Paclobutrazol is an environmentally stable plant growth regulator with a half-life of over a year. It is effective in regulating flowering, fruiting, and tree vigor in many perennial fruit crops. Specifically, soil application of paclobutrazol promotes flowering and increases yield in mango, citrus, grapes, and other crops by reducing gibberellin levels. It also affects root activity, nutrient uptake, and microbial populations in soil. While paclobutrazol residues dissipate below detectable levels with optimized application rates, concerns remain regarding its potential environmental and human health impacts due to its hazardous properties and persistence in soil and water.
Fruit crops like mango, citrus, avocado, litchi, temperate fruits, nuts, etc. suffer from the severe problem of irregular bearing or cropping periodicity as well as staggered or erratic flowering behaviour, leading to considerable loss of their production potential. Some of the fruit crops are worst sufferers of cropping periodicity. In fruit crops production serious problems is biennial bearing or irregular bearing leading to considerable loss of their production potentials. Alternate bearing tree (or branch) is one that does not bear a regular crop year after year; rather, heavy yields are followed by extremely light ones and vice-versa, While Flower initiation is very important because it is the first step towards attaining fruit. Biennial cycle is very usual, so that an “on-year” (large yields) is followed by an “off-year” (little or no yield). Alternate bearing means "a condition at which high or optimum fruit production in on year and certain year bear little or no fruit (off year), but growth regulators such as paclobutrazol reported to be effective on inducing flowering off year.
Irregular and alternate bearing in fruits is a major problem faced by fruit growers. This problem causes great economic loss to the growers with poor yield and selling of produce at low price during “on year” due to fruit glut in the market.
Plant height, flowering, yield and quality including alternate bearing can be overcome by various horticultural practices like pruning, thinning of fruits, use of chemicals like Paclobutrazol etc. out of these use of Paclobutrazol is commonly practiced by the horticultural growers.
ABSTRACT- Germination one of the most important stages of development, the basic requirement for having the proper
density is farm. In order to choose wheat lines tolerant to drought during seed germination factorial experiment in a
randomized complete block design with three replications were run Agricultural Research Center in Tehran. The
treatments included 40 genotypes of wheat and different levels of PEG (zero, 3-, 6- and 9-charge time). Traits such as root
length, coleoptile length, stem length, the root / shoot ratio, root dry weight and the percentage of germination rate were
measured. The results showed that all traits of drought stress significantly reduced the decline in all the traits of a potential
change of 3 bar to 6 bar, and the results showed that the root length of shoot length other traits for drought levels was
significant, but the interaction was not significant cultivar × drought. With increasing stress, most traits are reduced, the
minimum impact of drought on root to shoot ratio and root dry weight was the most affected.
Key-words- Polyethylene glycol, Osmotic stress, Germination, Wheat, Genotype
Groundnut is one of the most important cash crops in our country. It is a low- priced commodity but a valuable source of all the nutrients. Groundnut is the sixth most important oilseed crop in the world. It contains 48-50% of oil and 26-28% of protein and is a rich source of dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. The production of groundnut is concentrated in Asia and Africa with 56% and 40% of the global area and 68% and 25% of the global production, respectively
Effect of foliar application of water soluble fertilizer on growth, yield and...Innspub Net
The tomato is the one of the most famous crops in Pakistan. It is used and consumed as fresh as well as in processed form. Its botanical name is Solanum lycopersicon Mill. The proposed study had been conducted in the year 2017-2018 in order to find the best combination of water soluble NPK fertilizers as compared to control. Five different types of water soluble fertilizers were collected from different sources and were applied at 5% concentration during the entire growing period of the tomato crop. The experiment was designed using Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments and three replications of each. Different vegetative, reproductive and bio-chemical parameters were recorded and analyzed statistically at 5% level of significance. The treatments were compared using LSD test. It was concluded that different NPK water soluble fertilizers showed variation in physical and bio chemical parameters in tomato plants as compared to control. The plants showed variation in plant height, No. of fruit per plant, fruit yield per hectare, Individual fruit weight, fruit weight per plant, No. of diseased fruit per plant, date of first harvest, Fruit color Fruit length (cm), fruit size (cm), fruit firmness, total NPK contents, vitamincmg Chlorophyll concentration, pH, (TSS), Electricity conductivity (EC) and Titratable acidity Among all the water soluble treatments, the T3 treatment (WSF 20:20:20) yielded the comparatively better results as compared to other WSF treatments. So it was concluded that T3 was the recommended water soluble fertilizer for tomato.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
Growth, Yield and Quality of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Cultivars throu...AI Publications
Two weeks old rooted cuttings of three commercial hybrid varieties; Triple plus, Temptation and Campairo were grown on cocopit substrate media with five replications on randomized complete block desigh (RCBD) in greenhouse condition at Mendel School Research Farm,Hwacheon. Transplanting was done on June 9, 2013 with spacing of 30 cm between plant and 45 cm between rows. Plants were trained as single stem and harvesting of the fruits were done upto 2.5 meter height. The major objective of this experiment was to evaluate their performance on stem cuttings. On the basis of overall characteristics, Triple plus showed superior performance; early flowering, higher plant uniformity, vigorous plant, higher leaf density, less powdery mildew infection, distinct stem pubescence, earlier fruit set, bigger size of fruits with thicker flesh, higher yield of fruits in tons per hectare and per plant, as compared to other cultivars has been selected and recommended for commercial cultivation through stem cuttings. It was followed by Temptation. Beside this, stem cuttings is an alternative planting materials in all the tested cultivars where apical branches during pruning could be used as alternative planting materials for tomato cultivation.
Fruit crops like mango, citrus, avocado, litchi, temperate fruits, nuts, etc. suffer from the severe problem of irregular bearing or cropping periodicity as well as staggered or erratic flowering behaviour, leading to considerable loss of their production potential. Some of the fruit crops are worst sufferers of cropping periodicity. In fruit crops production serious problems is biennial bearing or irregular bearing leading to considerable loss of their production potentials. Alternate bearing tree (or branch) is one that does not bear a regular crop year after year; rather, heavy yields are followed by extremely light ones and vice-versa, While Flower initiation is very important because it is the first step towards attaining fruit. Biennial cycle is very usual, so that an “on-year” (large yields) is followed by an “off-year” (little or no yield). Alternate bearing means "a condition at which high or optimum fruit production in on year and certain year bear little or no fruit (off year), but growth regulators such as paclobutrazol reported to be effective on inducing flowering off year.
Irregular and alternate bearing in fruits is a major problem faced by fruit growers. This problem causes great economic loss to the growers with poor yield and selling of produce at low price during “on year” due to fruit glut in the market.
Plant height, flowering, yield and quality including alternate bearing can be overcome by various horticultural practices like pruning, thinning of fruits, use of chemicals like Paclobutrazol etc. out of these use of Paclobutrazol is commonly practiced by the horticultural growers.
ABSTRACT- Germination one of the most important stages of development, the basic requirement for having the proper
density is farm. In order to choose wheat lines tolerant to drought during seed germination factorial experiment in a
randomized complete block design with three replications were run Agricultural Research Center in Tehran. The
treatments included 40 genotypes of wheat and different levels of PEG (zero, 3-, 6- and 9-charge time). Traits such as root
length, coleoptile length, stem length, the root / shoot ratio, root dry weight and the percentage of germination rate were
measured. The results showed that all traits of drought stress significantly reduced the decline in all the traits of a potential
change of 3 bar to 6 bar, and the results showed that the root length of shoot length other traits for drought levels was
significant, but the interaction was not significant cultivar × drought. With increasing stress, most traits are reduced, the
minimum impact of drought on root to shoot ratio and root dry weight was the most affected.
Key-words- Polyethylene glycol, Osmotic stress, Germination, Wheat, Genotype
Groundnut is one of the most important cash crops in our country. It is a low- priced commodity but a valuable source of all the nutrients. Groundnut is the sixth most important oilseed crop in the world. It contains 48-50% of oil and 26-28% of protein and is a rich source of dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. The production of groundnut is concentrated in Asia and Africa with 56% and 40% of the global area and 68% and 25% of the global production, respectively
Effect of foliar application of water soluble fertilizer on growth, yield and...Innspub Net
The tomato is the one of the most famous crops in Pakistan. It is used and consumed as fresh as well as in processed form. Its botanical name is Solanum lycopersicon Mill. The proposed study had been conducted in the year 2017-2018 in order to find the best combination of water soluble NPK fertilizers as compared to control. Five different types of water soluble fertilizers were collected from different sources and were applied at 5% concentration during the entire growing period of the tomato crop. The experiment was designed using Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments and three replications of each. Different vegetative, reproductive and bio-chemical parameters were recorded and analyzed statistically at 5% level of significance. The treatments were compared using LSD test. It was concluded that different NPK water soluble fertilizers showed variation in physical and bio chemical parameters in tomato plants as compared to control. The plants showed variation in plant height, No. of fruit per plant, fruit yield per hectare, Individual fruit weight, fruit weight per plant, No. of diseased fruit per plant, date of first harvest, Fruit color Fruit length (cm), fruit size (cm), fruit firmness, total NPK contents, vitamincmg Chlorophyll concentration, pH, (TSS), Electricity conductivity (EC) and Titratable acidity Among all the water soluble treatments, the T3 treatment (WSF 20:20:20) yielded the comparatively better results as compared to other WSF treatments. So it was concluded that T3 was the recommended water soluble fertilizer for tomato.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
Growth, Yield and Quality of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Cultivars throu...AI Publications
Two weeks old rooted cuttings of three commercial hybrid varieties; Triple plus, Temptation and Campairo were grown on cocopit substrate media with five replications on randomized complete block desigh (RCBD) in greenhouse condition at Mendel School Research Farm,Hwacheon. Transplanting was done on June 9, 2013 with spacing of 30 cm between plant and 45 cm between rows. Plants were trained as single stem and harvesting of the fruits were done upto 2.5 meter height. The major objective of this experiment was to evaluate their performance on stem cuttings. On the basis of overall characteristics, Triple plus showed superior performance; early flowering, higher plant uniformity, vigorous plant, higher leaf density, less powdery mildew infection, distinct stem pubescence, earlier fruit set, bigger size of fruits with thicker flesh, higher yield of fruits in tons per hectare and per plant, as compared to other cultivars has been selected and recommended for commercial cultivation through stem cuttings. It was followed by Temptation. Beside this, stem cuttings is an alternative planting materials in all the tested cultivars where apical branches during pruning could be used as alternative planting materials for tomato cultivation.
Evaluation of Different Growing Substrates on Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) under ...Innspub Net
Hydroponic technology has many benefits that it is highly productive and conserves water and land most especially if natural resources are scarce. Normally, plants grow inside a greenhouse that controls temperature, light, water and nutrition. The study was conducted to evaluate the performance of different growing substrates on lettuce under a non-circulating hydroponics system. It was conducted at Cagayan State University – Piat Campus from September to October 2019. The Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications was used to test the following treatments: T1 – Rockwool, T2– Coco peat, T3 – Carbonized Rice Hull (CRH) and T4 – Sawdust. Results show that plants under coco coir (T2)–obtained the tallest and longest roots while the most number of leaves and heaviest fresh biomass was registered in rock wool (T1). In terms of water pH, the result revealed no significant differences among treatment means. In the absence of rock wool, the coco coir can be used as an alternative as growing substrates for a non-circulating hydroponics system since they did not differ significantly.
Physiological limits in crop productionsusmitadas71
The physiological factors limiting yield are those that determine how efficiently crops convert the limited resources of carbon dioxide & light into carbohydrates & how much of these carbohydrates moves into storage organs that form useful part of the crop.
Siderophores are compounds from ancient Greek words, sidero ‘iron’ and phore ‘carriers’ meaning ‘iron carriers’. These are low-molecular-weight iron-chelating compounds, produced by ‘rhizospheric bacteria’ under iron-limited conditions. They are small, high affinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi etc. Siderophore usually form a stable hexahendate, octahedral complex with Fe3+.
Micronutrients: role and management in fruit crops (2nd doctoral seminar:Panc...Panchaal Bhattacharjee
Micronutrient deficiency is a key isssue to be addressed for sustainable fruit crop production. Here individual micronutrients are discussed in details regarding their role and mangement in fruit crops.
Drought stress is seen as the major abiotic stress in the modern day agriculture and hinders crop germination and seedling establishment and maize suffers the problem more as a summer season crop. Priming is a physiological method to overcome such deleterious effect of water stress with the main aim of increasing the germination of seed. A lab experiment was therefore performed with maize seed priming using Mannitol @ 0%, 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% (w/v) concentrations subjected to germination under induced drought of 0 Mpa, 0.15 Mpa, 0.5 MPa, 1.0 MPa and 1.7 MPa using NaCl. The experiment was laid in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Priming with mannitol reduced the Mean Germination Time (MGT); the best result obtained in seeds primed with 2% mannitol. However, the final germination count, Relative Water Content (RWC) and root and shoot length remained unaltered. Germination activities reduced with increasing moisture stress. The study indicated that priming with mannitol could improve the speed of germination in maize seeds.
Glyphosate resistance trait into soybean Cuban varieties: agronomical assessm...Innspub Net
Glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybean was one of the first major applications of genetic engineering in field crops and offered farmers a vital tool in fighting weeds. Weeds are a problem for soybean production in Cuba, so our work aim was the GTS 40-3-2 event introgression into Cuban varieties. Two local cultivars were crossed with transgenic genotypes that carry the event. From F1 to F3 generations, individual plants that produced more than 60 g of seeds per plant were chosen to obtain next generation. Individual lines were selected from F4 generation. F5 and F6 generations of five selected transgenic lines and their relatives were chosen to evaluate seven
agronomic traits throughout the summers of 2012 and 2013. A Random Block experimental design was done. First flowering (R1) and maturity (R8) stages of all genotypes were affected by planting date. Plant height of I1B2- 3, I1B4, I36B4 and RP5 lines ranged from 80 to 111 cm. I1B2-2 and I1B2-3 lines would be suitable for mechanized harvesting because they had the insertion of the first pod at 14.63 cm and 13.93 cm respectively. I36B4 line produced the greatest number of pods per plant (127). Transgenic lines produced more than 180 seeds per plant and 100-seed weight ranged from 13.75 g to 17.46 g. Seed yield per plant of transgenic lines and their parents IncaSoy36, CEB2 and CEB4 weren’t statistically different. These results could be a start point for other studies
involving larger areas, different planting dates and localities. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-7-number-4-october-2015-ijaar/
Influence of phosphorous acid application on the accumulation of total phenol...Innspub Net
One mechanism used by coconut plant to protect itself against Phytophthorakatsurae is linked to total
polyphenols production. This study aimed to investigate the impact of phosphorous acid plant treatment on the
production of total polyphenols in coconuthusk, as part of chemical control.The study was conducted on two
coconuts cultivars (EGD and PB 121+) with four doses of phosphorous acid [Control, 2.8 g (TA), 5.6 g (TB), 11.2 g
(TC)]. At each sampling, the husks were processed and extracts were prepared for total polyphenols assays. There
was significant difference between EGD and PB 121+ total polyphenols production (p<0.001).The interaction
between coconut variety and phosphorous acid doses was also significant.The interaction EGD and TC had the
highest total polyphenols accumulation of 4838.5 µg/g of fresh weight (FW). For PB121+, the highest total polyphenols accumulation of 6433.71 µg/g FW was obtained from the interaction between PB121+ and T0. From this observation, it could be statedthat phosphorous acid only triggers the treated plantdefense mechanisms to produce total phenolic compounds when attacked by a pathogen. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-7-number-3-september-2015-ijaar/
The use of biotechnology in the propagation of plantain and
banana (Musa sp.) of great importance to induce, tolerant to plant genotypes for
diseases and high yield potentials. However, auxins and cytokinins should be used,
which are expensive and can sometimes cause changes in the regenerants obtained.
Both traditional growth regulators (auxins and cytokinins) and non-traditional growth
regulators (brassinosteroid analogues and mixtures oligogalacturonide) are used in
the in vitro propagation of crops, but mush progress has been hindering due to the
sufficient knowledge and impact of different phases prevailing in the
micropropagation of banana hybrid 'FHIA-18' (AAAB) is present hitherto. This work
was performed in order to evaluate the biological activity of an analogue of
brassinosteroids (Biobras-6) *ABr+ and a mixture of oligogalacturonide with the degree
of polymerization between 9 and 16 (Pectimorf) *mOLG+. The effect of ABr and mOLG
are determined as a substitute or complement of auxin (IBA or IAA) and cytokinin (6-
BAP) for the establishment of in vitro multiplication and rooting of plantlets and in the
acclimatization phase. Non-traditional regulators phenolization decrease the explant
growth in the establishment phase of in vitro propagation; but increased the number
of shoots per explants (above 3.5) and improved survival of vitro plant during the
acclimatization phase.
The effect of leguminous cover crops on growth and yield of tomatoAI Publications
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) is one of the vegetable fruit crops commonly cultivated around the globe and used mostly as a flavour in cuisines. Cover cropping is a form of sustainable agriculture which helps to maintain soil fertility and reduces the need and the amount of inorganic fertilizer and thus helps the farmer to increase profitability. The objective of this study was to find the effect of the cover crops on growth and yield of tomato. In this experiment legume cover crops were grown in five treatment plots and these were Bare soil, inorganic fertilizer (NPK 15:15:15), Vigna unguiculata (Cowpea), Mucuna pruriens (Mucuna) and Canavalia ensiformis (Canavalia) in 3 blocks. The results showed that tomato plants grown on Canavalia ensiformis plots showed earlier flowering and fruiting than the other treatments. It also showed significantly higher yield than the other treatments (P= 0.006). The study shows that cover crops especially Canavalia ensiformis could be considered as part any farming system that wants to use sustainable farming to improve soil nutrients and reduce cost of farming.
Evaluation of Different Growing Substrates on Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) under ...Innspub Net
Hydroponic technology has many benefits that it is highly productive and conserves water and land most especially if natural resources are scarce. Normally, plants grow inside a greenhouse that controls temperature, light, water and nutrition. The study was conducted to evaluate the performance of different growing substrates on lettuce under a non-circulating hydroponics system. It was conducted at Cagayan State University – Piat Campus from September to October 2019. The Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications was used to test the following treatments: T1 – Rockwool, T2– Coco peat, T3 – Carbonized Rice Hull (CRH) and T4 – Sawdust. Results show that plants under coco coir (T2)–obtained the tallest and longest roots while the most number of leaves and heaviest fresh biomass was registered in rock wool (T1). In terms of water pH, the result revealed no significant differences among treatment means. In the absence of rock wool, the coco coir can be used as an alternative as growing substrates for a non-circulating hydroponics system since they did not differ significantly.
Physiological limits in crop productionsusmitadas71
The physiological factors limiting yield are those that determine how efficiently crops convert the limited resources of carbon dioxide & light into carbohydrates & how much of these carbohydrates moves into storage organs that form useful part of the crop.
Siderophores are compounds from ancient Greek words, sidero ‘iron’ and phore ‘carriers’ meaning ‘iron carriers’. These are low-molecular-weight iron-chelating compounds, produced by ‘rhizospheric bacteria’ under iron-limited conditions. They are small, high affinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi etc. Siderophore usually form a stable hexahendate, octahedral complex with Fe3+.
Micronutrients: role and management in fruit crops (2nd doctoral seminar:Panc...Panchaal Bhattacharjee
Micronutrient deficiency is a key isssue to be addressed for sustainable fruit crop production. Here individual micronutrients are discussed in details regarding their role and mangement in fruit crops.
Drought stress is seen as the major abiotic stress in the modern day agriculture and hinders crop germination and seedling establishment and maize suffers the problem more as a summer season crop. Priming is a physiological method to overcome such deleterious effect of water stress with the main aim of increasing the germination of seed. A lab experiment was therefore performed with maize seed priming using Mannitol @ 0%, 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% (w/v) concentrations subjected to germination under induced drought of 0 Mpa, 0.15 Mpa, 0.5 MPa, 1.0 MPa and 1.7 MPa using NaCl. The experiment was laid in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Priming with mannitol reduced the Mean Germination Time (MGT); the best result obtained in seeds primed with 2% mannitol. However, the final germination count, Relative Water Content (RWC) and root and shoot length remained unaltered. Germination activities reduced with increasing moisture stress. The study indicated that priming with mannitol could improve the speed of germination in maize seeds.
Glyphosate resistance trait into soybean Cuban varieties: agronomical assessm...Innspub Net
Glyphosate-resistant (GR) soybean was one of the first major applications of genetic engineering in field crops and offered farmers a vital tool in fighting weeds. Weeds are a problem for soybean production in Cuba, so our work aim was the GTS 40-3-2 event introgression into Cuban varieties. Two local cultivars were crossed with transgenic genotypes that carry the event. From F1 to F3 generations, individual plants that produced more than 60 g of seeds per plant were chosen to obtain next generation. Individual lines were selected from F4 generation. F5 and F6 generations of five selected transgenic lines and their relatives were chosen to evaluate seven
agronomic traits throughout the summers of 2012 and 2013. A Random Block experimental design was done. First flowering (R1) and maturity (R8) stages of all genotypes were affected by planting date. Plant height of I1B2- 3, I1B4, I36B4 and RP5 lines ranged from 80 to 111 cm. I1B2-2 and I1B2-3 lines would be suitable for mechanized harvesting because they had the insertion of the first pod at 14.63 cm and 13.93 cm respectively. I36B4 line produced the greatest number of pods per plant (127). Transgenic lines produced more than 180 seeds per plant and 100-seed weight ranged from 13.75 g to 17.46 g. Seed yield per plant of transgenic lines and their parents IncaSoy36, CEB2 and CEB4 weren’t statistically different. These results could be a start point for other studies
involving larger areas, different planting dates and localities. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-7-number-4-october-2015-ijaar/
Influence of phosphorous acid application on the accumulation of total phenol...Innspub Net
One mechanism used by coconut plant to protect itself against Phytophthorakatsurae is linked to total
polyphenols production. This study aimed to investigate the impact of phosphorous acid plant treatment on the
production of total polyphenols in coconuthusk, as part of chemical control.The study was conducted on two
coconuts cultivars (EGD and PB 121+) with four doses of phosphorous acid [Control, 2.8 g (TA), 5.6 g (TB), 11.2 g
(TC)]. At each sampling, the husks were processed and extracts were prepared for total polyphenols assays. There
was significant difference between EGD and PB 121+ total polyphenols production (p<0.001).The interaction
between coconut variety and phosphorous acid doses was also significant.The interaction EGD and TC had the
highest total polyphenols accumulation of 4838.5 µg/g of fresh weight (FW). For PB121+, the highest total polyphenols accumulation of 6433.71 µg/g FW was obtained from the interaction between PB121+ and T0. From this observation, it could be statedthat phosphorous acid only triggers the treated plantdefense mechanisms to produce total phenolic compounds when attacked by a pathogen. Get more articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-7-number-3-september-2015-ijaar/
The use of biotechnology in the propagation of plantain and
banana (Musa sp.) of great importance to induce, tolerant to plant genotypes for
diseases and high yield potentials. However, auxins and cytokinins should be used,
which are expensive and can sometimes cause changes in the regenerants obtained.
Both traditional growth regulators (auxins and cytokinins) and non-traditional growth
regulators (brassinosteroid analogues and mixtures oligogalacturonide) are used in
the in vitro propagation of crops, but mush progress has been hindering due to the
sufficient knowledge and impact of different phases prevailing in the
micropropagation of banana hybrid 'FHIA-18' (AAAB) is present hitherto. This work
was performed in order to evaluate the biological activity of an analogue of
brassinosteroids (Biobras-6) *ABr+ and a mixture of oligogalacturonide with the degree
of polymerization between 9 and 16 (Pectimorf) *mOLG+. The effect of ABr and mOLG
are determined as a substitute or complement of auxin (IBA or IAA) and cytokinin (6-
BAP) for the establishment of in vitro multiplication and rooting of plantlets and in the
acclimatization phase. Non-traditional regulators phenolization decrease the explant
growth in the establishment phase of in vitro propagation; but increased the number
of shoots per explants (above 3.5) and improved survival of vitro plant during the
acclimatization phase.
The effect of leguminous cover crops on growth and yield of tomatoAI Publications
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) is one of the vegetable fruit crops commonly cultivated around the globe and used mostly as a flavour in cuisines. Cover cropping is a form of sustainable agriculture which helps to maintain soil fertility and reduces the need and the amount of inorganic fertilizer and thus helps the farmer to increase profitability. The objective of this study was to find the effect of the cover crops on growth and yield of tomato. In this experiment legume cover crops were grown in five treatment plots and these were Bare soil, inorganic fertilizer (NPK 15:15:15), Vigna unguiculata (Cowpea), Mucuna pruriens (Mucuna) and Canavalia ensiformis (Canavalia) in 3 blocks. The results showed that tomato plants grown on Canavalia ensiformis plots showed earlier flowering and fruiting than the other treatments. It also showed significantly higher yield than the other treatments (P= 0.006). The study shows that cover crops especially Canavalia ensiformis could be considered as part any farming system that wants to use sustainable farming to improve soil nutrients and reduce cost of farming.
Physiological Assessments of Sweet Sorghum Inoculated with Azospirillumbrasi...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract—Some factors, such as yield increase and production cost reduction, must still be assessed as a way toimprove the sweet sorghum success prospects. The use of plant growth regulator mixtures has shown significant results in crop yield.Nitrogen assimilation stands out as one of the main limiting factors in plant production. Given the physiological effects of plant growth regulators and their mode of action in the photosynthetic metabolism, the aim of the current study is to assess the physiological responses of sweet sorghum plants inoculated with Azospirillum brasilenseto the use of nitrogen fertilization and plant growth regulators. The experiment comprised split plots, with four repetitions. The treatments comprised nitrogen (0, 40, 80, 120 and 160 kg ha-1) and biostimulant levels (0, 300, 400, 500 and 600 mL ha-1) in sweet sorghum culture inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense. Variables such as gas exchange and total recoverable sugars (TRS%) were assessed. The application of plant growth regulator at the dose 440.7 ml ha-1 showed the highest photosynthetic efficiency up to 46 DAE. According to the experimental conditions, the plant growth regulator treatment had no effect on the TRS %. It is concluded that the plant growth regulator did not affect the production of sugars by the plant.
A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of time of application and rates on the
performance of performance of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) on July and November 2013 at Lapai (9o
2' N and 6o34'E) and Mokwa (9o 8'N and 5o4'E) in the southern Guinea savanna ecology of Nigeria, The
experiments consisted of three (3) levels of poultry manure application time (two weeks before planting, at
planting and two week after planting) and four (4) levels of poultry manure application rates(0, 5, 10 and 15
t ha-1). The experiments were laid out as a 3 x 4 factorial in a randomized complete block design. Data
collected include plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, number of branches fruit weight, pod length, pod
diameter and cumulative yield. The result showed that the application of poultry manure two weeks before
planting significantly produced taller okra plants, higher number of leaves, wider leaf area and more okra
branches than other treatments in the two locations in 2013 cropping season. Fruit characteristic results
followed the same trends. In the case of the poultry manure rate, the application of 10 t ha-1significantly
produced taller okra plant, higher number of leaves, wider leaf area and more okra branches than other
treatments in the two locations in 2013 cropping season. The application of 15 t ha-1 was comparable to 10 t
ha-1 but significantly different from 5 t ha-1 and no application in the two locations in 2013 cropping season.
This result therefore recommended that poultry manure should be applied at least two weeks before planting
at 10 t ha-1
Criteria for the Selection of Vegetable Growth-Promoting Bacteria to be appli...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
In order to define which are the most important criteria for the selection of plant Growth-Promoting bacterial strains of the Hibiscus sabdariffa L. crop (Roselle), bacterial strains isolated from the roots of Roselle plants of two varieties (Creole and Spider) were used, collected in the community of Río de los Peces, municipality of Candelaria Loxicha, Oaxaca and seeds of the same varieties. To characterize the varieties, the following were determined: total germination percentage (TGP), germination speed (GS), the root length(RL), the stem length (SL), the dry root biomass (DRB), the dry stem biomass (DSB) and the chlorophyll content (CC). Three types of LED lamps were used to illuminate the seedlings. The seeds inoculated with cells of six selected bacterial strains were grown in a greenhouse to determine: the stem length (SL) at 3, 45 and 65 days after sowing (das). The treatments were distributed under a completely random design and comparison of means (Tukey, p = 0.05). The TGP, DSB and DRB parameters were not useful in the selection process of the strains that promoted plant growth to a greater degree. The GS and SL to be considered safe criteria or not, what is important is the relationship of what happens at the time of germination and development of the seedlings in the laboratory and greenhouse. The SL of the plants in the greenhouse showed differences between strains, but not regarding the control and also only observed in the first days of development (3 das). The CC did not prove to be a good selection criterion either. The lamp composed of 15% white light, 27% blue light and 58% red light was the one that most promoted root growth.
Effects of salinity stress on growth, Water use efficiency and biomass partit...Innspub Net
Future crop production is predicted to face significant challenges from salinity stress due to secondary salinization. Therefore future-proofing crop production in these conditions is an essential path towards addressing food security. We evaluated the effect of irrigation with water of 0, 4 and 8 ppt salinity on growth, biomass partitioning, WUE and chlorophyll fluorescence of Vernonia hymenolepis A.Rich as ameliorated by fertilization with three levels of NPK20:10:10. Data were analysed for variance using the General Linear Model ANOVA procedure, after positive tests for normality and homogeneity of variance. Means were separated through the Dunnett test. Pearson Correlation was done to determine relationship between variables and these were spatially projected using the Factor Analysis procedure, without rotation. Under fertilization at 8 g NPK20:10:10 per plant, growth was stimulated by salinity increase to 4 ppt (35.43cm) compared to 30.43cm for control plants. Fertilizer application significantly improved all the biomass fractions of plants irrigated with water of 4 ppt relative to the control, while root:shoot ratios were highest for unfertilized plants indicating resource re-allocation to roots for better foraging. Chlorophyll fluorescence ranged between 0.716 and 0.727 and did not differ significantly across treatments. These values indicate that all treatments were under stress, including control plants. Values of WUE and RGR indicate that fertilization of plants irrigated with water of 4ppt salinity enhances growth and Harvest Index of V. hymenolepis, in spite of the registered stress. This is significant to future food security.
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Two season’s field experiment and single season screen house experiment were conducted to assess the effect of water stress periods and rhizobial inoculation in five P. vulgaris cultivars. The experiment consisted of two levels of rhizobia (with and without inoculation), two stress levels (with and without water stress) and five cultivars of P. vulgaris (KAT B9, KAT B1, F9 Kidney Selection, F8 Drought line and JESCA). Results showed that rhizobial inoculation significantly increased plant height (cm), leaf area (cm2), shoot and root dry weight (g-1 plant) and seed yields (kg-1 ha) at vegetative and flowering in field experiment. Furthermore, water stress treatments significantly reduced plant height (cm), stem diameter (mm), shoot and root dry weight (g-1 plant) and seed yields (kg-1 ha) in both growth stages at field experiment. For screen house experiment rhizobial inoculation significantly increased leaf area (cm2), number of leaves, stem girth (mm), shoot and root dry weight (g-1 plant) at both growth stages. Additionally, water stress treatments significantly reduced number of leaves, stem diameter (mm), shoot and root dry weight (g-1 plant) in both growth stages. Varieties F9 Kidney Selection, F8 Drought Line and JESCA had significantly superior measurements reflected in increased plant height (cm), shoot and root dry weight (g-1 plant) and seed yields (kg-1 ha) as compared with KAT B9 and KAT B1. Furthermore, significant interactive effects were also seen between rhizobial inoculation x stress level and tested bean cultivars on plant height, number of leaves, stem diameter, shoot dry weight and seed yields.
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Polyamine and ethylene changes during floral initiation in response to paclob...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Use of paclobutrazol is common strategy for inducing uniform and profuse flowering in mango. The possible mechanism by which paclobutrazol exert such responses are less understood. The present investigation was carried out to investigate possible role of polyamines and ethylene biosynthesis in the paclobutrazol induced floral induction in mango. Following paclobutrazol soil drenching application (1.25 g a.i. m-1) to mango cv. Totapuri, the free polyamine contents, ethylene production, 1-amino cyclopropane carboxylic acid (ACC) content and ACC oxidase activity were determined in the apical buds and leaves of growing shoots at 4 distinct bud developmental stages numerically characterized as 510 (initiation of bud swelling), 511 (swollen buds), 513 (bud burst) and 515 (panicle emergence) according to standard BBCH scale. The total free polyamines, spermidine and spermine contents increased and ethylene production, ACC content and ACC oxidase activity decreased in the buds and leaves of paclobutrazol treated as compared to untreated trees. In general under paclobutrazol treatment, buds accumulated more polyamines than the leaves. With respect to the bud growth stages, total free polyamines, spermidine and spermine were high at 510/511 stage both in the paclobutrazol treated and untreated trees which declined progressively as shoots approached panicle emergence stage (515). The ethylene production, ACC and ACC oxidase activity exhibited trends opposite to that of polyamines. The study showed that polyamine – ethylene balance may control paclobutrazol induced floral bud induction in mango and accumulation of polyamines-spermidine and spermine in buds appeared as an important factor in facilitating floral induction response.
Effects of Paclobutrazol on fruit yield and physico-chemical characteristics ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Paclobutrazol is triazoles derivatives [(2 RS, 3RS)-1-(4-Chloropheny)-4, 4-dimethyl-2- (1, 2, 4 triazole-1-yl)] Pentane - 3 - ethanol. It is taken up of xylem and translocated acropetally to sub apical meristem. Paclobutrazol is metabolized in plant in 10-15 days but persists in soil generally for more than one year Pactbutrazol was applied on a basic trunk drench (1.0 g/m, 0.5 g/m tree canopy diameter) in 21-22 year old mango tree Paclobutrazol treatment induced early ripening, reduced fruit sized when applied continuously for more than one year. However that quality was better in terms of higher TSS, total sugar, and β-carotene and Ascorbic aid.
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1. See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282237621
Paclobutrazol use in perennial fruit crops and its residual effects: A review
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Research Review Article
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 85 (7): 863–72, July 2015/Review Article
Paclobutrazol use in perennial fruit crops and its residual effects: A review
KUNDAN KISHORE1, H S SINGH2 and R M KURIAN3
Central Horticultural Experiment Station (IIHR), Aiginia, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751 019
Received: 21 July 2014; Accepted: 2 March 2015
ABSTRACT
Paclobutrazol (PBZ), a triazole derivative, has been effectively used to induce and manipulate flowering, fruiting
and tree vigour in several perennial fruit crops. However its use in mango is quite common. Soil application of
paclobutrazol has been efficacious in promoting flowering and increasing yield in many fruit crops. However, there are
some conflicting reports on its impact on fruit quality parameters. Besides reducing gibberellins level, PBZ increases
cytokinin contents, root activity and C: N ratio, whereas its influence on nutrient uptake lacks consistency. PBZ also
affects microbial population and dehydrogenase activity in soil. PBZ has been characterized as an environmentally
stable compound in soil and water environments with a half-life of more than a year under both aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. However, its residue could not be detected above quantifiable level (0.01 ppm) in soils and fruits when
applied in optimized rate. The potential of PBZ to contaminate groundwater at optimum concentrations is low
however the risk of its exposure to aquatic life is high. PBZ is considered moderately hazardous for human beings with
remote chance of being genotoxic and carcinogenic. In view of the above, optimized use of the PBZ to derive maximum
benefit with least undesirable impact on food and environmental safety aspects is suggested.
Key words: Environmentally stable, Flowering manipulation, Mango, Paclobutrazol, Residual effect
Perennial fruit crops like mango, citrus, avocado, litchi,
temperate fruits, nuts, etc. suffer from the intricate problem
of irregular bearing or cropping periodicity as well as
staggered or erratic flowering behaviour, leading to
considerable loss of their production potential (Singh 1971,
Jonkers 1979). Some of the fruit crops are worst sufferers
of cropping periodicity. The erratic rhythm of flowering
could be due to environmental factors, crop genetics,
orchard management practices or hormonal imbalances,
either alone or in combination. In addition to irregular
bearing, management of tree vigour and canopy, especially
under tropical climate has become a challenge (Iyer and
Subramanyam 1993, Kurian et al. 2013, Kohne and Kremer-
Kohne 1990). Of the several strategies suggested to
overcome the problems of flowering periodicity and tree
vigour in sub-tropical and tropical regions, such as the
use of dwarfing rootstock, shoot pruning and growth
regulators the use of PGRs is the most promising approach
for managing canopy and ensuring regularity in flowering
and enhancing fruit yield under commercial cultivation
(Olivier et al. 1990).
Paclobutrazol, a gibberellins inhibitor, has been
effectively used in reducing canopy volume and increasing
flower intensity in peach (Allan et al. 1993), plum (Olivier
3
et al. 1990), almond (Koukourikou-Petridou 1996), grapes
(Christov et al. 1995) and mango (Kulkarni 1988, Kurian
and Iyer 1993, Nartvaranant et al. 2000). Paclobutrazol is
effective not only in flower induction but also in early and
off season flower induction in mango (Protacio et al. 2000,
Blaikie et al. 2004, Yeshitela et al. 2004, Nafees et al. 2010,
Burondkar et al. 2013). However, the action of plant growth
regulators (PGRs) is highly specific to plant species, cultivar
and stage of development, and strongly dependent on its
rate of application and environmental conditions (Hoffmann
1992). Thus, paclobutazol holds considerable promise in
manipulation of flowering, yield and vigour in fruit crops.
However, its high potency, hazardous nature and slow
mobility raise genuine concerns over its long term use
(USEPA 2007). Hence, an effort was made to review the
research work on the efficacy of the paclobutrazol
application in different perennial crops and its residual
aspect.
PROPERTIESOFPACLOBUTRAZOL
Paclobutrazol (PBZ), a non-polar broad spectrum
growth regulator, has been characterized as an
environmentally stable compound in soil and water
environments (Table 1) with a long half-life under both
aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Moreover PBZ is unlikely
to volatilize to any significant extent owing to a low
estimated vapour pressure (1.9 × 10-6 Pa). Paclobutrazol is
translocated acropetally via xylem in plants (Hamid and
Williams 1997, Wang et al. 1986), although phloem
3. 864 [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 85 (7)KISHORE ET AL.
4
translocation has also been reported (Witchard 1997).
Paclobutrazol has been registered in 1985 (cultar, ICI
Americas, Goldsboro, NC), however it has now been
permitted for use on food crops in Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa, India, Philippines, Vietnam, Canada, USA
(California), Finland, Hungry, Greece, Cyprus, Denmark and
Netherlands (Davis and Curry 1992). In India PBZ has been
registered as a plant growth regulator under the section
9(3) of InsecticidesAct, 1968 in November 2009 by Central
Insecticides Board & Registration Committee (Kegley et
al. 2010) and is available in the market with various trade
names.
EFFECTSOFPACLOBUTRAZOL
Paclobutrazol has demonstrated its usefulness by
regulating traits of agronomic interest in various crops
including cereal, vegetables, fruits and ornamentals
(Rademacher and Bucci 2002). It has been effectively used
for flower regulation, yield and quality improvement in
various perennial fruit crops (Nartvaranant et al. 2000,
Koukourikou-Petridou 1996,Adato 1990).
Regulation of flowering and yield
Floral induction is considered to be the result of
elevated levels of up-regulated florigenic promoter (FP) and
down-regulated vegetative promoter (VP), primarily
gibberellins, whereas the reverse condition promotes
vegetative growth (Nartvaranant et al. 2000, Davenport
2007). The production of vegetative shoots in place of
reproductive shoots is due to the elevated level of
gibberellin which is considered as a vegetative promoter
(Núñez-Eliséa and Davenport 1995). Paclobutrazol, a
gibberellin inhibitor, reducesVPlevel and thereby increases
FP/VP ratio which stimulates flowering shoots in weakly
inductive shoots of fruit crops (Voon et al. 1991, Yeshitela
et al. 2004,Adil et al. 2011, Iglesius et al. 2007). It is effective
not only in flower induction but also in regulating
vegetative growth in perennial crops which has been
described in Table 2.
The application of paclobutrazol before flower bud
differentiation or three months earlier than anticipated
flowering has been effective in inducing flowering in mango
without accompanying reduction in shoot length. However
higher concentration leads to canopy and panicle
compaction (Shinde et al. 2000, Karki and Dakal 2003, Husen
et al. 2012, Negi and Sharma 2009). Apart from enhancing
flowering intensity, PBZ has also been effective in
increasing sex ratio, cauliflory and axillary flowering in
mango (Singh 2000). Foliar application of paclobutrazol (200
ppm) was effective in increasing yield and minimizing fruit
drop and fruit cracking in ber (Singh 2000). The efficacy of
PBZ increases in terms of panicle initiation when combined
with nitrate salt of potassium and ammonium (Rebolledo et
al. 2008, Medina-Urrutia and Núñez 1997). The
effectiveness of PBZ was dependant on stage of
development as the application of paclobutrazol at bud
bursting and two weeks before anthesis of grape increased
the yield significantly (Christov et al. 1995). Reddy and
Kurian (2008) observed that under tropical climate,
application of paclobutrazol for three consecutive years
and then its discontinuation for the subsequent three years
appears in twenty years old mango trees to be appropriate.
However, the continous optimum use of PBZ in high density
planting is imperative to manage canopy and to induce
precocious flowering as it was also observed that young
plants respond better than old ones.
Soil application around the tree trunk (collar drench)
was more efficacious than foliar application as it ensures
proper uptake in inducing flowering and fruiting (Ram and
Sirohi 1991, Kulkarni et al. 2006, Ram and Tripathi 1993).
On the other hand,Yeshitela (2004) reported that application
of PBZ both as a soil drench and foliar application were
effective in suppressing vegetative growth and enhancing
flowering, yield, fruit quality as well as number of
hermaphrodite flowers in mango.
The response to PBZ varied with cultivar and crop
load. The shoot retarding effect of PBZ was generally
limited in mango var. Sensation, but was pronounced in
Tommy Atkin. Moreover the average fruit weight and yield
were increased with the rate of paclobutrazol in Sensation,
whereas fruit weight and yield were reduced in Tommy
Atkin (Oosthuyse and Jacobs 1997). Paclobutrazol showed
differential genotypic effect in mango (Singh and
Bhattacharjee 2005). The effectiveness of PBZ in promoting
flowering in Citrus sp. depends on the crop load as the
heavy fruit load trees scarcely flowered. In medium to low
Table 1 Environmental fate properties for mobility and persistence of paclobutrazol
Parameter Value Source
Hydrolysis Stable: <6% degradation after 30 d at pH 4,7, and 9 USEPA (2007)
Photolysis in water Stable: < 5% degradation after 10 d at pH 7 USEPA (2007)
Aerobic soil metabolism (half-life) > 1 yr USEPA (2007)
Anaerobic soil metabolism (half-life) > 1 yr USEPA (2007)
Field dissipation (half-life) 450-950 days in orchard US soils 175-252 days in USEPA (2007)
agricultural US soils EFSA (2006)
Aquatic metabolism (half-life) 164 days EFSA (2006)
Soil Adsorption Coefficient (KD) (mL/g) 1.3–23.0 USEPA (2007)
0.8–21.3 (mean of 4.3) EFSA (2006)
4. 865July 2015] PACLOBUTRAZOL USE IN PERENNIAL FRUIT CROPS
5
fruit load trees PBZ significantly increased the percentage
of sprouted buds and floral shoots and reduced the number
of vegetative shoots (Martínez-Fuentes et al. 2013).
Effect on fruit quality
Fruit quality of mango and lemon (TSS and acid
content) increases with paclobutrazol application (Jain et
al. 2002, Burondkar et al. 2013). On the other hand
paclobutrazol had shown no improvement in fruit quality
in citrus (Monselise 1986), grapes (Intrieri et al. 1986,
Christov et al. 1995), strawberries (Lolaei et al. 2012), apple
(Steffens et al. 1985) and peach (Arzani et al. 2009). Fruit
weight, pulp: stone ratio, TSS and shelf-life increased at
lower dose of paclobutrazol in ber (Singh 2000). Jamalian
et al. (2008) reported that paclobutrazol improved the fruit
quality of strawberry under salt stress condition.
Tree architecture
Now-a-days, reduced canopy size has become an
integral part of modern fruit production; it is evident that
apart from flower induction, paclobutrazol also restricts tree
vigour hence trees should be allowed to develop a good
canopy before treatment commences. The efficacy of
paclobutrazol in regulating canopy size of mango has been
reported by many workers (Voon et al. 1991, Kurian and
Iyer 1993). Charnvichit et al. (1994) reported that PBZ
effectively regulated tree canopy and induced flowering in
six year old pruned mango trees planted under high density
system (2.5m × 2.5m). The canopy regulation was due to
the shortening of third and fourth flushes and internodal
lengths of the treated trees. The treated plants not only
flowered more profusely but also were considerably earlier
than the controls. However the treatment effect lasted for
only one year. Paclobutrazol was found effective in reducing
tree vigour and in promoting flowering, fruit set and yield
in Dashehari and Tommy Atkins (Singh 2000, Medina-
Urrutia 1995). Paclobutrazol has also been reported to be
effective in regulating vegetative growth of peach, apple,
citrus and guava (Arzani et al. 2009, Mauk et al. 1990,
Aron et al. 1985, Brar 2010, Baskaran 2011). Garcia De Niz
et al. (2014) assessed the effect of pruning and
paclobutrazol treatment on the vegetative growth and fruit
yield of mango and reported that the efficacy of
paclobutrazol in terms of shoot growth and production
efficiency depends on the time of pruning.
Root activity and nutrient level
The ability of roots to draw nutrients from the soil and
to deliver these to the aerial plant tissues at a rate that
matches the needs of growth is key to ensure physiological
growth and development of plant. Whereas mismatch
between the demand of the shoot and the supply from the
roots can affect productivity (Tester and Leigh 2001).
Growth regulators greatly influence root activity and
vegetative growth which implies demand for certain
elements and additional decrease of others and in turn alter
the mineral uptake and plant nutrition (Atkinson 1986,
Pequerul et al. 1997). The role of PBZ in regulating root
Table 2 Efficacy of paclobutrazol in perennial crops
Crop PBZ concentration Mode of Effect Source
application
Mango 1.0 g a. i./m canopy Soil application Growth reduction, flower induction Burondkar and Gunjate (1993)
20-40 g/tree Growth reduction, increased sex ratio, Singh (2000)
flowering and yield
2.0 ml/plant Yield enhancement Ram (1996)
Pineapple 150 (mg/L) Foliar spray Delayed harvesting and yield Antunes et al. (2008)
improvement
Litchi 5 g/m2 plant spread Soil application Growth reduction, enhanced flowering Faizan et al. (2000)
and yield
Mexican 15 g a.i./plant Enhanced flowering Medina-Urrutia and
lime Buenrostro-Nova (1995)
Mandarin 1.0-2.0 g Growth regulation dos Santos et al. (2004)
Grape 0.5-1.0 g a.i./vine Christov et al. (1995)
Peach 0.5-2.0 g a.i./tree Allan et al. (1993),
Arzani et al. (2009)
Avocado 1.0% Foliar application Yield enhancement Adato (1990) Salazar-Garcia
et al. (2013)
Cashew nut 1-3 g/plant Soil application Growth regulation and nut yield Meena et al. (2014)
Apricot 0.5-2.0 g a.i/plant Growth reduction,enhanced flowering Arzani and Roosta (2004)
and yield
Apple 0.5 – 1.0g Estabrooks (1993)
Guava 1.0 g/plant Yield improvement Brar and Bal (2011)
Ber 200 ppm Foliar application Singh (2000)
Sapota 5.0 g/plant Soil application Reddy and Khan (2001)
5. 866 [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 85 (7)KISHORE ET AL.
6
activity has been reported in different crops. Kotur (2006)
observed significant increase in the root activity towards
the trunk and close to soil surface and sparser root activity
in the subsoil zone and in drip line area in paclobutrazol
treated mango plants. Paclobutrazol also initiated more
fibrous roots in satsuma mandarin (Yamshita et al. 1997).
Rieger and Scalabrelli (1990) reported that PBZ decreased
N, P, K, Fe and Mo and increased the levels of Ca, Mg, B
and Mn in peach. On the other hand, Werner (1993)
observed an increase of N, Ca, Mn, Zn and B contents and
decrease of P, K and Cu contents in PBZ treated mango
trees.Arzani and Roosta (2004) reported that PBZ decreased
the leaf N content in almond without affecting the
concentration of P, K and Ca. Whereas the leaf N and P
was not influenced by PBZ treatments in peach, but Ca
and K concentrations were increased (Arzani et al. 2009).
On the contrary, Wieland and Wample (1985) observed no
influence of PBZ on foliar content of N, P, K and Mg in
apple trees. Soil application of paclobutrazol (2.0 - 8.0 g a i)
for two consecutive years in mango increased the levels of
phosphorus, potassium and calcium at lower doses but
decreased at higher dose. A similar trend was recorded in
soil microbial level. The findings indicate inhibitory effect
of paclobutrazol at higher concentration on soil nutrient
status and microbial population (Singh et al. 2005). PBZ
also promotes the avoidance of salt stress in mango by
increasing the levels of photosynthetic pigments, water
content, K+ uptake and uptake of harmful Na+ and Cl– ions
(Kishor et al. 2009). The influence of paclobutrazol on leaf
nutrient content lacks consistency as it showed variation
with the crop species and soil conditions. In addition to
leaf nutrient content paclobutrazol also influences soil
properties.
Hormones and metabolites
Plant hormones and metabolites play a crucial role in
regulation of plant growth, development, and reproduction.
There is an increasing evidence for a decisive function of
certain hormones in the establishment of developmental
programs of plants. Gibberellins are destined for vegetative
growth, whereas cytokinin induces reproductive phase
(Alabadí et al. 2009). The relative concentration of
gibberellin and cytokinin decides the fate of the shoot. A
significant decline in the GA3-like compounds was
observed in the shoots of PBZ-treated plants after two
months of application in mango and there was no difference
in the level of GA3-like substance between control and
treated plants one year after the treatment. This suggests
the need for repeat application of PBZ (Protacio et al. 2000).
Kurian et al. (1994) reported reduced butanol soluble
cytokinin levels and elevated butanol insoluble cytokinin
and total phenolic compounds levels in leaves of
paclobutrazol treated mango trees. Starch and sucrose
levels in most of the cases were increased by the
paclobutrazol treatment which suggest the role of tested
hormones and nonstructural carbohydrates on mango
flowering. Upreti et al. (2013) reported that paclobutrazol
besides affecting gibberellins also increases ABA and
cytokinin, viz. zeatin (Z), zeatin riboside (ZR) and
dihydrozeatin riboside (DHZR), contents concomitant with
C: N ratio and leaf water potential in mango buds to elicit
flowering responses. In a similar findings, Singh and
Sharma (2008) recorded increase in C:N ratio, leaf water
potential, chlorophyll content, total sugar, total protein,
nitrate reductase activity, ABA and cytokinins – zeatin (Z),
zeatin riboside (ZR) and dihydrozeatin riboside (DHZR) in
paclobutrazol treated mango.Adil et al. (2011) also recorded
enhancement in the levels of zeatin (z), zeatin riboside (zr),
isopentenyl Adenosine (i-Ado), isopentenyl Adenine (i-
Ade), and abscisic acid (ABA), through at low level, along
with the increase in startch and sugar contents in PBZ-
tereated trees of mango during the floral induction period.
Whereas, gibberellins (GA1+3+20) and auxin (IAA) were
decreased during the same period. Phadung et al. (2011)
reported that PBZ had comparable flowering, total non-
structural carbohydrates and C/N ratio to the water stressed
trees of pummelo (Citrus grandis). They further reported
that under water stress condition PBZ along with nitrogen
effectively induced flowering in pummelo. PBZ also induces
morphological modifications such as enhanced leaf specific
weight, stomatal density, leaf thickness, root-to-shoot ratio
and root density that strengthen stress tolerance capacity
in plants. Addionally, it has also fungicidal activity due to
its inhibition of sterol biosynthesis (Steffens et al. 1985,
Fletcher and Hofstra 1988, Blanco et al. 1998, Chaney 2005,
Fernandez et al. 2006).
RESIDUALEFFECTAND RISKASSESSMENTOF PBZ
Residual effect on plant growth
Although paclobutrazol has been found efficacious in
flower induction and canopy management, its residual
property needs due attention. Concerns have been
expressed over the use of paclobutrazol as it inhibits
gibberellin bio-synthesis which is responsible for cell
elongation and internode extension. The treated tree
produces compressed panicle which does not dry out well
and can develop powdery mildew or anthracnose even with
the slight increase in the humidity. Furthermore application
of PBZ may cause severe stunting of plants if pruning is
anticipated (Davenport 1993). The stunting effect may
sustain for seven years as paclobutrazol persists in the
soil. The residual effect of PBZ was also observed in Citrus
sp. on the subsequent growth of the scions with the
application of PBZ @ 200 ppm (Hadlow and Allan 1989),
however lower dose had no residual effect on the growing
scions. No residual or cumulative effect of PBZ was
detected in avocado with regards to tree vigour, and yield
(Adato 1990). PBZ reduced the root hydraulic conductivity
and altered the nutrient uptake in peach which appeared to
be side-effects of PBZ treatment (Reiger and Scalabrelli
1990). Paclobutrazol causes morphological alteration in
young roots of citrus and peach by increasing thickness
and decreasing length. Such morphological alteration may
6. 867July 2015]
7
PACLOBUTRAZOL USE IN PERENNIAL FRUIT CROPS
influence water and nutrient uptake as these processes
occur most actively in young roots. Furthermore, PBZ
treatment may reduce drought avoidance of under rainfed
condition by decreasing the volume of rhizosphere
(Bausher and Yelenosky 1986, Williamson et al. 1986).
Residual effect on fruits
Paclobutrazol has prolonged persistence in plant
system due to its slow rate of metabolism (Sterrett 1985).
However it has differential translocation rate among
different plant parts. Neidhart et al. (2006) and Costa et al.
(2012) observed that PBZ did not translocate into the mango
fruits, as assumed from its mode of translocation. On the
other hand, Srivastav and Ram (1999) confirmed the
translocation of PBZ into fruits and seeds of Dashehari,
Langra, Chausa and Fazli though the concentration was
below permissible limits. Similar findings were also obtained
by Sharma and Awasthi (2005) who reported 0.05 ppm
residue of PBZ (the maximum residual level for stone fruits)
in unripe mango with the application of PBZ @ 5 to 10 g
a.i. per tree for three consecutive years. Moreover the level
further decreased to 0.001 mg/kg at fruit maturity.
Residual effect in soil
Paclobutrazol is characterized by moderate potential
of mobility in soil and water environments (30-35 µg/ml)
which enables it is applied in soil unlike other growth
regulators (Costa et al. 2012), however its mobility varied
with the soil type. Studies conducted in USA indicate that
half-lives of paclobutrazol residues ranged from 450-950
days for orchard soils and 175-252 days in agricultural soils
(Table 1) which indicates poor degradation rate of PBZ.
Paclobutrazol showed low soil adsorption coefficient (KD
= 1.3 to 23.0 ml/g), however adsorption appeared to increase
with soil organic matter and a decrease in soil pH.
Studies conducted in USA revealed that less than 10%
of total PBZ applied were detected in soils between the
depths of 60-120 cm, whereas the PBZ ketone metabolite
was predominately detected in the subsurface soil layers
though at insignificant levels. Sharma and Awasthi (2005)
detected residues of paclobutrazol in the tree basin soil (0-
15 cm) at the end of each season followed by a slight
increase in the amount of residues with the year of
applications. Reddy and Kurian (2008) also observed
residual influence of PBZ in soil if applied continuously
for three consecutive years and suggested discontinuation
of application or to taper down its dose. Sharma et al.
(2008) could not detect paclobutrazol residues above
quantifiable levels (0.01 ppm) either in tree basin surface
soils or in the fruits even after more than five years
continuous application. However, they further reported that
the residues increased to 0.34 ppm with the increase of the
application rate (20 g a. i./tree). Singh and Bhattacharjee
(2005) also detected paclobutrazol residue below permissible
limit (0.4898–1.0005 µg/g) in the rhizosphere after two years
of application. Jaradrattanapaiboon et al. (2008) reported
spatial difference of paclobutrazol residue in soils as they
observed high concentration of PBZ residue in upper soil
layer (0-5 cm) and low residue level in lower soil layer (10-
20 cm). They further reported that PBZ persisted for about
3-5 months. On the other hand, Narvaranant et al. (2000)
and Winston (1992) reported the persistence of PBZ residue
up to 12 months. The residue level of PBZ persisted for 3
years in apple orchard when soil drench method was
employed (Mauk et al. 1990). Ochoa et al. (2009) expressed
the possibility of environmental contamination with the
regular application of paclobutrazol in containarized
oleander production due the leaching of PBZ into the
nursery soil with the irrigation water. The adsorption and
leaching of the residues is dependent upon the soil physical
and chemical characteristics as well as environmental
factors such as rainfall. Wu et al. (2013) have reported that
paclobutrazol was more persistent in greenhouse than in
open field soil; leaching by rainfall being responsible for
the difference in dissipation. Paclobutrazol is also known
to leach in soil with high sand content.
Effect on microorganism and earthworm
Hampton (1988) and Jackson et al. (1996) reported that
paclobutrazol may remain active for many years in soils if
applied directly, and can severely affect the growth and
development of subsequent crops or even interact, in a
harmful way, with soil microorganisms. Silva et al. (2003)
reported that the soil application of paclobutrazol (160 µg
a.i./g) in mango orchards, affected negatively the soil
microbial community by reducing total number of bacteria
(58%), fungi (28%) and actinomycetes (28%) and
additionally affected the dehydrogenase activity. However
lower dose (16 µg a.i./g) has neither affected soil microbial
community nor dehydrogenase activity. Singh et al. (2005)
also reported that higher doses of paclobutrazol had
negative impact on microbiological status of soil and
suggested the use of optimum dose for better soil health
and soil properties. Studies on the impact of PBZ on the
activity of earthworm (Eisenia foetida) showed that there
was no death and behavioural abnormality in the earthworm
with the concentration of 1000 mg/kg soil, however 20 per
cent reduction in body weight was observed after 14 days
(MDAR 2012). The residual effect of paclobutrazol on
microbes and earthworms may alter the microbial population
balance and level of soil fertility.
Residual effect on ground water
Much work has not been carried out on the role of
PBZ in ground water contamination. Modelling study on
ground water exposure to PBZ showed that the
concentration of the degradate did not exceed 0.1 µg/L
except in one of the six scenarios. The study concluded
that the potential for the degradate hydroxyl triazole to
reach groundwater at high concentrations is low (EFSA
2010). Long term studies on the potential of paclobutrazol
to impact groundwater from its use on turf areas indicated
low rate of ground water contamination as only 0.68% of
water sample had highest detection level of 4200 mg/l (Baris
7. 868 [Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 85 (7)
8
KISHORE ET AL.
et al. 2010). However the maximum allowable concentration
of PBZ in drinking water is 66.0 µg/L (EFSA 2010).
Residual effect on aquatic life
Paclobutrazol has been found hazardous to aquatic
life. Significant increase in the enzymatic activity of lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH) and glutathione S-transferase (GST)
was observed in the liver of Brazilain fish (Metynnis
argenteus) when fish was exposed to paclobutrazol
contaminated water for 28 days. Moreover PBZ residues in
fish muscle reached 166 mg/kg at the end of the exposure
period and suspected significant risk to humans consuming
contaminated fish (Jonsson 2002). He suggested that the
measure of LDH and GST activities could be used as
biomarkers of paclobutrazol exposure. Paclobutrazol has
high octanol-water partitioning coefficient (log KoW=3.2)
which indicates its potential to bioaccumulate in fish (EFSA
2010). Therefore much caution has to be exercised to
prevent contamination of the water bodies with
paclobutrazol while using it for certain advantages in mango
cultivation. To avoid soil and water contamination, trunk
injection and bark application have been attempted (Sterrett
1985, Jacyna and Dodds 1999). Bark application of
paclobutrazol has been effective in sweet cherry to avoid
contamination of soil (Jacyna and Dodds 1999). Sachs et
al. (1967) reported that bark application of growth retardants
was simple, efficient and environmatally safe, but not many
tree species responded to this. Exploring the possibility of
alternate methods of application of PBZ (trunk injection
and bark application) could be a feasible approach in
minimising the soil and water contamination.
Effect on human health
According to the “Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labeling of Chemicals” (GHS),
paclobutrazol has been classified under category 4 and
considered moderately hazardous for human being (WHO
2010). It can cause harmful effect if enters either through
oral route (LD50 = 300 – 2000 mg/kg bw) or dermal route
(LD50 = 1000 – 2000 mg/kg bw). Skin irritation studies
indicated that PBZ is mildly irritating to skin and eye and
is not a skin sensitizer. On the other hand, paclobutrazol
was neither found genotoxic nor carcinogenic and
developmental toxicant up to maternally toxic dose levels
(USEPA 2007). Based on in vitro and in vivo mutagenicity
tests, it was concluded that PBZ is not genotoxic. There
was no evidence of bioaccumulation and bio-retention of
PBZ. It also has a low potential for volatilization with an
estimated atmospheric half-life of less than 2 days.
Therefore, long-range transport through the atmosphere is
not expected (EPSA 2010). PBZ is unlikely to volatilize to
any significant extent owing to a low estimated vapour
pressure. The possible route of ecological contamination
of paclobutrazol has been schematically described (Fig 1).
After entering soil system, paclobutrazol can have multi-
directional movement; a) absorption by plants, b) soil
adsorption, c) movement towards groundwater through
percolation and leaching, d) movement towards water
bodies through run off and sub-surface flow and e)
vapourization. However, slow mobility and low vapour
pressure limit the movement of residue of PBZ in
groundwater and water bodies, and in the air. The residue
of paclobutrazol may reach to the human being by following
ways; a) through direct contact, b) through contaminated
groundwater, c) through contaminated water bodies, d) by
consuming contaminated fish, e) by consuming fruits
containing residue and f) through inhalation and may affect
human health. Findings clearly indicate that application of
optimal dose of PBZ significantly minimises the chance of
contamination but the residue may impose a risk to human
health if applied in high dose. Moreover the chance of
contamination of groundwater and water bodies can be
aggravated with the increase in the slope of the land and
intensity of rainfall and irrigation (MDAR 2012).
CONCLUSIONSANDFUTUREWORK
This review clearly indicated the usefulness of
paclobutrazol for regularity and synchronization in
flowering, yield enhancement and tree vigour. On the other
hand, if used excessively, it can cause stunting effect to
plants and may affect the root and microbial activities in
soil. In spite of low mobility, paclobutrazol residue has been
detected in soil and fruits, though below quantifiable levels
in stray cases. It has low potential to contaminate, surface
water and groundwater; however the risk to aquatic life is
high and consequently significant risk is suspected if
human consumes contaminated fish though paclobutrazol
has been considered moderately hazardous for human being
with remote chance of being genotoxic and carcinogenic.
The important question is whether the continuous use of
paclobutrazol is safe or not? Though paclobutrazol has
remote chance of ecological contamination due to its low
mobility and high persistence, the risk cannot be completely
ruled out. In order to minimise residue threats substantially,
it is advisable to use the optimal dose at the right time.
Due care should be taken to avoid indiscriminate soil
application especially in sloppy areas as treated soil is likely
to be washed away by rainfall or irrigation runoff. All care
should be taken in such areas to avoid erosion of
contaminated soil to water bodies. Moreover terracing and
Water bodies
Fish
Human being
Vapourization
1
Inhalation
Runoff
Sub-surface flow
SoilPaclobutrazol
Plant
Fruits
Groundwater
Rainfall/
flooding
Percolation/
leaching
Soil
adsorption
Direct contact
Fig 1 Schematic presentation of paclobutrazol residue movement
in the environment
8. 869July 2015]
9
PACLOBUTRAZOL USE IN PERENNIAL FRUIT CROPS
bunds could be the effective approach in such locations.
The chance of environmental contamination may also be
minimized if soil properties, varietal response and climatic
conditions are taken into consideration before extensive
commercial adoption of PBZ. Alternate methods of
paclobutrazol application such as bark application or trunk
injection may also be attempted for their effectiveness.
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