Abstract The plague of the late Ming Dynasty (1551–1644 C.E.) was long lasting, affected a wide range of the population, and had serious consequences. The purpose of this study is to review the medical system in place at the time and the measures instituted to prevent and control the plague during the late Ming Dynasty. Information on the history of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.), local chronicles, and related research literature were consulted and analyzed in terms of duration, geographical area, and other dimensions of the epidemic. Because of the abnormal climate, wide range of natural disasters, and the impact of war, the epidemic spread over a wide area during the late Ming Dynasty. The government’s epidemic prevention measures were affected by war and other factors, resulting in poor control of the outbreak. However, in terms of the medical system in place during the Ming Dynasty, some of the thinking and methods of prevention and control of the plague were historical and progressive. Some outstanding physicians such as Wu Youke (1582–1652 C.E.) appeared during this period. His theory of plague prevention and control had a profound influence on the formation and development of pestilence deterrence in later generations. In the late Ming Dynasty, rich experiences and measures of prevention and control were accumulated in the struggle against the plague. These methods and experiences also have a significant, positive guiding influence on the prevention and control of plague in the present day.
This document provides a history of epidemiology, covering its origins and key figures. It traces epidemiology back to ancient Greece and discusses its modern definition as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Some important developments include John Graunt establishing demographic analysis in the 1600s, James Lind identifying citrus as preventing scurvy in 1747, Edward Jenner developing vaccination against smallpox in 1796, Ignaz Semmelweis reducing childbed fever mortality via handwashing in 1847, and John Snow linking cholera to contaminated water in 1854. These pioneers helped establish epidemiology's objectives of identifying disease causes and evaluating preventive measures.
History Of Epidemiology for Graduate and Postgraduate studentsTauseef Jawaid
This document provides a summary of the history of epidemiology from ancient times to the present. It describes key figures and discoveries such as Hippocrates' association of disease with environment, Jenner's pioneering of vaccination, Snow's mapping of a cholera outbreak to a contaminated well. More recent developments discussed include the founding of the U.S. Public Health Service, landmark studies like the Tuskegee syphilis study, and future challenges of globalization and overcrowding facilitating disease spread.
The document discusses various concepts in epidemiology including:
1) The epidemiologic triangle which includes the agent, host, and environment as factors that influence disease.
2) Observational study designs like cross-sectional studies which assess disease prevalence at a point in time, and cohort studies which follow groups over time to compare disease rates between exposed and unexposed individuals.
3) Key figures in the history of epidemiology like John Snow who conducted seminal investigations tracing cholera outbreaks to contaminated water sources in London in the 1850s.
4) The overall goal of epidemiology is to identify and quantify relationships between exposures and health outcomes in populations in order to control disease. Descriptive and analytical approaches are used.
This document traces the history and development of epidemiology from Hippocrates to modern times. It discusses key figures like John Graunt, William Farr, and John Snow and their contributions, such as Graunt quantifying vital statistics, Farr establishing practices in vital statistics, and Snow conducting studies linking cholera to contaminated water. The document also outlines how epidemiology has expanded to study non-infectious diseases and new infectious diseases, and how its methods are now regularly used worldwide to characterize community health and solve public health problems.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. It aims to describe disease distribution, identify risk factors, and provide data to prevent and control disease. Key concepts include measuring disease frequency through rates, examining disease distribution by time, place and person, and identifying disease determinants and causes. Epidemiology is used to study disease trends over time, diagnose community health issues, plan and evaluate health services, assess individual disease risks, further the natural history of disease, and search for disease causes and risk factors.
This document provides an overview of infectious disease epidemiology. It begins with a brief history of some major infectious disease outbreaks and their impacts. It then discusses concepts and definitions relevant to infectious disease epidemiology, including reservoirs, modes of transmission, epidemiological triad, and terminology. The document outlines the importance of studying infectious disease epidemiology and highlights current challenges like antimicrobial resistance and emerging/re-emerging pathogens. It also summarizes successes in disease eradication/elimination and the ongoing global burden of infectious diseases.
Explainations for 20th Century Tuberculosis Decline- How the Public Gets It W...Spencer Davis
- The study surveyed 705 adults to assess their perceptions of why tuberculosis mortality declined in the 20th century. Approximately 52% attributed the decline to "modern medicine" while 22% attributed it to "vaccination." Few respondents cited public health interventions or improved social conditions.
- In reality, historical analysis shows the majority of the tuberculosis decline was due to improved social conditions like better housing and public health interventions rather than medical advances alone. The disease was already declining before treatments like antibiotics were developed.
- The public overly credits modern medicine and underappreciates the role of public health and social factors, which could hinder support for policies addressing social determinants of health.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations. It has evolved rapidly in recent decades from focusing only on disease distribution and causation to also examining health events, treatment modalities, and health services. Modern epidemiology identifies risk factors for chronic diseases and evaluates prevention and treatment options to improve population health.
This document provides a history of epidemiology, covering its origins and key figures. It traces epidemiology back to ancient Greece and discusses its modern definition as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Some important developments include John Graunt establishing demographic analysis in the 1600s, James Lind identifying citrus as preventing scurvy in 1747, Edward Jenner developing vaccination against smallpox in 1796, Ignaz Semmelweis reducing childbed fever mortality via handwashing in 1847, and John Snow linking cholera to contaminated water in 1854. These pioneers helped establish epidemiology's objectives of identifying disease causes and evaluating preventive measures.
History Of Epidemiology for Graduate and Postgraduate studentsTauseef Jawaid
This document provides a summary of the history of epidemiology from ancient times to the present. It describes key figures and discoveries such as Hippocrates' association of disease with environment, Jenner's pioneering of vaccination, Snow's mapping of a cholera outbreak to a contaminated well. More recent developments discussed include the founding of the U.S. Public Health Service, landmark studies like the Tuskegee syphilis study, and future challenges of globalization and overcrowding facilitating disease spread.
The document discusses various concepts in epidemiology including:
1) The epidemiologic triangle which includes the agent, host, and environment as factors that influence disease.
2) Observational study designs like cross-sectional studies which assess disease prevalence at a point in time, and cohort studies which follow groups over time to compare disease rates between exposed and unexposed individuals.
3) Key figures in the history of epidemiology like John Snow who conducted seminal investigations tracing cholera outbreaks to contaminated water sources in London in the 1850s.
4) The overall goal of epidemiology is to identify and quantify relationships between exposures and health outcomes in populations in order to control disease. Descriptive and analytical approaches are used.
This document traces the history and development of epidemiology from Hippocrates to modern times. It discusses key figures like John Graunt, William Farr, and John Snow and their contributions, such as Graunt quantifying vital statistics, Farr establishing practices in vital statistics, and Snow conducting studies linking cholera to contaminated water. The document also outlines how epidemiology has expanded to study non-infectious diseases and new infectious diseases, and how its methods are now regularly used worldwide to characterize community health and solve public health problems.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. It aims to describe disease distribution, identify risk factors, and provide data to prevent and control disease. Key concepts include measuring disease frequency through rates, examining disease distribution by time, place and person, and identifying disease determinants and causes. Epidemiology is used to study disease trends over time, diagnose community health issues, plan and evaluate health services, assess individual disease risks, further the natural history of disease, and search for disease causes and risk factors.
This document provides an overview of infectious disease epidemiology. It begins with a brief history of some major infectious disease outbreaks and their impacts. It then discusses concepts and definitions relevant to infectious disease epidemiology, including reservoirs, modes of transmission, epidemiological triad, and terminology. The document outlines the importance of studying infectious disease epidemiology and highlights current challenges like antimicrobial resistance and emerging/re-emerging pathogens. It also summarizes successes in disease eradication/elimination and the ongoing global burden of infectious diseases.
Explainations for 20th Century Tuberculosis Decline- How the Public Gets It W...Spencer Davis
- The study surveyed 705 adults to assess their perceptions of why tuberculosis mortality declined in the 20th century. Approximately 52% attributed the decline to "modern medicine" while 22% attributed it to "vaccination." Few respondents cited public health interventions or improved social conditions.
- In reality, historical analysis shows the majority of the tuberculosis decline was due to improved social conditions like better housing and public health interventions rather than medical advances alone. The disease was already declining before treatments like antibiotics were developed.
- The public overly credits modern medicine and underappreciates the role of public health and social factors, which could hinder support for policies addressing social determinants of health.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations. It has evolved rapidly in recent decades from focusing only on disease distribution and causation to also examining health events, treatment modalities, and health services. Modern epidemiology identifies risk factors for chronic diseases and evaluates prevention and treatment options to improve population health.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations and the factors influencing these patterns. Some key points:
- Epidemiology aims to determine disease origins, investigate control, and understand ecology and impacts on populations.
- Descriptive epidemiology characterizes disease distribution, who is affected, when and where. Analytic epidemiology examines why through comparing groups and potential risk factors.
- Studies include experimental, cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort designs to analyze associations between exposures and outcomes.
- Methods include surveys, monitoring, surveillance and studying sentinel populations to track disease occurrence and changes over time.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. This document discusses epidemiology and provides details on cholera, including its history and causes. It describes how John Snow used epidemiology to discover that cholera is spread through contaminated water by tracing a cholera outbreak in London back to a contaminated water pump. It also discusses the "miasma theory" of disease transmission via air that was previously widely accepted, as well as the scientists who first discovered the cholera bacteria and advocated for improved sanitation to prevent disease.
Epidemiology plays an important role in disease outbreak investigation and evaluation of control measures. It provides information on disease distribution, transmission levels, and helps map outbreaks. Several factors contributed to the success of the smallpox eradication program, including epidemiological data, universal political commitment, and well-trained staff. Methylmercury poisoning in Japan led to severe health effects from eating contaminated fish. Epidemiology helped identify the cause and guide control efforts. Descriptive epidemiology studies examine disease distribution by time, place and person to generate hypotheses about causation. Analytical epidemiology determines associations between disease and suspected risk factors using study designs like case-control and cohort studies.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. It uses a systematic and unbiased approach to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Some core functions of epidemiology include public health surveillance, field investigations, analytic studies, evaluation of public health programs and services, linkages with other disciplines, and policy development. Epidemiology provides an evidence base for effective public health action and disease prevention.
Epidemiological triad of hospital associated infection Vishal Kulkarni
The document defines hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) as infections that develop in patients 48 hours after admission to a hospital that were not present upon admission. HAIs are also known as nosocomial infections. The document notes that HAIs can manifest during a patient's hospital stay or after discharge. It states that HAIs are a global problem, with infection rates of 7-10% in developed countries and 5.7-19.1% in developing countries. HAIs can cause serious illness, death, increased costs, and economic losses.
Definitions of important terms in epidemiologyBhoj Raj Singh
This document defines key terms used in epidemiology, including:
- Agent, which is a causative factor like a biological or chemical agent that must be present or absent for disease to occur.
- Analytic epidemiologic studies, which examine groups to make comparisons and determine causal relationships.
- Descriptive epidemiologic studies, which contribute to describing a disease by examining its essential features.
- Epidemiology, which is the study of how diseases are distributed and determined within populations.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and patterns of health-related events, characteristics, and causes in defined populations. It identifies risk factors for disease and informs public health policy and evidence-based medicine. The ultimate goal of epidemiology is the prevention of disease and promotion of health through elucidating the natural history of diseases, describing population health status, and establishing disease determinants and intervention effectiveness.
This document discusses epidemiology and community health. It defines epidemiology as the study of factors that affect the health of populations, including the frequencies and types of diseases. Community health aims to protect the health of communities through organized efforts. The success of epidemiology and community health relies on effective information transfer. Epidemiology tools are used to study disease patterns and priorities to inform health planning, research, and evaluation. Descriptive and analytical epidemiology are discussed as ways to understand disease distribution, risk factors, and evaluate associations. Community health activities work to maintain health records, protect food/water, provide immunizations, and educate communities.
Epidemiology is the study of disease occurrence and distribution in populations. It derives from Greek words meaning "upon people." Key concepts in epidemiology include disease frequency (prevalence and incidence), distribution (who, where, when disease occurs), and determinants (causes and spread). The epidemiological triad of host, agent, and environment, along with their interactions in a disease cycle, help explain how diseases manifest and spread. Understanding epidemiology allows public health efforts to better control health problems.
Public health originated in the 19th century to address poor sanitary conditions and disease outbreaks. Simple public health measures like clean water and vaccination have saved more lives than medical advances. Community medicine focuses on preventing disease in populations through organized community efforts. It aims to promote health and adjust individuals and society. Public health is defined as organized efforts to prevent disease, prolong life, and promote health through surveillance, policies, education, and ensuring resources are allocated to public health. It uses technology and social sciences to identify, prevent and monitor health issues in populations.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology and discusses key concepts for measuring disease occurrence, including:
- Prevalence is the proportion of a population having a disease at a specific time. It is calculated by dividing the number of cases by the total population.
- Incidence refers to the number of new cases occurring over a specific time period. It provides information on risk over time.
- Incidence density measures incidence over time at risk and is calculated as the number of new cases divided by person-time at risk in the population.
- Descriptive epidemiology examines the distribution and characteristics of disease, while analytical epidemiology investigates hypotheses about disease causes.
This document provides definitions and examples of outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics throughout history. It defines an outbreak as a sudden increase in disease cases in a specific time and place. An epidemic occurs when there are more cases than normal within a community or region. A pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across multiple continents or worldwide. Several examples of devastating past pandemics are provided, including the Black Death which killed an estimated 75-200 million people in the 14th century, and the 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic which killed 20-50 million people. Causes and death tolls of other pandemics like the Plague of Justinian, cholera, and influenza outbreaks are also summarized.
This document discusses epidemiology and community health. It defines epidemiology as the study of factors that affect the health of populations, including disease frequencies, types, and distributions. Community health refers to the health status and care of community members. The key relationship between the two is that epidemiology provides critical information on disease trends, causes, and factors that inform community health program planning, advocacy, research, and evaluation. The document outlines objectives, definitions, types and uses of epidemiology as well as community health activities.
This document describes a case report of an elderly woman who died from injuries sustained in a bomb explosion in her village. At autopsy, she was found to have multiple abrasions, lacerations, burns, and embedded explosive particles consistent with a blast injury. She suffered a traumatic left hand amputation, fractures to the sternum, and blast lung with hemorrhaging. The explosive material in the embedded particles was identified as nitroglycerin. The cause of death was determined to be the blast injuries from the explosion. Bomb explosions can cause a range of injuries from the explosive force and propelled fragments. Autopsy findings are important for understanding the mechanism of blast injuries.
This document discusses Howard Markel's expertise in the history of epidemics and pandemics. It outlines a 4-act model of how epidemics typically unfold, with act 1 being progressive revelation of the disease, act 2 managing the randomness of spread, act 3 managing public response, and act 4 being subsidence and retrospection. It also lists major themes and factors that shape epidemics, such as how societies understand diseases, economic impacts, media coverage, poverty, quarantines, and amnesia between outbreaks. Specific examples discussed include Markel's op-eds on the early COVID-19 outbreak in China and quarantines, and a quote expressing uncertainty around predicting future pandemics.
The document provides a historical overview of community medicine and public health. It discusses medicine in antiquity among early civilizations like India, China, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. It then covers the dawn of scientific medicine starting in the 15th century with revivals and discoveries that established germ theory and vaccination. Modern medicine brought specialization, antibiotics, and recognition of multifactorial disease causation. Preventive medicine was established with public health measures around sanitation, hygiene, and the control of infectious diseases. Public health evolved through different phases focused on disease control, health promotion, and addressing social determinants of health.
Epidemiology began with early observations of disease patterns but grew as a formal science in the 19th century. Key figures like John Snow, William Farr, and Robert Koch developed epidemiologic study designs and established causality criteria. The mid-20th century saw advances in chronic disease epidemiology and evidence-based medicine. Modern epidemiology now integrates diverse methodologies with evolving biology and societal changes to investigate new health challenges.
The document discusses the facts and origins of the COVID-19 outbreak. It describes how the virus originated in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and has since spread globally. As of early March 2020, there have been over 96,000 confirmed cases and 3,300 deaths worldwide. The virus can spread from human to human through respiratory droplets from coughs or sneezes. While knowledge of the virus is still developing, it seems to primarily impact the respiratory system and can be transmitted before or without symptoms showing.
1. Infectious diseases can be transmitted via direct or indirect contact between infected reservoirs and susceptible hosts. Common modes of transmission include contact, vehicle, and vector-borne routes.
2. Reservoirs include humans, other animals, and the environment. Transmission occurs when microorganisms pass from these reservoirs to new hosts.
3. Contact transmission includes direct contact like sexual intercourse or indirect contact through respiratory droplets and fomites. Vehicle transmission involves ingestion of contaminated food, water, or medical products. Vector-borne diseases are transmitted by insects or other animals carrying pathogens.
This document summarizes the history of tuberculosis from ancient times to the isolation of the tuberculosis bacillus by Robert Koch in 1882. It describes how tuberculosis has afflicted humans for thousands of years, as evidenced by skeletal remains from ancient Egypt showing typical tuberculosis lesions. It then outlines key developments in the understanding and treatment of tuberculosis, including the identification of extra-pulmonary forms in the Middle Ages; the proposal of its infectious nature in the 18th century; the establishment of sanatoriums in the 19th century; and crucial experiments in the 1860s-1870s demonstrating tuberculosis's infectious nature and isolating the causative bacterium. The summary concludes by noting Robert Koch's successful isolation of the tuberculosis bacillus in
Hippocrates in the 5th century BC first suggested that human disease may be related to environmental factors. The concepts of epidemiology were later formally defined as the study of disease distribution, patterns, and determinants in populations. John Graunt in 1662 was the first to conduct a quantitative analysis of disease patterns by studying birth and death records in London. John Snow in 1850 used epidemiological methods to test the hypothesis that cholera was transmitted via contaminated water.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations and the factors influencing these patterns. Some key points:
- Epidemiology aims to determine disease origins, investigate control, and understand ecology and impacts on populations.
- Descriptive epidemiology characterizes disease distribution, who is affected, when and where. Analytic epidemiology examines why through comparing groups and potential risk factors.
- Studies include experimental, cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort designs to analyze associations between exposures and outcomes.
- Methods include surveys, monitoring, surveillance and studying sentinel populations to track disease occurrence and changes over time.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. This document discusses epidemiology and provides details on cholera, including its history and causes. It describes how John Snow used epidemiology to discover that cholera is spread through contaminated water by tracing a cholera outbreak in London back to a contaminated water pump. It also discusses the "miasma theory" of disease transmission via air that was previously widely accepted, as well as the scientists who first discovered the cholera bacteria and advocated for improved sanitation to prevent disease.
Epidemiology plays an important role in disease outbreak investigation and evaluation of control measures. It provides information on disease distribution, transmission levels, and helps map outbreaks. Several factors contributed to the success of the smallpox eradication program, including epidemiological data, universal political commitment, and well-trained staff. Methylmercury poisoning in Japan led to severe health effects from eating contaminated fish. Epidemiology helped identify the cause and guide control efforts. Descriptive epidemiology studies examine disease distribution by time, place and person to generate hypotheses about causation. Analytical epidemiology determines associations between disease and suspected risk factors using study designs like case-control and cohort studies.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. It uses a systematic and unbiased approach to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Some core functions of epidemiology include public health surveillance, field investigations, analytic studies, evaluation of public health programs and services, linkages with other disciplines, and policy development. Epidemiology provides an evidence base for effective public health action and disease prevention.
Epidemiological triad of hospital associated infection Vishal Kulkarni
The document defines hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) as infections that develop in patients 48 hours after admission to a hospital that were not present upon admission. HAIs are also known as nosocomial infections. The document notes that HAIs can manifest during a patient's hospital stay or after discharge. It states that HAIs are a global problem, with infection rates of 7-10% in developed countries and 5.7-19.1% in developing countries. HAIs can cause serious illness, death, increased costs, and economic losses.
Definitions of important terms in epidemiologyBhoj Raj Singh
This document defines key terms used in epidemiology, including:
- Agent, which is a causative factor like a biological or chemical agent that must be present or absent for disease to occur.
- Analytic epidemiologic studies, which examine groups to make comparisons and determine causal relationships.
- Descriptive epidemiologic studies, which contribute to describing a disease by examining its essential features.
- Epidemiology, which is the study of how diseases are distributed and determined within populations.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and patterns of health-related events, characteristics, and causes in defined populations. It identifies risk factors for disease and informs public health policy and evidence-based medicine. The ultimate goal of epidemiology is the prevention of disease and promotion of health through elucidating the natural history of diseases, describing population health status, and establishing disease determinants and intervention effectiveness.
This document discusses epidemiology and community health. It defines epidemiology as the study of factors that affect the health of populations, including the frequencies and types of diseases. Community health aims to protect the health of communities through organized efforts. The success of epidemiology and community health relies on effective information transfer. Epidemiology tools are used to study disease patterns and priorities to inform health planning, research, and evaluation. Descriptive and analytical epidemiology are discussed as ways to understand disease distribution, risk factors, and evaluate associations. Community health activities work to maintain health records, protect food/water, provide immunizations, and educate communities.
Epidemiology is the study of disease occurrence and distribution in populations. It derives from Greek words meaning "upon people." Key concepts in epidemiology include disease frequency (prevalence and incidence), distribution (who, where, when disease occurs), and determinants (causes and spread). The epidemiological triad of host, agent, and environment, along with their interactions in a disease cycle, help explain how diseases manifest and spread. Understanding epidemiology allows public health efforts to better control health problems.
Public health originated in the 19th century to address poor sanitary conditions and disease outbreaks. Simple public health measures like clean water and vaccination have saved more lives than medical advances. Community medicine focuses on preventing disease in populations through organized community efforts. It aims to promote health and adjust individuals and society. Public health is defined as organized efforts to prevent disease, prolong life, and promote health through surveillance, policies, education, and ensuring resources are allocated to public health. It uses technology and social sciences to identify, prevent and monitor health issues in populations.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology and discusses key concepts for measuring disease occurrence, including:
- Prevalence is the proportion of a population having a disease at a specific time. It is calculated by dividing the number of cases by the total population.
- Incidence refers to the number of new cases occurring over a specific time period. It provides information on risk over time.
- Incidence density measures incidence over time at risk and is calculated as the number of new cases divided by person-time at risk in the population.
- Descriptive epidemiology examines the distribution and characteristics of disease, while analytical epidemiology investigates hypotheses about disease causes.
This document provides definitions and examples of outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics throughout history. It defines an outbreak as a sudden increase in disease cases in a specific time and place. An epidemic occurs when there are more cases than normal within a community or region. A pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across multiple continents or worldwide. Several examples of devastating past pandemics are provided, including the Black Death which killed an estimated 75-200 million people in the 14th century, and the 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic which killed 20-50 million people. Causes and death tolls of other pandemics like the Plague of Justinian, cholera, and influenza outbreaks are also summarized.
This document discusses epidemiology and community health. It defines epidemiology as the study of factors that affect the health of populations, including disease frequencies, types, and distributions. Community health refers to the health status and care of community members. The key relationship between the two is that epidemiology provides critical information on disease trends, causes, and factors that inform community health program planning, advocacy, research, and evaluation. The document outlines objectives, definitions, types and uses of epidemiology as well as community health activities.
This document describes a case report of an elderly woman who died from injuries sustained in a bomb explosion in her village. At autopsy, she was found to have multiple abrasions, lacerations, burns, and embedded explosive particles consistent with a blast injury. She suffered a traumatic left hand amputation, fractures to the sternum, and blast lung with hemorrhaging. The explosive material in the embedded particles was identified as nitroglycerin. The cause of death was determined to be the blast injuries from the explosion. Bomb explosions can cause a range of injuries from the explosive force and propelled fragments. Autopsy findings are important for understanding the mechanism of blast injuries.
This document discusses Howard Markel's expertise in the history of epidemics and pandemics. It outlines a 4-act model of how epidemics typically unfold, with act 1 being progressive revelation of the disease, act 2 managing the randomness of spread, act 3 managing public response, and act 4 being subsidence and retrospection. It also lists major themes and factors that shape epidemics, such as how societies understand diseases, economic impacts, media coverage, poverty, quarantines, and amnesia between outbreaks. Specific examples discussed include Markel's op-eds on the early COVID-19 outbreak in China and quarantines, and a quote expressing uncertainty around predicting future pandemics.
The document provides a historical overview of community medicine and public health. It discusses medicine in antiquity among early civilizations like India, China, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. It then covers the dawn of scientific medicine starting in the 15th century with revivals and discoveries that established germ theory and vaccination. Modern medicine brought specialization, antibiotics, and recognition of multifactorial disease causation. Preventive medicine was established with public health measures around sanitation, hygiene, and the control of infectious diseases. Public health evolved through different phases focused on disease control, health promotion, and addressing social determinants of health.
Epidemiology began with early observations of disease patterns but grew as a formal science in the 19th century. Key figures like John Snow, William Farr, and Robert Koch developed epidemiologic study designs and established causality criteria. The mid-20th century saw advances in chronic disease epidemiology and evidence-based medicine. Modern epidemiology now integrates diverse methodologies with evolving biology and societal changes to investigate new health challenges.
The document discusses the facts and origins of the COVID-19 outbreak. It describes how the virus originated in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and has since spread globally. As of early March 2020, there have been over 96,000 confirmed cases and 3,300 deaths worldwide. The virus can spread from human to human through respiratory droplets from coughs or sneezes. While knowledge of the virus is still developing, it seems to primarily impact the respiratory system and can be transmitted before or without symptoms showing.
1. Infectious diseases can be transmitted via direct or indirect contact between infected reservoirs and susceptible hosts. Common modes of transmission include contact, vehicle, and vector-borne routes.
2. Reservoirs include humans, other animals, and the environment. Transmission occurs when microorganisms pass from these reservoirs to new hosts.
3. Contact transmission includes direct contact like sexual intercourse or indirect contact through respiratory droplets and fomites. Vehicle transmission involves ingestion of contaminated food, water, or medical products. Vector-borne diseases are transmitted by insects or other animals carrying pathogens.
This document summarizes the history of tuberculosis from ancient times to the isolation of the tuberculosis bacillus by Robert Koch in 1882. It describes how tuberculosis has afflicted humans for thousands of years, as evidenced by skeletal remains from ancient Egypt showing typical tuberculosis lesions. It then outlines key developments in the understanding and treatment of tuberculosis, including the identification of extra-pulmonary forms in the Middle Ages; the proposal of its infectious nature in the 18th century; the establishment of sanatoriums in the 19th century; and crucial experiments in the 1860s-1870s demonstrating tuberculosis's infectious nature and isolating the causative bacterium. The summary concludes by noting Robert Koch's successful isolation of the tuberculosis bacillus in
Hippocrates in the 5th century BC first suggested that human disease may be related to environmental factors. The concepts of epidemiology were later formally defined as the study of disease distribution, patterns, and determinants in populations. John Graunt in 1662 was the first to conduct a quantitative analysis of disease patterns by studying birth and death records in London. John Snow in 1850 used epidemiological methods to test the hypothesis that cholera was transmitted via contaminated water.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Hippocrates was the first epidemiologist, observing disease contributing factors. Thomas Sydenham classified fevers in London. In the 1700s, Jesty and Jenner observed cowpox conferred smallpox immunity, leading to vaccination. Lind identified scurvy remedies, reducing cases in sailors. Pasteur and Koch proved germ theories of disease. Advances like microscopy helped early epidemiologists understand disease transmission and dynamics.
This document discusses pandemics, including their causes and methods of prevention. It defines a pandemic as a disease spreading worldwide that greatly increases illness and death over a wide area. Pandemics are more likely due to factors like increased global travel, urbanization, and human exploitation of the environment. Most new pandemics originate from diseases spreading from animals to humans. Once a pandemic begins, public health efforts focus on detecting and containing the initial outbreak, implementing measures like contact tracing and quarantine to limit spread, and developing vaccines to reduce susceptibility.
Traditional Chinese medicine for treatment of coronavirus disease 2019: a reviewLucyPi1
Abstract Since late December in 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 has received extensive attention for its widespread prevalence. A number of clinical workers and researchers have made great efforts to understand the pathogenesis and clinical characteristics and develop effective drugs for treatment. However, no effective drugs with antiviral effects on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 have been discovered currently. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has gained abundant experience in the treatment of infectious diseases for thousands of years. In this review, the authors summarized the clinical outcome, pathogensis and current application of TCM on coronavirus disease 2019. Further, we discussed the potential mechanisms and the future research directions of TCM against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.
Research progress in the use of leeches for medical purposesLucyPi1
Abstract Leeches are invertebrates that have a long history of application in the development of human medicine in both the East and the West. This paper comprehensively analyzes and evaluates current research and the latest progress with regard to the application of leeches, their medical value, and their application prospects from various perspectives, so as to provide a reference for new viewpoints and directions for research on leeches. Modern research has revealed that leeches contain various bioactive components, which have pharmacological effects such as anticoagulation, antithrombosis, blood viscosity reduction, and anti-atherosclerosis. Leech therapy is an important treatment approach for venous congestion after microsurgery and is also an effective adjuvant treatment for diabetic feet, chronic pain, and tumors. Therefore, leeches are of importance for the research and development of new drugs, the restoration of blood supply after surgery, and the adjuvant treatment of diseases accompanied by blood blocking. In addition, leeches can also be used as model organisms for research in evolutionary biology and invertebrate neurophysiology as well as in neurophysiological, behavioral, and functional studies.
Bio303 Lecture Three: New Foes, Emerging InfectionsMark Pallen
This document outlines the lectures in a course on global health and emerging infections. The first three lectures discuss existing threats like malaria, tuberculosis, and leprosy. The third lecture focuses on new threats posed by emerging infections and examines case studies of SARS, pandemic flu, and a 2011 E. coli outbreak in Germany. The fourth lecture discusses disease eradication efforts for smallpox and current efforts for polio and guinea worm. The fifth lecture provides an overview of infectious disease diagnosis in clinical microbiology laboratories.
This document discusses factors responsible for emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. It argues that while pathogens, hosts, vectors, and environment have traditionally been seen as the main determinants of infectious disease emergence and transmission, human intervention through progress in science and technology should be considered a fifth key determinant. It provides examples of how various aspects of scientific and technological progress, such as intensive agriculture, antibiotic overuse, bioterrorism, and changes in food processing and transportation, have contributed to disease emergence and spread in recent decades.
Geographical Analysis of Covid 19 Its Relationship with Socio Economic Condit...YogeshIJTSRD
The present paper aims to analyse the spatial variations in spread of corona cases and corona deaths and level of socio economic conditions in India. The causal relationship between corona cases and corona deaths and twenty selected socio economic variables has been taken into account. The state union territory has been taken as the smallest unit of study. The entire research work is based on secondary sources of data. The study reveals states with better socio economic conditions recorded higher corona cases and states with poor socio economic conditions recorded lesser corona cases. States such as Maharashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka with better socio economic conditions recorded a greater number of corona deaths. Gyanendra Singh Chauhan "Geographical Analysis of Covid 19: Its Relationship with Socio-Economic Conditions in India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd39871.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/geography/39871/geographical-analysis-of-covid-19-its-relationship-with-socioeconomic-conditions-in-india/gyanendra-singh-chauhan
The document summarizes several pandemics throughout history including the Plague of Athens, Plague of Justinian, Black Death, Third Plague Pandemic, Russian Flu, Spanish Flu, and the current COVID-19 pandemic. It describes how each pandemic originated, spread, and the number of lives lost. Early pandemics did not understand the causal diseases so used basic treatments like vinegar water. The Black Death was controlled using quarantines. During the Spanish Flu, masks were worn but no lockdowns. For COVID-19, nationwide lockdowns have been imposed and scientists are working to develop a vaccine.
This document provides an introduction to the course MPH 5101: Epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in human populations. The document summarizes the historical evolution of epidemiology, from Hippocrates to John Snow. It also lists the key features and uses of descriptive and analytic epidemiology, and components of the epidemiologic triad.
this ppt is made by shrikrishna kesharwani , student of urban planning,4th year, Manit , Bhopal,
in this ppt, I have discussed how to do pandemic or epidemic management in detail.,
Tuberculosis: Why are we still fighting tb finalSHERIFFMUIDEEN1
This document discusses tuberculosis (TB), including its history, epidemiology, challenges, and a call to action for a TB-free UAE. It notes that TB has plagued humanity for thousands of years and remains a leading infectious killer. While diagnosis and treatment have improved, only about half of drug-resistant TB cases are cured. Obstacles to TB control include weak healthcare infrastructure, unregulated private care, lack of political will, and drug resistance. The document calls for intensifying TB awareness, screening, and treatment in the UAE to work towards eliminating the disease.
The document summarizes the SARS outbreak from late 2002 to mid-2003 from global public health and communication perspectives. It chronicles the major events of the SARS outbreak, from the first cases in China to its spread worldwide and eventual containment. It discusses lessons learned, including the need for prompt travel guidance, the importance of public health, risk communication strategies, and transparency from governments. The role of factors like the media, technology, and intelligence in public health emergencies is also examined.
Microbes and vectors swim in the evolutionary stream, and they swim faster than we do. Bacteria reproduce every 30 minutes. For them, a millennium is compressed into a fortnight. They are fleet afoot, and the pace of our research must keep up with them, or they will overtake us. Microbes were here on earth 2 billion years before humans arrived, learning every trick for survival, and it is likely that they will be here 2 billion years after we depart ......
This document provides a summary of the key points covered in a lecture on tuberculosis. It discusses the history of tuberculosis research and treatment. It then summarizes the current global and national (Ukraine) epidemiological situations of tuberculosis, including infection rates, incidence rates, and mortality rates. Risk factors for tuberculosis transmission and increased incidence are also outlined.
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis that primarily affects the lungs. It is transmitted from person to person through droplets from the throat and lungs of people with active TB disease. TB has affected humans for thousands of years and was responsible for the deaths of millions of people in the 19th century. Today it remains a major global health problem, with 10 million new cases and 1.3 million deaths in 2016. India has the highest burden of TB cases globally. The WHO End TB Strategy aims to end the global TB epidemic with targets of reducing TB deaths by 95% and cutting new cases by 90% between 2015 and 2035.
A historical review of diseases and disease prevention in gold coastAlexander Decker
This document provides a literature review on the history of diseases and disease prevention in the Gold Coast region, with a focus on the Asante kingdom from 1900 to 1957. It discusses several diseases that were present in the region, including malaria, trypanosomiasis, onchocerciasis, and schistosomiasis. The document also examines how the environment and ecology contributed to the spread of diseases. While early European observers viewed the climate as unhealthy, some indigenous areas like Asante were seen as healthier due to factors like regular rainfall. The document reviews efforts by indigenous peoples and later the colonial administration to prevent and treat diseases in the region.
This document discusses emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. It begins by outlining the objectives and key terms. It then provides background on how human diseases have changed as humans migrated and civilization developed. The document identifies several potential contributing factors to new diseases emerging, such as population growth, poverty, human behavior changes, and technological advances. It also discusses challenges like antibiotic resistance and how diseases spread through increased population movement and globalization. Finally, it examines the development of global surveillance networks and international agreements to control infectious diseases.
Zoonosis history and bacterial zoonotic diseasesDeepika Jain
Zoonoses are diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. Some key points:
- Zoonoses have affected humans throughout history, with examples like the bubonic plague in the 14th century killing one third of Europe's population.
- World Zoonoses Day is celebrated annually on July 6th in recognition of Louis Pasteur developing the first vaccine against rabies in 1885.
- At-risk groups like the immunocompromised, elderly, and those with HIV/AIDS are more susceptible to severe illness from zoonotic infections involving bacteria like Salmonella, Campylobacter, and parasites like Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium.
- Controlling
Similar to Overview of the plague in the late Ming Dynasty and its prevention and control measures (20)
Chlorogenic acid may be a potent inhibitor of dimeric SARS-CoV-2 main proteas...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Since the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 to date, there is no available approved drug or definitive treatment for coronavirus disease 2019 viral infection, and the identification of novel hits against therapeutic targets has become a global emergency. Echinacea purpurea is a traditional herb utilized to treat cough, fever, sore throat, respiratory tract infection, and so on as an immune stimulant. In this study, in silico molecular docking approach was used to screen phytocompounds from E. purpurea against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 main protease 3C-like protease (3CLpro) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus main peptidase (96% sequence similarity) to blunt the viral gene expression and viral replication. Methods: Initially, we screened phytocompounds for their druggability and ADMET property. Furthermore, x-ray crystallographic structures of main proteases 3CLpro and main peptidase having Protein Data Bank ID 6LU7 and 2GTB were used as protein targets for the identification of potential drug candidates. We performed docking using AutoDock Vina by PyRx 0.8 software. BIOVIA Discovery Studio Visualizer v2019 was used to analyze ligand-protein complex. The probable protein targets of the selected compound were predicted by BindingDB (P ≥ 0.7). STRING and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways are utilized to identify the molecular pathways modulated by the predicted targets (FDR ≤ 0.05), and the network interaction between compounds and protein pathways was constricted by Cytoscape 3.6.1. Results: Among all the compounds, chlorogenic acid showed druggable characteristics and scored the lowest binding energy with main protease and main peptidase via interacting with active site 1 domain amino acid residues. Interestingly, chlorogenic acid interacted with Phe140 main protease 3CLpro, which is potentially involved in the dimerization. Enrichment analysis identified chlorogenic acid to modulate insulin resistance, necroptosis, interleukin-17, tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, legionellosis, T helper 17 cell differentiation, advanced glycation end products and receptor for advanced glycation end products, mitogen-activated protein kinase, Ras, estrogen, vascular endothelial growth factor, B-cell receptor, nuclear factor kappa B, Rap1, hypoxia inducible factor-1, phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase-Akt, insulin, mechanistic target of rapamycin, p53, retinoic acid inducible gene I like receptor, and ErbB signaling pathways. Conclusion: Chlorogenic acid may act as a potent main protease 3CLpro inhibitor and may also inhibit the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 dimerization, viral gene expression, and replication within the lung epithelium. Chlorogenic acid may go a long way in finding one of the multipronged solutions to tackle coronavirus disease 2019 viral infection in the future.
A comprehensive review on Polyalthia longifoliaLucyPi1
Abstract
Herbal plants act as a significant source for discovering new compounds with potential therapeutic activities.
Polyalthia longifolia, which is commonly known as an Indian mast tree, has various pharmacological properties,
such as an anticancer, ulcer protective, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, a corrosion inhibitor, a bio-adsorbent, and few
more. Moreover, it is known as false ashoka owing to its close resemblance with Saraca indica (ashoka tree).
Various compounds have been reported from the extract of some parts of the plant, such as leaves, bark, root, and
seeds. These extracts possess an ability to treat a number of human ailments, such as fever, ulcer, skin diseases,
helminthiasis, and cardiac problems. Studies performed on the leave extract shows evidence that some compounds
cause cell death in various cancer cell lines. The plant also has some biological applications, such as antibacterial,
antiviral, and antimicrobial, which makes it clinically significant and useful. This review is an effort to explore and
gather plant information in an organized manner. It reveals detailed information about the propagation, synonyms,
vernaculars, varieties of plant, medicinal significance, ecology and distribution, botanical and ethnobotanical
description, phytochemical constituents, and pharmacological activity of the plant.
Reliability and validity of the Tibetan medicine constitution scale: a cross-...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The constitutional theory is an important aspect of Tibetan medicine, however a quantitative measurement tool for constitution identification still does not exist. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability and validity of a Tibetan medicine constitution scale (TMCS) that consists of three sub-scales and 31 items. Methods: From June to July 2019, 622 people from the general population in Beijing, China, aged 18 to 60 were investigated. We employed Cronbach’s alpha (α), split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability to determine the reliability of the scale. The content validity and contract validity of the TMCS were evaluated using factor analysis and correlation analysis based on Tibetan medicine theory. The items were screened according to the reliability test results. Results: After the items were screened, 22 items remained in the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the internal consistency reliability of the TMCS was 0.754 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.700–0.761). The correlation coefficient for the two-week test-retest of the total score was 0.726 (95% CI: 0.571–0.834). The split-half coefficient was 0.689 (95% CI: 0.640–0.734). The scale can be explained by eight potential factors, including morphological structure, physiological function, personality, adaptability, etc. The body mass index was negatively correlated with the score of the sub-rlung scale (r = − 0.376), slightly positively correlated with the sub-mkhris pa scale (r = 0.099), and positively correlated with the sub-bad kan scale (r = 0.362). Conclusion: The TMCS is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to assess the body constitution of the general population in Beijing, China. Future studies are needed to explore the differences in biological characteristics among the constitutional types and the association between constitution and disease.
The riddles of number nine in Chinese medicine processing methodLucyPi1
Abstract The “nine cycles of steaming and shining”, “nine making”, “nine turns” and “nine cycles of calcining and quenching” methods that are recorded and used since ancient times are merely one aspect of the unique processing methods of traditional Chinese medicine. Inducing the Chinese medicine processing method “nine cycles of steaming and shining” from historical review and summarizing the practical wisdom based on the canonical aspects of traditional Chinese medicine and the experiences of ancient Chinese medicine sages to promote the new development of traditional Chinese medicine. After the long-term and multiple “nine” processing, the materials of traditional Chinese medicine exhibit significant beneficial changes in terms of taste, efficacy, and chemical composition contents, thus emphasizing that Chinese medicine processing plays a significant role in their efficacy enhancement and toxicity reduction. Heshouwu (Polygoni Multiflori Radix), Dihuang (Rehmanniae Radix), Huangjing (Rhizoma Polygonati), Dahuang (Radix et Rhizoma Rhei), and Xixiancao (Herba Siegesbeckiae) are representatives of Chinese medicinal materials prepared using the “nine-system” processing method. This review discovers the aim and the molecular mechanism of “nine” processing of the abovementioned herbs from the viewpoints of modern pharmacochemistry and pharmacology to provide a theoretical support for the “nine” processing method of traditional Chinese medicine and to promote the international market of traditional Chinese medicine.
Brucea javanica oil inhibits proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells ...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Brucea javanica oil (BJO), distributed primarily in Southeast Asia, has long been utilized as a therapeutic agent for treating malignancies. However, its anticancer mechanisms are not clearly understood. The objective of this study was to examine the mechanisms underlying its treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Methods: CCK8 assay was used to evaluate cell viability. Hoechst33342 staining and flow cytometry analyses were used to examine apoptosis. Mito-Tracker Red CMXRos kit was used to measure the membrane potential of mitochondria. ATP assay kit was used to evaluate ATP levels. Western blots were used to assess the presence of AKT, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, Caspase3, Caspase9, Bax, and Bcl-2. Results: BJO inhibited the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells HepG2 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. It induced apoptosis, with the percentage of cells treated with 50–150 μg/mL BJO increasing from 8.01% to 28.02% in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05, when 50 μg/mL of BJO group compared with the control group; P < 0.001, when 100 or 150 μg/mL of BJO group compared with the control group). After exposed to BJO, the expression of C-caspase3, C-caspase9 and Bax upregulated while that of Bcl-2 downregulated. BJO suppressed the PI3K/AKT pathway and promoted phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, while repressing the phosphorylation of mechanistic target of rapamycin. Compared with treatment by BJO alone, the PI3K/AKT agonist 740Y-P increased the survival rate of HepG2 cells (P < 0.01) and attenuated the inhibitory effect of BJO on cell apoptosis (P < 0.05). Conclusion: BJO is capable of inhibiting proliferation of HepG2 cells and inducing apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT pathway.
Effect of Jianpi-yangwei decoction on gut fungi in the patients with gastric ...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Our previous study shows that the empirical formula of Chinese medicine Jianpi-yangwei decoction (JYD) can improve the quality of life in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy by increasing beneficial gut bacteria and decreasing harmful bacteria. The present study aims to investigate the effect of JYD on gut fungi in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy. Methods: A total of 73 patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy were recruited. Twenty-nine patients in the chemotherapy group were given standard chemotherapy and 44 patients in the observation group were given JYD plus standard chemotherapy. A control group (55 cases) was recruited from the healthy medical examiners. After 3 months of treatment, life-quality score was evaluated and fecal microbiota was tested by high-throughput sequencing based on the 18S rRNA gene. Results: After treatment, life-quality score in the observation group was significantly lower than that in the chemotherapy group (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference between the observation and control groups’ diversity and richness indices of intestinal fungi. The Chao index for intestinal fungi in the chemotherapy group was significantly lower than that in the observation group (P < 0.05). There was a significant difference between the control and chemotherapy groups in the intestinal fungi according to Shannon and Simpson indices (P < 0.05). Linear discriminant analysis effect size analysis showed no significant differences among the three groups, but significant difference in intestinal fungi was observed between the observation group and the chemotherapy group. At the genus level, the relative abundance of the Aspergillus genus in the observation and control groups was significantly lower (P < 0.05), the relative abundance of the Cutaneotrichosporon, Galactomyces, and Ganoderma genus taxa was significantly higher compared with those in the chemotherapy group (P < 0.05), and there was no significant difference between the observation group and control group. Conclusion: JYD can ameliorate chemotherapy-induced fungal dysbacteriosis in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy and improve the quality of life of patients.
A broad perspective on COVID-19: a global pandemic and a focus on preventive ...LucyPi1
Abstract Coronavirus 2019 has become a highly infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, a strain of novel coronavirus, which challenges millions of global healthcare facilities. Coronavirus are sub-microscopic, single stranded positive sense RNA viruses that leads to multi organ dysfunction syndrome, severe acute and chronic respiratory distress syndrome and pneumonia. The spike glycoprotein structure of the virus causes the viral protein to bind with the receptors on the lung and gut through angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. In some cases, the infected patients become hyper to the immune system because of the uncontrolled production of cytokines resulting in “cytokine storm”, a devastating consequence of coronavirus disease 2019. Due to the rapid mutant strain and infective nature of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, discovering a drug or developing a vaccine remains a global challenge. However, some anti-viral agents, certain protease inhibitor drugs, non-steroidal inflammatory drugs and convalescent plasma treatment were suggested. The containment and social distancing measures only aim at reducing the rate of new infections. In this view, we suggest certain traditional herbs and complementary and alternative medicine as a supporting public healthcare measure to boost the immune system and also may provide some lead to treat and prevent this infection.
The coastal medicinal plant Vitex rotundifolia: a mini-review on its bioactiv...LucyPi1
This document summarizes research on the coastal medicinal plant Vitex rotundifolia. It provides background on the plant's long history of traditional medicinal use in European and Asian countries to treat various ailments. The review focuses on the bioactive compounds (flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes) that have been isolated from V. rotundifolia and research on their pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These compounds may be useful for developing new pharmaceuticals to treat disease.
International expert consensus on clinical application of traditional Chinese...LucyPi1
Abstract Guided by the theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), TCM formula granules are made through the optimal process of extraction, concentration, drying, and granulation by combining modern new preparation technologies and pharmaceutical technologies. TCM formula granules are stable, safe, convenient, and effective. Compared with TCM decoction pieces, TCM formula granules can achieve the full process control of its industry chain from field to workshop and standardize the management of the origin of medicinal materials, processing of decoction pieces, processing technology, quality inspection, sales, and products distribution. TCM formula granules can partially replace Chinese patent medicines. Only available for around 800 common varieties of TCM, TCM formula granules cannot replace decoction pieces for many types which are not commonly used in clinical practice. A large number of formula granules are used in clinical and animal studies so that investigators no longer need to extract and control the quality of TCM decoction pieces. How to improve the production process, establish the quality standard, perfect the regulatory system, and expand the clinical application are the problems we need to solve as soon as possible for the better development of formula granules.
Bibliometric analysis of acupuncture research through the Web of Science data...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The main points of focus of bibliometric analysis of acupuncture treatment of diseases include pain (headache, low back pain), insomnia, and knee osteoarthritis, for example. In this paper, we analyze the frontiers, hotspots, and research trends of acupuncture over the past 30 years and compare them for each of three 10-year periods. Methods: All the studies on acupuncture research in three different periods (1990–1999, 2000–2009, 2010–2019) were collected from the Web of Science database. The evolution of the research, hotspots, and trends in acupuncture were explored intuitively by analyzing the frequency, betweenness centrality, and subject word clustering of the three periods. Results: (1) 1990–1999, the main content relating to research was the mechanism of research of acupuncture treatment of pain. Naloxone was the high-frequency subject word, and centrality included, for example, the spinal cord, enkephalin, smoking cessation, and detoxification. The results of keyword cluster analysis showed that the main research content included capsaicin-induced neurogenic edema, chemical dependency treatment, afferent fiber, and sufferers from xerostomia. (2) 2000–2009, during this stage, the frequency of keywords appeared in new research content such as randomized controlled trials of acupuncture and low back pain, but pain still dominated the main research content. From the perspective of intermediary centrality, along with the rise in randomized controlled trials, there were many important meta-analyses, as well as the management of acupuncture treatment. The main elements of the keyword cluster analysis included, for example, systematic review, randomized controlled pilot study, add-on therapy, brief overview, and ovarian morphology. (3) 2010–2019, during this period, compared with the previous two stages, there was increased frequency of keywords, a growth in clinical randomized controlled trials, and distribution of centrality was evident in the emergence of acupuncture in care, osteoarthritis treatment, and breast cancer research. The keyword clustering covered, for example, neural specificity, inflammatory reaction, chronic pain, sleep pattern, and consort statement. Conclusion: This article summarizes the trend of development of acupuncture from 1990 to 2019 and compares the main research categories and hotspots in each of three different 10-year periods within this span, thereby helping elucidate the research direction within the field.
The dynamic changes and mechanisms of Rehmanniae radix processing based on Ma...LucyPi1
The document discusses research on the traditional Chinese medicine Rehmanniae radix (dihuang). It summarizes that Rehmanniae radix undergoes multiple steaming and drying cycles as part of traditional processing, which significantly increases levels of the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction occurs when amino acids and sugars react at high temperatures, producing flavors, colors, and potential health effects. The study analyzes changes in pH, color, amino acids, and other markers during processing to understand how the Maillard reaction impacts the processed herb. Thermal analysis techniques also examine the reaction's effects on the herb when it is carbonized. The goal is to scientifically explain the traditional processing method and how it transforms the raw herb
Investigation of in vitro antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and flavon...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Vine tea from fermented Ampelopsis grossedentata leaves has been used as a herbal tea and folk medicine in the southern region of China for hundreds of years. The aim of this investigation was to analyze the total flavonoids found in vine tea, including three bioactive flavonoids, and the total phenolic contents in the aqueous methanol extracts of 10 vine tea samples. In addition, this study also aimed to examine the antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract. Methods: The total flavonoids and total phenolic content assay of extracts from vine tea were performed by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and epoch microplate spectrophotometer, respectively. Three bioactive flavonoids were quantified simultaneously using high performance liquid chromatography. The antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract was evaluated in vitro using six different methods. Results: Vine tea contained a large number of flavonoids, with dihydromyricetin as its main constituent. The flavonoid-rich extract exhibited a significant scavenging effect on superoxide anion radicals, and on 3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radicals. It also possessed definite activity in lipid peroxidation inhibition, ferric reduction, and the moderation of Fe2+ ion chelation ability. There was a significant negative correlation between dihydromyricetin content and antioxidant activity in the vine tea samples, including superoxide anion radical scavenging activity (P = −0.754, P < 0.05), lipid peroxidation inhibition activity (P = −0.759, P < 0.05), ferric-reducing antioxidant power (P = −0.843, P < 0.01), respectively. Dihydromyricetin played a dominant role in the antioxidant activities of the flavonoid-rich extract. Conclusion: Vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract could be used as a new antioxidant source to safeguard against oxidative stress.
Advances in anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenineLucyPi1
Abstract Sinomenine, a major active ingredient from traditional Chinese medicine Qingfengteng (Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd.et Wils.), has been proven to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory and other pharmacological effects, and is clinically used for various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. However, due to complex molecular mechanisms and pathological characteristics in inflammatory and immune responses, the precise anti-inflammatory and immunological mechanisms of sinomenine are still unclear. This review summarizes the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenine during recent years in rheumatoid arthritis, respiratory system, nervous system, digestive system and organ transplant rejection. The molecular pharmacological mechanisms of sinomenine responsible for anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects were in detail introduced based on 3 aspects including cytokines induction, signal pathways modulation and immune cells function regulation. Moreover, this review also raises some concerns and challenges in future sinomenine study, which will contribute to crucial theoretical and practical significance for in-depth development and utilization of sinomenine as medicinal resource.
Abstract Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) can cause insulin resistance (IR) and diabetes. Our previous studies have demonstrated that Jian-Gan-Xiao-Zhi decoction (JGXZ) could be effective for the treatment of NAFLD and IR. However, the possible mechanism underlying the effects of JGXZ on NAFLD and IR remains unknown. Methods: Fifty rats received a high-fat high-carbohydrate (HFHC) diet for 12 weeks to induce NAFLD. After 4 weeks of HFHC treatment, rats were orally treated with JGXZ (8, 16, and 32 g/kg weight) for 8 weeks. Ten rats in the control group received standard chow. In the positive control group, rats were orally treated with metformin (90 mg/kg weight) for 8 weeks. After JGXZ and metformin treatment, H&E staining was conducted on rat livers and serum biochemical markers, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), triglyceride (TG), and total cholesterol (TC), were measured using test kits. Moreover, a fasting blood glucose test and an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were conducted. Serum levels of insulin were determined using ELISA kit, and the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was calculated. The levels of total insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS1), AMP-activated protein kinase-α (AMPKα) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) as well as the levels of phosphorylation of IRS1 (p-IRS1), phosphorylation of AMPK (p-AMPK) and phosphorylation of JNK (p-JNK) were measured using western blotting. Results: The body weights in JGXZ low-, middle-, and high-dose groups were lower than those in the model group (P < 0.05, P < 0.01, P < 0.01, respectively). The serum levels of AST (P < 0.05 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups), ALT (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle-dose group and P < 0.05 in JGXZ high-dose group), TG (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups), and TC (P < 0.01) upon JGXZ treatment were lower those than in NAFLD model rats. H&E staining showed that JGXZ treatment reduced steatosis of the hepatocytes in NAFLD model rats. JGXZ decreased the levels of fasting blood glucose (P < 0.01), HOMA-IR (P < 0.01), AUC (area under the curve) of the OGTT (P < 0.05) and p-IRS1 (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups, P < 0.05 in JGXZ low-dose groups). Moreover, JGXZ regulated the hepatic AMPKα/JNK pathway in NAFLD model rats, which reflected the induction of p-AMPKα and inhibition of p-JNK. Conclusion: This study showed that JGXZ improved liver function and reduced steatosis of the hepatocytes in NAFLD model rats. Moreover, JGXZ improved IR in NAFLD model rats. The possible mechanism underlying the effects of JGXZ on NAFLD and IR involves the modulation of the AMPK/JNK pathway.
Omics technology: an important tool in mechanism studies of Chinese herbal fo...LucyPi1
Identifying the active ingredients from natural herbal medicines and demonstrating their potential mechanisms are key points in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) field. In recent years, increasing studies have focused on the effects and mechanisms of Chinese herbal formulas. Basic studies on these formulas further coincide with the theory and practical use of TCM according to the clinical experiences for thousands of years. Single compounds have specific molecular structures; therefore, their methodologies in effect and mechanism studies are similar in both Western and Eastern medicines, making them more acceptable by researchers worldwide. On the contrary, the multicomponent, multitarget, and multipathway structures of Chinese formulas make it challenging to explore their mechanisms accurately where the routine method used in Western medicine studies would be inapplicable, which is the main reason for the unacceptance of Chinese herbal formulas by researchers worldwide and presents a huge obstacle to the modernization of TCM. With the rapid progress in basic TCM studies, scientific and technological innovations have achieved a breakthrough in TCM. Omic technology, a series of research methods based on high-throughput analysis and detection techniques in modern biological research system such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, evaluates thousands of targets and pathways rather than focusing on a single target or pathway and could screen the global changes in genes, proteins, metabolites, and other factors involved in the process of biological signaling transduction [1]. This is in agreement with the “holism” theory in TCM, which explains the overall mechanisms of Chinese herbal formulas comprehensively. In this study, we introduced the conventionally used omic technologies and their applications in research of mechanism studies of Chinese herbal formulas.
Gastrointestinal effects of Artemisia absinthium Linn. based on traditional P...LucyPi1
Abstract One of the most extensively used herbs in traditional Persian medicine (TPM) used in the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, is the plant Artemisia absinthium Linn. (AAL). It also has a wide range of activities such as analgesic and anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-fungal, and anti-bacterial activities, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities in addition to having gastroprotective effects. This article is a review comparing TPM resources with new medicines. This review investigates this herb in major TPM sources and strives to extrapolate the exact function it serves in the digestive tract and compares the collected information on the function of AAL with information found in new medical resource databases such as ISI, Pubmed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Scientific Information Database. AAL from the Asteraceae family of TPM, known as Afsentin, was used in the treatment of GI weaknesses, stomach pains, swellings, intestinal parasites, diarrhea, and vomiting. AAL increased appetite, so it was used for insect repellents and insecticide. Recent studies have indicated that the effects of this plant improved the symptoms of Crohn's disease and played a role in reducing inflammatory factors. It also has strong anti-parasitic, anti-insect, hepatoprotective, and antioxidant effects. Given the widespread use of AAL as a traditional medicine currently in use in different countries, particularly in the treatment of GI diseases, further clinical studies that focus on the therapeutic qualities of this plant are required in the future.
Jadwar (Delphinium denudatum Wall.): a medicinal plantLucyPi1
This review summarizes the medicinal uses of Delphinium denudatum Wall. (jadwar), according to historical documents and modern studies. Rhazes first documented its use in the 10th century to treat poisonings. Later, it was used for neurological, gastrointestinal, and other diseases. Modern studies show it has anti-microbial, anti-fatigue, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, analgesic, and liver protective properties. The review focuses on therapeutic effects of its extracts and identifies phytochemicals that may underlie these effects, such as alkaloids and flavonoids. It concludes that controlled clinical trials are still needed to confirm effects against various diseases.
Effects of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) on nonalcoholic fatty liver diseaseLucyPi1
Abstract There is a dramatic increase in the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which is slowly turning into a pandemic as well as a major challenge across the world. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is described as a range of liver conditions such as fat accumulation, hepatic steatosis, or end-stage liver disease. Patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease are asymptomatic and their mortality is higher than people without nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease has not been clearly determined yet. The “two hits” hypothesis is designed to explain the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Dyslipidemia, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic inflammation are some of the morbidities involved in the progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) is an herbaceous perennial, known as chicory. Chicory contains various compounds, such as vitamins, sonchuside A, caffeic acid derivatives, fructo-oligosaccharides, chlorogenic acid, magnolialide, polysaccharides, coumarins, phenolic acids, terpenoids, flavonoids, polyphenol, cichoriosides, ixerisosides, eudesmanolides, inulin, bitter sesquiterpene lactones, and alkaloids. Current research has revealed that chicory supplementation might be effective in the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic, and antioxidant properties of chicory provide plausible mechanisms by which chicory may affect the various steps of disease progression and severity. Existing studies have shown that chicory supplementation has beneficial effects on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, but the existence of only one human study and possible side effects of chicory necessitate further studies.
Effects of herbal medicine in gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms: a sys...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Pyrosis and regurgitation are the cardinal symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Several herbs have been used for treating gastrointestinal disorders worldwide. This systematic review was conducted to investigate the effects of medicinal herbs on gastroesophageal reflux disease and adverse events. Methods: MEDLINE (via PubMed; The United States National Library of Medicine, USA), Scopus, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Magiran, and Scientific Information Database were systematically searched for human studies, without a time frame, using medical subject heading terms such as “gastroesophageal reflux disease”, “reflux”, “esophagitis” and “herbs”. Manual searches completed the electronic searches. Results: Thirteen randomized controlled trials were identified, including 1,164 participants from 1,509 publications. In comparing herbal medicine to placebo, there were no significant differences in terms of heartburn (P = 0.23 and 0.48), epigastric or abdominal pain (P = 0.35), reflux syndrome (P = 0.12), and effective rate (P = 0.60), but there was a significant difference in terms of acid regurgitation (P = 0.01). In comparing herbal medicine to drugs, there was a significant difference in terms of effective rate (P = 0.001), and there was one trial that reported a significant difference in terms of epigastric pain (P = 0.00001). Also, in comparing herbal medicine to drugs, there were no significant differences in terms of acid regurgitation (P = 0.39). Conclusion: This meta-analysis showed that herbal medicines are effective in treating gastroesophageal reflux disease. Further standardized researches with a large-scale, multicenter, and rigorous design are needed.
Evaluation of scientific evidence for abortifacient medicinal plants mentione...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Miscarriage or spontaneous ending to a pregnancy takes place at the early stages of pregnancy without intervention. Pregnant women may use medicinal herbs to relieve some of the symptoms of pregnancy as they believe that all herbs are safe. Some abortion-inducing herbs were mentioned by the famous Iranian philosophers, Avicenna and Aghili, in documents of traditional Persian medicine titled Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine, written by Avicenna in the 11th century) and Makhzan Al-adviyah (The Storehouse of Medicaments, written by Aghili in the 18th century). Methods: Electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library and Web of Science were searched to find new scientific evidence that these plants are toxic during pregnancy. Data was collected from 1831 to 2019. Results: Twenty-one plants were found to be abortive according to Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine) and Makhzan Al-adviyah (The Storehouse of Medicaments). Scientific research has shown that these plants possess abortifacient effects by the mechanisms of toxic alkaloids, uterine stimulants, and emmenagogue that interferes with implantation and results in fetus toxicity. These studies included in vivo or in vitro studies. Some of these plants showed abortifacient effects by more than one mechanism. Ruta graveolens, Nigella sativa, Curcuma longa, Lupinus termis, Apium graveolens, Mentha longifolia, and Peganum harmala possess uterine stimulant properties. Ruta graveolens, Juniperus sabina, Cicer arietinum, Piper longum, Artemisia absinthium, and Citrullus colocynthis interfere with implantation. Ruta graveolens, Nigella sativa, Curcuma longa, Tanacetum parthenium, Piper longum, Laurus nobilis, Apium graveolens, Mentha longifolia, and Cinnamomum iners exhibit emmenagogue effects. Lupinus termis, Delphinium staphisagria, Laurus nobilis, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Zataria multiflora, and Artemisia absinthium contain toxic alkaloids and possess teratogenic effects. Conclusion: The results of this study of traditional Persian medicine resources have been confirmed with new scientific evidence. Therefore, pregnant women should avoid consuming herbs without knowledge of their safety.
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Overview of the plague in the late Ming Dynasty and its prevention and control measures
1. REVIEW
TMR | May 2020 | vol. 5 | no. 3 | 136
doi: 10.12032/TMR20200222166
Submit a manuscript: https://www.tmrjournals.com/tmr
Public Health
Overview of the plague in the late Ming Dynasty and its prevention and
control measures
Qiu-Hua Li1
, Yue-Hai Ma1
, Ning Wang1
, Ying Hu2
, Zhao-Zhe Liu3*
1
The Second Hospital of Liaoning University of Chinese Medicine, Shenyang 110034, China; 2
Shengjing Hospital of China
Medicine University, Shenyang 110004, China; 3
Northern Theater Command General Hospital, Shenyang 110016, China.
*Corresponding to: Zhao-Zhe Liu. Northern Theater Command General Hospital, 83 Wenhua Road, Shenhe District,
Shenyang 110016, China. E-mail: lzz_summer@126.com.
Highlights
The purpose of this paper is to review the medical system and measures of prevention and control instituted
for the plague that occurred during the late Ming Dynasty (1551–1644 C.E.), with the aim of providing
guidance for the prevention and control of plague in the present day.
Traditionality
Early records of plague in Chinese medicine can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 B.C.E).
In the late Eastern Han Dynasty (184–220 C.E.), natural disasters and wars led to a wide breakout of plague.
Deeply touched by the suffering of people under the plague, the famous doctor Zhang Zhongjing (150–219
C.E.) recorded many classical ancient prescriptions in his medical monograph Shanghanlun (Treatise on
Exogenous Febrile Disease) (219 C.E.). Subsequently, as a result of imperial corruption, natural disasters,
and frequent wars, the plague that occurred during the late Ming Dynasty was the second greatest plague in
Chinese history after the outbreak of plague at the end of the Han Dynasty. During the many struggles that
occurred during the plague, a group of great medical experts emerged and devised a series of prevention and
control measures, which have the potential to play a key role in the prevention and control of plague today.
2. REVIEW
TMR | May 2020 | vol. 5 | no. 3 | 137
doi: 10.12032/TMR20200222166
Submit a manuscript: https://www.tmrjournals.com/tmr
Abstract
The plague of the late Ming Dynasty (1551–1644 C.E.) was long lasting, affected a wide range of the population,
and had serious consequences. The purpose of this study is to review the medical system in place at the time and the
measures instituted to prevent and control the plague during the late Ming Dynasty. Information on the history of
the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.), local chronicles, and related research literature were consulted and analyzed
in terms of duration, geographical area, and other dimensions of the epidemic. Because of the abnormal climate,
wide range of natural disasters, and the impact of war, the epidemic spread over a wide area during the late Ming
Dynasty. The government’s epidemic prevention measures were affected by war and other factors, resulting in poor
control of the outbreak. However, in terms of the medical system in place during the Ming Dynasty, some of the
thinking and methods of prevention and control of the plague were historical and progressive. Some outstanding
physicians such as Wu Youke (1582–1652 C.E.) appeared during this period. His theory of plague prevention and
control had a profound influence on the formation and development of pestilence deterrence in later generations. In
the late Ming Dynasty, rich experiences and measures of prevention and control were accumulated in the struggle
against the plague. These methods and experiences also have a significant, positive guiding influence on the
prevention and control of plague in the present day.
Keywords:Late Ming dynasty, Plague, Infectious diseases, Traditional Chinese medicine, Prevention and control
Acknowledgments:
The study is supported by 2017 Liaoning Province Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinics (Specialized) Branch
Capacity Building Project and 2018 Liaoning Doctoral Start-up Foundation (20180540043).
Competing interests:
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Citation:
Qiu-Hua Li, Yue-Hai Ma, Ning Wang, et al. Overview of the plague in the late Ming Dynasty and its prevention
and control measures. Traditional Medicine Research 2020, 5 (3): 136–144.
Executive Editor: Nuo-Xi Pi.
Submitted: 7 February 2020, Accepted: 20 February 2020, Online: 29 February 2020.
3. REVIEW
TMR | May 2020 | vol. 5 | no. 3 | 138
doi: 10.12032/TMR20200222166
Submit a manuscript: https://www.tmrjournals.com/tmr
Background
There have been many plagues in Chinese history, all
of which have caused great losses to the people during
the time. The records of plague in Chinese medicine
can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046
B.C.E). As recorded in the Shanhaijing (The Classic of
Mountains and Rivers) (publication year unknown) of
the Qin Dynasty (221–207 B.C.E.), people at the time
determined the severity of epidemics through
divination. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty (184–220
C.E.), natural disasters and wars led to a great plague
of “countless bodies lay exposed in the fields, and
there’s no crow for miles around.” Deeply touched by
the suffering of people under the plague, the famous
doctor Zhang Zhongjing (150–219 C.E.) studied
ancient books to find a cure for typhoid fever. In 210
C.E., he completed his famous medical monograph
“Treatise on Exogenous Febrile Disease” (219 C.E.).
After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty
(1368–1644 C.E.), the medical system underwent
constant improvement. The imperial hospital and the
prestige medical center set up by the central
government and the Welfare Pharmacy set up by the
local government carried out a variety of prevention
and control measures against the epidemic. However,
as a result of imperial corruption, natural disasters, and
frequent wars, the plague that occurred during the late
Ming Dynasty (1551–1644 C.E.) became the second
greatest plague in Chinese history after the outbreak of
plague at the end of the Han Dynasty.
During the multiple struggles with the plague, a
group of great medical experts emerged and devised a
series of prevention and control measures as well as
some advanced technologies that were very effective
for the prevention and control of plague. The present
manuscript reviews the general situation and control
measures of the plague during the Ming Dynasty, with
the aim of providing a basis and reference for the
prevention and treatment of plagues in the present day.
Overview of the plague during the late Ming
Dynasty
According to historical records, an extremely cold
weather disaster occurred during the late Ming
Dynasty of China, which meteorologists refer to as the
“Little Ice Age of the Ming Dynasty” [1]. At that time,
the annual average temperature of China was well
below the normal level. In summer, drought was
followed immediately by flooding. The winters were
extremely cold, and heavy snowfall occurred in Hebei,
Fujian, and Guangdong Provinces. The severe cold in
the north regions caused the widespread southward
movement of rainfall areas, which reduced the
production of food significantly. Especially in the
northern regions, long-term droughts accompanied by
widespread famine occurred frequently, which led to
disasters throughout the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644
C.E.) [2]. According to available statistics, there was
one or more kinds of natural disaster every year from
the Wanli reign (1573–1620 C.E.) to the Chongzhen
reign (1628–1644 C.E.). From the first year to the 17th
year of the Chongzhen reign (1628–1644 C.E.), there
were floods, droughts, snowstorms, and locust plagues.
In particular, drought often coexisted with other natural
disasters [3].
Based on a statistical analysis of plague occurrence
over various periods of the Ming Dynasty, as well as
analysis of the major distribution areas and the number
of years affected by plague, the occurrence of plague
increased to once a year or more, with the number of
affected counties reaching 1,878 in the later period of
the Ming Dynasty (Table 1). We analyzed the
provinces with the highest number of major plagues
and found that the number of years affected by plague
in these provinces also showed an increasing trend
(Table 2).
The great plague of the late Ming Dynasty was
mainly concentrated in northern China and was not a
national outbreak like the plague of the late Eastern
Han Dynasty. The population of the Ming Dynasty was
characterized by smaller numbers of people in the
north and greater numbers in the south. The loss of
population in the late Ming Dynasty was mainly due to
the large-scale famine caused by the Little Ice Age and
the destruction caused by war [4]. In addition to the
natural disasters mentioned above, a nationwide
drought occurred over a period of four years beginning
in 1641. In 1643 C.E., “knotty disease” occurred in
Beijing, a term that was used to describe bubonic
plague patients suffering from lymphadenopathy.
Bubonic plague was transmitted by the bacterium
Yersinia pestis from parasites such as fleas on mice,
and the hallmark of infected humans was
lymphadenopathy [5].
The immediate effect of drought was the presence of
large numbers of refugees who fled the country
because of food shortage. The people and the rats
moved around together, which resulted in the
bacterium Y. pestis to be passed on to the refugees and
spread to wider areas. During the plague at the end of
the Ming Dynasty, “most of children died of the plague,
and more than 200,000 dead people were carried out
through the city gates.” Between August and
December in 1643 C.E., the conservatively estimated
death toll was one-fifth of population of Beijing. In
April 1644 C.E., the rebel leader Li Zicheng faced a
city of pestilence and terror when his army invaded
Beijing, the capital of the Ming Empire. Some studies
have suggested that the death toll from the plague at
the end of the Ming Dynasty would be on a 10 million
scale [6–7].
To sum up, the successive natural disasters caused
by the climate of the Little Ice Age were the main
natural factors of the plague epidemic during the late
4. REVIEW
TMR | May 2020 | vol. 5 | no. 3 | 139
doi: 10.12032/TMR20200222166
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Ming Dynasty. We divided Ming Dynasty into three
time frames: the first was 1368–1451 C.E., with a total
of 83 years; the second was 1451–1550 C.E., with a
total of 100 years; and the third was 1551–1644 C.E.,
with a total of 94 years. It was reported that during
1551–1644 C.E., there were 78 recorded cases of
plague. The number of counties with plague reached
1878, which was more than the summary of the early
and middle Ming Dynasty [8]. The data in Table 1 and
Table 2 were extracted from the studies of Yao xueyin
et al. and Zhang Tao et al. [7, 8].
The medical system of the Ming Dynasty
The medical system of the Ming Dynasty was basically
inherited from that of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368
C.E.). During the Yuan Dynasty, medical management
and the medical system relied on the imperial hospital
to handle medical affairs. Various medical officers of
the Yuan Dynasty performed their duties respectively,
and they developed and perfected the original systems
of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 C.E.) and Jin Dynasty
(1115–1234 C.E.) in terms of the selection,
examination, and reward systems. In particular, the
medical officers of the Yuan Dynasty enjoyed a special
social status with more opportunities for promotion.
Many Confucian scholars also abandoned literature to
practice medicine [9]. The founding emperor Zhu
Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty and
established the Ming Dynasty. He constructed his own
medical system based on the original system of the
Yuan Dynasty (Figure 1A). In addition, there were
many deaths as a result of frequent floods, droughts,
and plagues. These disasters had very serious
consequences, including severe socioeconomic
damage. In ancient China, the social economy was
dominated by agriculture, and the role of the
population as an agricultural labor force could not be
replaced. Massive loss of life inevitably led to the
desolation and idleness of a large number of lands,
resulting in regression of the economy. At the same
time, people promoted a better medical system and
response measures in the struggle against natural
disasters [10].
Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398 C.E.) formulated a
series of welfare policies to assist the civilians. He set
up welfare homes to take in poor and homeless
individuals, which were built with government funds.
He also established the Welfare Pharmacy, where poor
civilians could obtain free medicines when they were
ill. In addition, he was particularly concerned about the
funeral arrangements of poor families. The government
paid for the burials of poor families who could not
afford to bury the dead.
The medical system of the Ming Dynasty was
mainly composed of four parts: a central medical
institution, imperial medical institution, local medical
institution, and folk medical organization. The central
medical institution mainly set up imperial hospitals,
which were divided into the Nanjing subdivision and
Beijing subdivision. There were drug storages in the
imperial hospitals, with one ambassador and one
deputy ambassador each in charge of drugs. Each year,
the distribution of medicinal materials was
administrated by the place of origin and was classified
by the quality of medicinal materials, processing
methods, degree of dryness, and dampness [11].
Table 1 Summary of plague occurrence during different periods of the late Ming Dynasty
Table 2 Major distribution of provinces and disaster years of the plague
Time stage 1368–1450 C.E. 1451–1550 C.E. 1551–1644 C.E.
Outbreak, number (n) 30 72 78
Frequency (times/year) 2.77 1.39 1.21
Annual occurrence probability (%) 36.1 71.9 83.0
Ratio of total times (%) 16.7 40.0 43.3
Number of plague counties (n) 234 478 1878
Major province 1368–1451 C.E. 1451–1550 C.E. 1551–1644 C.E.
Northern Zhili 1 17 38
Hubei and Hunan 6 30 38
Jiangxi 7 27 24
Southern Zhili 6 46 50
Shanxi 4 17 26
Zhejiang 6 27 27
Fujian 7 44 26
5. REVIEW
TMR | May 2020 | vol. 5 | no. 3 | 140
doi: 10.12032/TMR20200222166
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The drugs were checked and put into the storehouse
by the imperial physician and ambassador of the
imperial hospital. The ceremony department sent a
person to supervise and register the drug, and two
copies were made of all records. The prince’s residence
established prestigious doctors’ hospitals, in which a
sixth-ranked medical officer, a seventh-ranked medical
officer, and several eighth-rank medical officers treated
the patients together. The medical officers were
recommended by the imperial hospital and appointed
by the Ministry of Administration. The outstanding
pharmacist Li Shizhen (1518–1593 C.E.) served as a
medical officer in a prestigious doctors’ hospital
[12–13].
There were doctors, medical assistants, and medical
officers in the local, state, and county governments
and/or border guard station as well as in the places
where people gathered. In the medical affairs system of
the Ming Dynasty, specific regulations were devised
by medical scientists from the content, method, and
attitude of studying to the ideological quality, moral
quality, and attitude of treating patients [14].
The imperial hospital was responsible not only for
medical work but also for the teaching and training of
doctors. In addition, the imperial hospital participated
in the government’s rescue work in the event of
plague.
At the local region, the Welfare Pharmacy existed
mainly to cure the poor, sick, and socially vulnerable
groups during peacetime and was responsible for
disaster relief in during a plague outbreak [15]. The
original intention of the Welfare Pharmacy was to
benefit the people and to help poor and sick
individuals afford the cost of seeing a doctor or to buy
medicine. Therefore, the imperial court implemented a
subsidy policy for drug administration in the Welfare
Pharmacy. In this way, the price of drugs was far lower
than that in the market, making medicine more
affordable for people in the lower classes [16]. The
Welfare Pharmacy would also distribute medicine free
of charge to poor individuals and disaster victims if
they really had no ability to pay (Figure 1B). The
Welfare Pharmacy was mainly created to aid ordinary
people and was subsidized by the government to
promote public welfare. This picture is excerpted from
Qiu Ying’s picture “Riverside Scene at Qingming
Festival” from the Ming Dynasty.
Understanding of measures to control plague
in the Ming Dynasty
For hundreds of years during the reign of the Ming
Dynasty, the relevant systems and countermeasures
instituted by various individuals during the struggle
against plague played a positive role.
Isolation and burial measures
Isolating the sick helps prevent the spread of infectious
diseases. Xiao Daheng (1532–1612 C.E.), a politician
of the Ming Dynasty, pointed out in his book Yisuji
(Tatar Folk Record) that “people suffering from
infectious disease should be isolated from their parents,
brothers, wives, and children.” Burying the bones of
the dead is also an indispensable measure in the
treatment of plague [17]. The lethality of plagues often
leads to large numbers of deaths, and severe plagues
often lead to the desolation of villages and the spread
of dead bodies. The decomposition of bodies that are
not buried in time and the breeding of mosquitoes and
flies worsen environmental hygiene, which in turn
exacerbate the disasters, creating a vicious circle. The
government of the Ming Dynasty actively buried the
dead bodies of plague victims to prevent further
deterioration of the environment [18].
Figure 1 The founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty and Welfare pharmacy in the Ming Dynasty. A.
The founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.); B. Welfare pharmacy in the Ming Dynasty.
6. REVIEW
TMR | May 2020 | vol. 5 | no. 3 | 141
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In 1643 C.E., after the Beijing plague occurred, the
government released light criminals to avoid jail
crowding, allocated funds to treat epidemics, and
buried the dead [19]. When the rebel leader Li Zicheng
(1606–1645 C.E.) arrived in Beijing at the end of the
Ming Dynasty, the Ming Army in the city was so badly
quarantined by the plague that more than half of them
died. There were not even 10,000 soldiers who could
defend the walls of the capital. Every day, soldiers,
peddlers, and laborers died in droves, and there was
even no beggar in Beijing city [7].
Medicine delivery and disease control
The imperial hospital had an important responsibility
to participate in the government’s treatment strategies
when encountering a plague. Treatment methods
included the preparation of drugs, soup liquids, pills,
and plasters. However, the main objects of rescue were
the royal nobles in the capital city [14]. In 1560 C.E.,
there was a famine in the suburb of Beijing. People
who had no place to live swarmed into Beijing because
of the disaster. After the emperor summoned the
ministers for deliberation, he allowed the imperial
hospital to undertake the treatment of the sick civilians
[20]. At the time of the plague, it was easy for people
to become panicked when faced with the danger of
infection. Therefore, the Ming government arranged
for the medical officers of the Welfare Pharmacy to
quantify the epidemic situation, diagnose and treat the
patients, and distribute medicine when plague was
prevalent. They also set up special medical stations to
receive homeless patients and selected highly skilled
doctors to take care of the sick [20].
In 1581 C.E., plague occurred in Jiaocheng County
of Shanxi Province. Many civilians were infected with
the fungus, and their health was in serious danger. The
county magistrate collected doctors and medicines
from the Welfare Pharmacy to treat the infected
civilians [21].
After analyzing and summarizing the measures
taken by the Ming government to cure the plague, we
find that the local government would immediately
report the situation to the central government when
plague is prevalent. Then, the central government
issued corresponding measures and directives,
allocated the funds, opened the granaries, dispatched
the doctors, distributed medicines, and curtailed the
cost of official travel to help the affected residents.
Local governments organized workers to bury bodies
and isolate people and rewarded or punished officials
and doctors involved in treating the epidemic. Because
of traditional clan and blood relationships, some
people helped each other and shared medical resources
spontaneously. In addition, some prominent gentry and
good Samaritans offered to assist the government in
activities such as giving medicine and food, raising
funds, burying bodies, adopting orphans, and so on.
These people were commended by the government and
were even awarded some honorary positions. In some
remote villages, people prayed not to be harmed by the
plague by the way of worship and prayer (Figure 2)
[22–24].
However, in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, the
Welfare Pharmacy was not well managed, and its
activities were inefficient because of war, shortage of
funds, and regime corruption.
Prevention and treatment
The Jiajing reign (1522–1566 C.E.) of the Ming
Dynasty also personally wrote prescriptions and made
them into “small decoction for epidemic relief.” He
requested the Ministry of Rites to distribute the
prescriptions to the civilians. In addition, the Ming
Dynasty invented the process of variolation to prevent
smallpox. This became a precursor of artificial
immunity and thus occupies an important position in
the history of medicine [25] (Figure 3). In Bencao
Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica), the
outstanding pharmacist Li Shizhen instructed that the
clothes of the infected should be fumigated at high
temperature so as to reduce the probability of
transmission to the family in the event of a plague [26].
The owner of a famous bookstore in Hangzhou, Hu
Zhengxin (birth and death years unknown) also
mentioned the method of steam disinfection in his
book Jianyibeiyanfang (Simple Method of Preparing
and Checking Prescription, 1641 C.E.) [27]. In his
book Shoushibaoyuan (Prolonging Life and Preserving
the Origin, 1615 C.E.), Gong Tingxian (1368–1644
C.E.) of the Ming Dynasty listed the ingredients of “Tu
Su wine (a wine consumed during ancient Chinese
Spring Festival), with the Houpo (Magnoliae
officinalis cortex), Jiegeng (Platycodonis Radix),
Fangfeng (Saposhnikoviae Radix), Guizhi (Cinnamomi
Ramulus), Baizhu (Atractylodis Macrocephalae
Rhizoma), Cangzhu (Rhizoma Atractylodis), Chuanwu
(Aconiti Radix), Baizhi (Angelicae dahuricae Radix),
Dahuang (Rhei Radix et Rhizoma), Chenpi (Citri
Reticulatae Pericarpium), Tanxiang (Santali Albi
Lignum), Doukou (Amomi Rotundus Fructus), Huajiao
(Zanthoxyli Pericarpium), Huoxiang (Pogostemonis
Herba), Weilingxian (Radix et Rhizoma Clematidis),
Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma), Liquor and
Spirits.” He pointed out that this kind of wine could
block the plague, and he suggested that patients ignited
moxa pillar at the corner of the bed to produce moxa
smoke, which could be used as an antibacterial and
antiviral agent [28–29]. Mingshilu (Record of Ming
Dynasty) recorded that in the late Ming Dynasty, an
official in Fujian Province invented bloodletting
therapy to treat the plague. Nearly 10,000 people were
treated with bloodletting every day during that period
[30]. It was recorded in “Jingyuequanshu (Jing-yue's
Complete Works)” (1624 C.E.), written by Zhang
Jingyue (1563–1640 C.E.), that the use of “Fujian tea
cake” (agalloch eaglewood, symplocos paniculata,
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cattail pollen, liquorice, musk, and bottle brush herb
were collected together and ground into a fine powder
and then modulated by glutinous rice soup and shaped
to a pill cake) was helpful for oral disinfection and for
preventing diseases that entered through the mouth
[31]. Wu Youke (1582–1652 C.E.) pointed out in his
Wenyilun (Treatise on Epidemic Febrile Diseases) that
pestilent Qi (a class of exogenous pathogens with
strong pathogenicity and infectivity) did not definitely
occur in a contagiously epidemic situation. Therefore,
the doctrine of pestilent Qi was not convincing [32].
Whether a person contracted the epidemic disease
depended on the existence of pestilence. Pestilence is
one of the miscellaneous Qi, which existed every year.
The pestilence caused infection of old and young
people. Wu Youke doctrine speculated on the presence
of pathogens and further emphasized the infectious
nature of the plague, on the basis of the work by Zhang
Zhongjing (150–215 C.E.). Wu Youke also pointed out
that the plague was contracted by the mouth and nose
and spread by inhalation. He stressed the importance
of isolating patients and invented a rather effective
treatment of plague, the “Dayuan decoction,” which
consisted of Binglang (Arecaesemen), Houpo
(Magnoliae officinalis cortex), Caoguo (Fructus
Tsaoko), Zhimu (Anemarrhenae Rhizoma), Shaoyao
(Paeoniae Radix Alba), Huangqin (Scutellariae radix),
and Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma). He was
proved to be a master pioneer in the treatment of
febrile diseases in China [33] (Figure 4).
Modern studies have confirmed that Dayuan
decoction has a good curative effect in the treatment of
some acute infectious diseases, such as typhoid fever,
malaria, and influenza [34]. The use of Dayuan
decoction 3 to 10 days after the onset of severe acute
respiratory syndrome is associated with good clinical
efficacy [35]. Dayaunyin has a significant antipyretic
effect by decreasing the levels of interleukin-6 and
tumor necrosis factor- in serum and reducing the
activity of myeloperoxidase in liver tissue.
Conclusion
During the Ming Dynasty, the medical system as well
as some of the thinking and methods of prevention and
control of the plague were historical and progressive.
Some outstanding physicians such as Wu Youke
appeared in this period. His theory of plague
prevention and control have a profound influence on
the formation and development of pestilence treatment
in later generations. Wu Youke’s Wenyilun (Treatise on
Epidemic Febrile Diseases) plays a connecting role in
the academic development of epidemic febrile diseases
and lays a theoretical foundation for the establishment
and development of the school of epidemic febrile
diseases during the Qing Dynasty. However, because
of natural weather disasters, corruption, and war, the
government of the late Ming Dynasty failed to control
the plague. In the late Ming Dynasty, people
accumulated rich experiences and devised measures of
prevention and control in the struggle against plague.
These methods and experiences have also had a
positive guiding influence on the prevention and
control of plague in the present day.
Figure 2 Prevention and control measures of plague
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Figure 3 Variolation was invented in the Ming Dynasty to prevent smallpox. To prevent smallpox, a smallpox
scab was ground to a fine powder and blown into the nostrils of children. This method was widely used because of
its simplicity.
Figure 4 Treatise on Epidemic Febrile Diseases (1642 C.E.). The Wenyilun (Treatise on Epidemic Febrile
Diseases) written by Wu Youke is the first monograph on epidemic febrile diseases in the history of medicine in
China. The treatise creates a new guidance for the prevention and treatment of exogenous diseases in traditional
Chinese medicine, establishes a relatively complete theoretical system of epidemic febrile diseases and has an
epoch-making impact on the development of epidemic febrile diseases.
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