilities and
outdoor facilities.
Operating / Management
The costs for operating / management include all
services for the economic use of the structural and
technical building facilities, like acquiring, first-time
operating, operating, observing, scaling,
controlling, regulating, directing, maintaining in
regard to DIN 31051, recording of consumption
values or observing of business regulations.
Insurance
This matter of expense covers all insurances for
constructional facilities like fire safety insurances,
tap water insurances, storm and rudimentary
insurances or glass breakage insurances.
Cleaning services
Here, all costs for cleaning and fostering of
buildings and outdoor facilities are included. For
example maintenance cleaning, outdoor facility
cleaning, inner and outer glass cleaning, basic
cleaning or special cleaning.
Central communication services
This matter of expense contains all costs for
centrally organized communication services like
operating of a telephone exchange service,
creating, updating and up keeping of a (intern)
telephone book, recording of fees (e.g. for private
calls) or call centre.
Others
These costs include all costs of major categories
like infrastructural, technical, commercial facility
management and costs for supply and disposal,

Panorama of the European Non-residential Construction Sector

Panorama of the European Non-residential Construction Sector

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