The document discusses research on the traditional Chinese medicine Rehmanniae radix (dihuang). It summarizes that Rehmanniae radix undergoes multiple steaming and drying cycles as part of traditional processing, which significantly increases levels of the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction occurs when amino acids and sugars react at high temperatures, producing flavors, colors, and potential health effects. The study analyzes changes in pH, color, amino acids, and other markers during processing to understand how the Maillard reaction impacts the processed herb. Thermal analysis techniques also examine the reaction's effects on the herb when it is carbonized. The goal is to scientifically explain the traditional processing method and how it transforms the raw herb
Factors affecting drug stability include temperature, pH, buffering species, ionic strength, and dielectric constant. Temperature is an important factor because most reactions proceed faster at higher temperatures according to the Arrhenius equation. pH also affects stability, with most drugs being stable between pH 4-8, as hydrogen and hydroxide ions can catalyze degradation reactions. Buffering species like hydrogen and hydroxide ions participate in formation and breakdown of reaction intermediates. Ionic strength influences rates of reactions between ionic species, while dielectric constant affects rates of ion-dipole and ion-ion reactions. These physicochemical factors must be considered in stability testing and shelf life determination of pharmaceutical products.
The document discusses guidelines for forced degradation studies to develop stability-indicating methods. Key points include:
1) Forced degradation studies subject drug substances, products, and placebos to stress conditions like heat, humidity, acids, bases, oxidation, and light to understand degradation pathways and develop suitable methods.
2) Common stress tests include thermal, hydrolytic, oxidative, and photolytic degradation. Conditions are specified for each test.
3) Potential degradation products are identified and the method is evaluated based on peak purity, mass balance, and other criteria.
4) Guidelines are provided for establishing relative response factors, quantitation methods, and system suitability parameters based on forced degradation results.
1. The document describes the synthesis and characterization of new substituted 1,3,5-triazine compounds containing 1,2,4-triazole and substituted urea/thiourea groups.
2. These compounds were synthesized in a stepwise manner and characterized using techniques like IR, NMR and elemental analysis.
3. The antimicrobial activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated against various microorganisms, with some compounds like 1c, 1e and 1g showing excellent activity.
This document describes the synthesis and characterization of new substituted 1,3,5-triazine compounds containing 1,2,4-triazole and substituted urea/thiourea. The compounds were synthesized in three steps and characterized using techniques such as IR, 1H NMR and elemental analysis. Some of the synthesized compounds (1c, 1e, 1g) showed excellent antimicrobial activity against test microorganisms. The document provides experimental details on the synthesis of the compounds and evaluates their potential as antimicrobial agents.
Product Stability Studies & Stability Testing Amit Attri
This presentation provides an overview of pharmaceutical stability testing. It discusses the different types of stability studies including formal stability studies, stress stability studies, and abbreviated stability studies. Key factors that influence drug stability are also explained such as temperature, humidity, pH, and light exposure. Common degradation pathways for drugs like hydrolysis, oxidation, and photodegradation are summarized. The presentation emphasizes the importance of stability testing for determining a drug's shelf life and appropriate storage conditions. It provides examples of stability issues for several drugs.
Pharmaceutical formulation is the means whereby a drug is converted into a medicine, i.e., to a suitable form for administration to a patient by a particular route.
The conversion of a drug into a medicine often involves the addition of pharmaceutical adjuvants (excipients) such as binding agents, disintegrating agents, antioxidants, antimicrobial preservative and emulsifying agents etc.
The stability of a medicine relates to the various changes that may occur in the medicine during preparation and storage and to the impact of those changes on its fitness for use.
Stability studies ensuring the maintenance of product quality, safety and efficacy throughout the shelf life are considered as pre-requisite for the acceptance and approval of any pharmaceutical product. Stability testing is a routine procedure performed on drug substances and products and is employed at various stages of the product development.
This document outlines stability testing recommendations for different drug formulations, including whether acid-base, oxidative, photo-stability, thermal, or thermal-humidity testing is necessary or optional. It also describes how forced degradation studies are used to evaluate drug substance and product stability in various conditions, identify possible degradation pathways and products, and facilitate improvements to manufacturing and formulations.
Factors affecting drug stability include temperature, pH, buffering species, ionic strength, and dielectric constant. Temperature is an important factor because most reactions proceed faster at higher temperatures according to the Arrhenius equation. pH also affects stability, with most drugs being stable between pH 4-8, as hydrogen and hydroxide ions can catalyze degradation reactions. Buffering species like hydrogen and hydroxide ions participate in formation and breakdown of reaction intermediates. Ionic strength influences rates of reactions between ionic species, while dielectric constant affects rates of ion-dipole and ion-ion reactions. These physicochemical factors must be considered in stability testing and shelf life determination of pharmaceutical products.
The document discusses guidelines for forced degradation studies to develop stability-indicating methods. Key points include:
1) Forced degradation studies subject drug substances, products, and placebos to stress conditions like heat, humidity, acids, bases, oxidation, and light to understand degradation pathways and develop suitable methods.
2) Common stress tests include thermal, hydrolytic, oxidative, and photolytic degradation. Conditions are specified for each test.
3) Potential degradation products are identified and the method is evaluated based on peak purity, mass balance, and other criteria.
4) Guidelines are provided for establishing relative response factors, quantitation methods, and system suitability parameters based on forced degradation results.
1. The document describes the synthesis and characterization of new substituted 1,3,5-triazine compounds containing 1,2,4-triazole and substituted urea/thiourea groups.
2. These compounds were synthesized in a stepwise manner and characterized using techniques like IR, NMR and elemental analysis.
3. The antimicrobial activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated against various microorganisms, with some compounds like 1c, 1e and 1g showing excellent activity.
This document describes the synthesis and characterization of new substituted 1,3,5-triazine compounds containing 1,2,4-triazole and substituted urea/thiourea. The compounds were synthesized in three steps and characterized using techniques such as IR, 1H NMR and elemental analysis. Some of the synthesized compounds (1c, 1e, 1g) showed excellent antimicrobial activity against test microorganisms. The document provides experimental details on the synthesis of the compounds and evaluates their potential as antimicrobial agents.
Product Stability Studies & Stability Testing Amit Attri
This presentation provides an overview of pharmaceutical stability testing. It discusses the different types of stability studies including formal stability studies, stress stability studies, and abbreviated stability studies. Key factors that influence drug stability are also explained such as temperature, humidity, pH, and light exposure. Common degradation pathways for drugs like hydrolysis, oxidation, and photodegradation are summarized. The presentation emphasizes the importance of stability testing for determining a drug's shelf life and appropriate storage conditions. It provides examples of stability issues for several drugs.
Pharmaceutical formulation is the means whereby a drug is converted into a medicine, i.e., to a suitable form for administration to a patient by a particular route.
The conversion of a drug into a medicine often involves the addition of pharmaceutical adjuvants (excipients) such as binding agents, disintegrating agents, antioxidants, antimicrobial preservative and emulsifying agents etc.
The stability of a medicine relates to the various changes that may occur in the medicine during preparation and storage and to the impact of those changes on its fitness for use.
Stability studies ensuring the maintenance of product quality, safety and efficacy throughout the shelf life are considered as pre-requisite for the acceptance and approval of any pharmaceutical product. Stability testing is a routine procedure performed on drug substances and products and is employed at various stages of the product development.
This document outlines stability testing recommendations for different drug formulations, including whether acid-base, oxidative, photo-stability, thermal, or thermal-humidity testing is necessary or optional. It also describes how forced degradation studies are used to evaluate drug substance and product stability in various conditions, identify possible degradation pathways and products, and facilitate improvements to manufacturing and formulations.
This document discusses various modes of drug degradation, including chemical, physical, and microbial degradation. It describes common chemical degradation pathways such as hydrolysis, oxidation, isomerization, and photodegradation. It also discusses factors that can influence the rate of degradation, such as excipients, moisture, temperature, and pH. Finally, it covers different kinetic models that can be used to describe drug degradation, such as pseudo-first order, pseudo-zero order, and reversible reactions.
This document discusses drug stability and stabilization techniques. It defines drug stability and outlines the various types of instability drugs may experience, including physical, chemical, and microbial changes. It also discusses techniques for assessing stability through studies of solid state stability, compatibility with excipients, and solution phase stability. Specific degradation pathways like hydrolysis, oxidation, and photolysis are examined. Methods for establishing shelf life through accelerated stability testing and the Arrhenius equation are also covered. The document emphasizes the importance of stability studies in ensuring drug quality throughout storage and use.
The document discusses the importance of stability in pharmaceutical compounding and outlines factors that can affect stability. It defines stability as a product retaining its properties and characteristics within specified limits throughout its shelf life. There are five main types of stability: chemical, physical, microbiological, therapeutic, and toxicological. Factors like temperature, light, humidity, ingredients, dosage form, pH, and solvent composition can influence stability. Pharmacists must store products under proper conditions and expiration dates to ensure stability and prevent issues.
Ninhydrin Based Visible Spectrophotometric Determination of GemigliptinRatnakaram Venkata Nadh
A simple method is described to determine the amount of gemigliptin in bulk and tablet formulation by visible spectrophotometry. Basis of the proposed method is the reaction of the primary amine present on gemigliptin with ninhydrin in alkaline pH (alkaline borate buffer) medium to produce a purple color (Ruhemann’s purple) which has maximum absorption at 558 nm. The method was validated as per the current ICH guidelines. The obtained regression equation (y = 0.0148x+0.0011) in the range of 5-30 μg mL-1 has a good correlation coefficient (> 0.999). As the method does not require any separation, it is rapid and simple. The recovery levels of the drug were in the range of 99.73 – 99.96. This method is a green method as it no organic solvents were employed
University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences is a flag bearer of excellence in Pharmaceutical education and research in the country. Here is another initiative to make study material available to everyone worldwide. Based on the new PCI guidelines and syllabus here we have a presentation dealing with basics impurity profiling and degradent characterization.
Thank you for reading.
Hope it was of help to you.
UIPS,PU team
IMPURITY PROFILING (SOURCES OF IMPURITIES)N Anusha
The description, characterization and quantitation of identified and unidentified impurities present in the drug substances is known as impurity profile.
IMPURITIES in pharmaceuticals are unwanted chemicals, that even in small amounts may influence the efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical products.
This document discusses chemical kinetics and drug stability. It begins by introducing chemical kinetics and its application to studying physical and chemical reactions in drugs and dosage forms. It then discusses the rates of different reaction orders (zero, first, second) and how to determine reaction order. Factors that can affect reaction rates are also covered. The document outlines methods for stability testing of drugs and formulations to ensure patient safety, legal compliance and product quality. It discusses causes of drug instability and approaches to prevent or delay degradation, including accelerated stability testing. Stability considerations for semi-solid and solid dosage forms are also addressed. Finally, international regulatory guidelines for stability studies from ICH and WHO are mentioned.
Pharmaceutical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical, biochemical, and pharmacological aspects of drugs. It includes the synthesis, isolation, identification, and structural modification of drugs, as well as studying their chemical characteristics, biochemical changes after administration, and pharmacological effects. Pharmaceutical chemists work in the healthcare industry to develop and evaluate new and improved drugs through activities like drug discovery, metabolism studies, and quality control testing of drugs.
Stability is important for drug products to remain within specified limits of identity, strength, quality and purity during storage and use. The stability of solid dosage forms is most commonly studied to understand drug degradation. Many factors can influence degradation, including temperature, humidity, light, and the drug's excipients. Preformulation studies help identify stable storage conditions and compatible excipients to minimize decomposition for new drug substances and solid formulations.
The document discusses drug degradation and stability. It defines drug degradation as the chemical breakdown of drug molecules through collisions, affected by factors like oxygen, moisture, acidity, alkalinity and light. Degradation pathways include hydrolysis, oxidation, photolysis, and racemization. More processed and formulated drugs degrade faster than pure drugs due to the presence of excipients and processing. Common routes of chemical degradation are solvolysis, oxidation, dehydration, optical isomerization, and hydrolysis. Physical degradation involves changes in state like polymorphism, vaporization, and absorption or loss of water. Microbial contamination can also cause drug breakdown. Proper storage, packaging, and use of preservatives can help prevent
1. Drug stability for Pharmacy students, pptHemantBansode2
This document discusses drug stability and factors that affect it. It defines stability as the extent to which a drug retains its properties within specifications throughout its shelf life under storage and usage conditions. Accelerated stability studies are conducted under exaggerated conditions to gather more data in less time and predict a product's shelf life. Various methods like Arrhenius plots and calculating t90 values are used to extrapolate accelerated data and determine shelf life. Factors like temperature, moisture, light and pH can impact stability and degradation kinetics. Stress testing involves even more severe conditions to understand a drug's intrinsic stability. Maintaining quality and safety throughout a product's shelf life is the goal of stability testing.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
Impurities in pharmaceutical substancesTushar Tukre
The document discusses impurities in pharmaceutical substances. It provides a history of pharmacopoeias and their role in setting standards for drugs. It then discusses sources and types of impurities that can arise during the manufacturing, purification, and storage of drugs. Impurities may come from raw materials, reagents, solvents, reaction vessels, intermediate products, or defects in the manufacturing process. The presence of impurities, even in small amounts, can influence the efficacy and safety of pharmaceutical products.
Introduction,Drug- Excipient Compatibility Experimental Design ,Excipient role in drug destabilization,DRUG EXCIPIENT COMPATIBILTY IN PARENTERAL PRODUCTS.This topic are described.
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The document discusses the importance of stability studies for pharmaceutical products. It defines stability as the extent to which a drug substance or product retains its properties within specified limits throughout its shelf life. Stability studies are important for determining shelf life, identifying optimal storage conditions, and ensuring drug efficacy and safety. The key factors that can affect drug stability are temperature, moisture, light, pH, concentration, and drug interactions. The document also discusses the different types of stability, including physical, chemical, and microbiological stability. It outlines the various regulations and guidelines for conducting stability studies.
Accelerated stability studies are conducted to increase the rate of chemical degradation or physical change of a drug product by using exaggerated storage conditions. The Arrhenius equation describes the dependence of the reaction rate constant on temperature and can be used to extrapolate accelerated stability data to long-term storage conditions. Types of accelerated stability tests include those at elevated temperatures, high intensity light, high partial pressure of oxygen, and high relative humidity. However, accelerated stability testing has limitations when degradation is caused by factors other than temperature, such as microbial contamination or diffusion, or when a product loses physical integrity at higher temperatures. International guidelines provide recommendations for conducting stress tests and evaluating stability data.
This document provides an overview of drug stability for a pharmaceutical chemistry and pharmaceutics course. It defines drug stability as the ability of a dosage form to maintain its physical, chemical, therapeutic, and microbial properties during storage and usage. It discusses factors that influence stability such as temperature, pH, moisture, light, and packaging. It also describes different types of instability like physical changes, chemical degradation through hydrolysis, oxidation, or isomerization, and microbial contamination. The document aims to help predict and ensure drug stability.
This document summarizes the synthesis and evaluation of various N-substituted 5-[(4-chlorophenoxy)methyl]-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2yl-2-sulfanyl acetamides. It describes a multi-step synthesis starting with 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid and involving esterification, hydrazide formation, and cyclization to form the core 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring. This intermediate was then reacted with various N-substituted bromoacetamides to yield the target compounds. The compounds were characterized using spectral methods and evaluated for antibacterial activity, inhibition of alpha-chymotrypsin enzyme, and cytotoxic
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document discusses various modes of drug degradation, including chemical, physical, and microbial degradation. It describes common chemical degradation pathways such as hydrolysis, oxidation, isomerization, and photodegradation. It also discusses factors that can influence the rate of degradation, such as excipients, moisture, temperature, and pH. Finally, it covers different kinetic models that can be used to describe drug degradation, such as pseudo-first order, pseudo-zero order, and reversible reactions.
This document discusses drug stability and stabilization techniques. It defines drug stability and outlines the various types of instability drugs may experience, including physical, chemical, and microbial changes. It also discusses techniques for assessing stability through studies of solid state stability, compatibility with excipients, and solution phase stability. Specific degradation pathways like hydrolysis, oxidation, and photolysis are examined. Methods for establishing shelf life through accelerated stability testing and the Arrhenius equation are also covered. The document emphasizes the importance of stability studies in ensuring drug quality throughout storage and use.
The document discusses the importance of stability in pharmaceutical compounding and outlines factors that can affect stability. It defines stability as a product retaining its properties and characteristics within specified limits throughout its shelf life. There are five main types of stability: chemical, physical, microbiological, therapeutic, and toxicological. Factors like temperature, light, humidity, ingredients, dosage form, pH, and solvent composition can influence stability. Pharmacists must store products under proper conditions and expiration dates to ensure stability and prevent issues.
Ninhydrin Based Visible Spectrophotometric Determination of GemigliptinRatnakaram Venkata Nadh
A simple method is described to determine the amount of gemigliptin in bulk and tablet formulation by visible spectrophotometry. Basis of the proposed method is the reaction of the primary amine present on gemigliptin with ninhydrin in alkaline pH (alkaline borate buffer) medium to produce a purple color (Ruhemann’s purple) which has maximum absorption at 558 nm. The method was validated as per the current ICH guidelines. The obtained regression equation (y = 0.0148x+0.0011) in the range of 5-30 μg mL-1 has a good correlation coefficient (> 0.999). As the method does not require any separation, it is rapid and simple. The recovery levels of the drug were in the range of 99.73 – 99.96. This method is a green method as it no organic solvents were employed
University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences is a flag bearer of excellence in Pharmaceutical education and research in the country. Here is another initiative to make study material available to everyone worldwide. Based on the new PCI guidelines and syllabus here we have a presentation dealing with basics impurity profiling and degradent characterization.
Thank you for reading.
Hope it was of help to you.
UIPS,PU team
IMPURITY PROFILING (SOURCES OF IMPURITIES)N Anusha
The description, characterization and quantitation of identified and unidentified impurities present in the drug substances is known as impurity profile.
IMPURITIES in pharmaceuticals are unwanted chemicals, that even in small amounts may influence the efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical products.
This document discusses chemical kinetics and drug stability. It begins by introducing chemical kinetics and its application to studying physical and chemical reactions in drugs and dosage forms. It then discusses the rates of different reaction orders (zero, first, second) and how to determine reaction order. Factors that can affect reaction rates are also covered. The document outlines methods for stability testing of drugs and formulations to ensure patient safety, legal compliance and product quality. It discusses causes of drug instability and approaches to prevent or delay degradation, including accelerated stability testing. Stability considerations for semi-solid and solid dosage forms are also addressed. Finally, international regulatory guidelines for stability studies from ICH and WHO are mentioned.
Pharmaceutical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical, biochemical, and pharmacological aspects of drugs. It includes the synthesis, isolation, identification, and structural modification of drugs, as well as studying their chemical characteristics, biochemical changes after administration, and pharmacological effects. Pharmaceutical chemists work in the healthcare industry to develop and evaluate new and improved drugs through activities like drug discovery, metabolism studies, and quality control testing of drugs.
Stability is important for drug products to remain within specified limits of identity, strength, quality and purity during storage and use. The stability of solid dosage forms is most commonly studied to understand drug degradation. Many factors can influence degradation, including temperature, humidity, light, and the drug's excipients. Preformulation studies help identify stable storage conditions and compatible excipients to minimize decomposition for new drug substances and solid formulations.
The document discusses drug degradation and stability. It defines drug degradation as the chemical breakdown of drug molecules through collisions, affected by factors like oxygen, moisture, acidity, alkalinity and light. Degradation pathways include hydrolysis, oxidation, photolysis, and racemization. More processed and formulated drugs degrade faster than pure drugs due to the presence of excipients and processing. Common routes of chemical degradation are solvolysis, oxidation, dehydration, optical isomerization, and hydrolysis. Physical degradation involves changes in state like polymorphism, vaporization, and absorption or loss of water. Microbial contamination can also cause drug breakdown. Proper storage, packaging, and use of preservatives can help prevent
1. Drug stability for Pharmacy students, pptHemantBansode2
This document discusses drug stability and factors that affect it. It defines stability as the extent to which a drug retains its properties within specifications throughout its shelf life under storage and usage conditions. Accelerated stability studies are conducted under exaggerated conditions to gather more data in less time and predict a product's shelf life. Various methods like Arrhenius plots and calculating t90 values are used to extrapolate accelerated data and determine shelf life. Factors like temperature, moisture, light and pH can impact stability and degradation kinetics. Stress testing involves even more severe conditions to understand a drug's intrinsic stability. Maintaining quality and safety throughout a product's shelf life is the goal of stability testing.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
Impurities in pharmaceutical substancesTushar Tukre
The document discusses impurities in pharmaceutical substances. It provides a history of pharmacopoeias and their role in setting standards for drugs. It then discusses sources and types of impurities that can arise during the manufacturing, purification, and storage of drugs. Impurities may come from raw materials, reagents, solvents, reaction vessels, intermediate products, or defects in the manufacturing process. The presence of impurities, even in small amounts, can influence the efficacy and safety of pharmaceutical products.
Introduction,Drug- Excipient Compatibility Experimental Design ,Excipient role in drug destabilization,DRUG EXCIPIENT COMPATIBILTY IN PARENTERAL PRODUCTS.This topic are described.
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The document discusses the importance of stability studies for pharmaceutical products. It defines stability as the extent to which a drug substance or product retains its properties within specified limits throughout its shelf life. Stability studies are important for determining shelf life, identifying optimal storage conditions, and ensuring drug efficacy and safety. The key factors that can affect drug stability are temperature, moisture, light, pH, concentration, and drug interactions. The document also discusses the different types of stability, including physical, chemical, and microbiological stability. It outlines the various regulations and guidelines for conducting stability studies.
Accelerated stability studies are conducted to increase the rate of chemical degradation or physical change of a drug product by using exaggerated storage conditions. The Arrhenius equation describes the dependence of the reaction rate constant on temperature and can be used to extrapolate accelerated stability data to long-term storage conditions. Types of accelerated stability tests include those at elevated temperatures, high intensity light, high partial pressure of oxygen, and high relative humidity. However, accelerated stability testing has limitations when degradation is caused by factors other than temperature, such as microbial contamination or diffusion, or when a product loses physical integrity at higher temperatures. International guidelines provide recommendations for conducting stress tests and evaluating stability data.
This document provides an overview of drug stability for a pharmaceutical chemistry and pharmaceutics course. It defines drug stability as the ability of a dosage form to maintain its physical, chemical, therapeutic, and microbial properties during storage and usage. It discusses factors that influence stability such as temperature, pH, moisture, light, and packaging. It also describes different types of instability like physical changes, chemical degradation through hydrolysis, oxidation, or isomerization, and microbial contamination. The document aims to help predict and ensure drug stability.
This document summarizes the synthesis and evaluation of various N-substituted 5-[(4-chlorophenoxy)methyl]-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2yl-2-sulfanyl acetamides. It describes a multi-step synthesis starting with 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid and involving esterification, hydrazide formation, and cyclization to form the core 1,3,4-oxadiazole ring. This intermediate was then reacted with various N-substituted bromoacetamides to yield the target compounds. The compounds were characterized using spectral methods and evaluated for antibacterial activity, inhibition of alpha-chymotrypsin enzyme, and cytotoxic
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Influence of Biofield Treatment on Physicochemical Properties of Hydroxyethyl...albertdivis
Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) are widely explored as excipients to improve the solubility of poorly water soluble drugs and to improve self-life of dosage form. This work is an attempt to modulate the physicochemical properties of these cellulose derivatives using biofield treatment.
Effects of Acid on Chlorophyll Production of CommonCorinne Breymeier
This study examined the effects of different acidity levels on the growth and chlorophyll content of common duckweed (Lemna minor L.). Duckweed was exposed to pH levels of 4.1, 5.4, and 6.5 (control) for 10-12 days. The results showed that more acidic conditions reduced biomass in some experiments, but did not significantly affect chlorophyll content. While the hypothesis that acid would reduce chlorophyll and inhibit growth was only partially supported, the study provides insight into duckweed's tolerance of acidic water pollution from abandoned mines.
Ameliorating Effect of Frankincense on Red Blood Cells of Alloxan Induced-Dia...inventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This study investigated the phytochemical composition, antimicrobial, and alpha-glucosidase inhibition properties of Rubus ellipticus leaf extracts. Methanol extracts showed the highest levels of total phenols and flavonoids. In antimicrobial testing, the methanol extract demonstrated significant inhibitory effects against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi. The minimum inhibitory concentration values ranged from 15-62.5 μg/ml depending on the microorganism. In alpha-glucosidase inhibition assays, the methanol extract and positive control both achieved over 80% inhibition, suggesting compounds in the leaves may help manage diabetes. Overall, the results correlated antimicrobial and anti-diabetic activities with the high phenolic and
Comparative Phytochemical and Physicochemical Study of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study compared the phytochemical and physicochemical properties of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) and haldi (Curcuma longa). Qualitative phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, resins, and saponins in both plant extracts. However, proteins were only present in haldi. Quantitative analysis found tulsi to have lower moisture content and water-soluble ash than haldi. The physicochemical and phytochemical profiles provide useful data for identification of these medicinal plants.
Evaluation of Hepatoprotective Activity and Oxidative Stress parameters of Al...gynomark
In spite of the tremendous advances made, no significant and safe
hepatoprotective agents are available in modern therapeutics.
Therefore, due importance has been given globally to develop plantbased
hepatoprotective drugs, effective against a variety of liver
disorders. The aim of the current study is to screen the alcoholic
extract of Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.f) Bhandari (AEAH) for
hepatoprotective activity in rats which were intoxicated by
paracetamol. This article describes phytochemical (qualitative),
hepatoprotective activity and oxidative stress parameters of the above
selected plant drugs by studying the serum enzyme levels like SGOT,
SGPT, ALP, ACP, Total Bilirubin, Direct Bilirubin, SOD, GSH,
Vitamin C and Catalase levels of the animals treated with hepato
toxicant paracetamol. The alcoholic extract of AEAH reversed the
hepatotoxicity induced by paracetamol in the rats, indicating their
hepato-protective action. The study was also supported by the
histopathological studies which reversed structural damage occurred
due to paracetamol. This study was further supported by the DNA
fragmentation studies which showed the absense of fragmentation of
DNA in AEAH treated groups, indicating the hepatoprotective activity
of Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.f) Bhandari. Hence it can be concluded
that the plant extract possesses a promising hepatoprotective and
antioxidant effect.
Effects of roasting on the total phenolic contents and radical scavenging act...Innspub Net
This study investigated the effects of roasting on the total phenolic content and radical scavenging activity of three fruit seeds: Prunus domestica, Prunus armeniaca, and Prunus persica. Seeds were roasted at 160°C for 1, 2, or 3 hours. Total phenolic content and radical scavenging activity were highest at different time points for each seed. For P. domestica, phenolic content was highest at 1 hour (554 mg/100g) and radical scavenging activity was highest at 1 hour (48%). For P. armeniaca, phenolic content was highest at 2 hours (684 mg/100g) and radical scavenging activity
In vitro enzyme inhibition studies on new sulfonamide derivatives of 4-tosyl ...Jing Zang
Sulfonamides are considered to be pharmaceutically important class of compounds. In the present work, N-(2,4-dimethylphenyl)-4-toluenesulfonamide (3) was synthesized by the reaction of 2,4-dimethylaniline (1) and 4-tosyl chloride (2; 4-methylbenzenesulfonyl chloride) using 10% aqueous Na2CO3 solution as reaction medium. At the second step, the synthesized molecule 3 was made to react with different alkyl/aralkyl halides (4a-o) to yield the target compounds, 5a-o, using N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) as reaction medium and lithium hydride as an activator. The synthesis of all the compounds was verified by spectral techniques using IR, 1H-NMR and EIMS; and further examined for their anti-enzymatic activities. The synthesized compound 5f represented a suitable inhibitory potential against α-glucosidase and lipoxygenase enzymes.
This ppt describes elicitation as perspective into plant phytochemicals and functional properties with focus on ultrasound and hydrogen peroxides as elicitors
Antiaging Effect of Leaves of Different Extract Salvia SplendensBRNSS Publication Hub
The objective of the present work is to study the in vitro antioxidant activities of petroleum ether,
ethyl acetate, and methanolic extracts of leaves of Salvia splendens. The extracts were studied using
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), total phenolic content (TPC), and total
flavonoid content (TFC). The TPC and TFC were estimated taking gallic acid and rutin calibration curve,
respectively. All the extracts possess in vitro antioxidant activities. However, the order of possessing
activities was methanolic > ethyl acetate > petroleum ether extracts of leaves S. splendens. The TPC and
TFC were highest in methanolic extract. It can be concluded that the extract of the leaves of S. splendens,
possess antioxidant activities. The methanolic extract of leaves of S. splendens possesses highest antioxidant
activity in-vitro.
ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTI-INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY TECTONA GRANDISpharmaindexing
The document summarizes a study that investigated the phytochemical screening, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities of different extracts from the leaf, stem, and bark of Tectona grandis. Qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of compounds like phenols, saponins, steroids, and terpenoids in the leaf and stem extracts. The leaf, bark, and stem extracts showed antioxidant activity in Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power and DPPH radical assays. The extracts also demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting albumin denaturation and stabilizing red blood cell membranes in heat-induced hemolysis tests. The study thus supports the traditional use of T. grandis in treating inflammation
This document summarizes a study evaluating the treatability of pharmaceuticals, PAHs, and pesticides during wet and dry weather flows at a wastewater treatment plant. During wet weather, higher masses of some pharmaceuticals and PAHs entered the plant, but significant reductions still occurred in secondary treatment. Hydraulic retention times and flow variations are being examined to further understand treatability. The document provides background on the targeted contaminants and describes their properties like solubility and sorption coefficients that influence treatability. It also describes the study site in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
This document describes an inter-laboratory evaluation study conducted to validate the use of the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay as a standard method for evaluating the antioxidant capacity of food additives. Fourteen laboratories participated in the study. Five analytical samples - four existing food additives (tea extract, grape seed extract, enju extract, and d-α-tocopherol) and Trolox - were evaluated using the DPPH assay. The results showed good repeatability for measuring antioxidant capacity within laboratories, but greater variability between laboratories. However, expressing the results as Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity reduced inter-laboratory variability, suggesting the DPPH assay could be
The document examines the effects of acid on the chlorophyll production and biomass of common duckweed (Lemna minor L.). Two experiments were conducted exposing duckweed to pH levels of 4.1, 5.4, and 6.5 (control) over 10-12 days. The first experiment showed no significant differences in biomass between pH treatments. The second experiment found significantly lower biomass at pH 4.1 compared to pH 5.4 and 6.5. Neither experiment found significant differences in chlorophyll content between pH treatments. The results partially supported the hypothesis, showing acid inhibited biomass but not through impacts on chlorophyll. Longer exposure periods or lower pH levels may be needed to impact chlorophyll.
Chlorogenic acid may be a potent inhibitor of dimeric SARS-CoV-2 main proteas...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Since the emergence of coronavirus disease 2019 to date, there is no available approved drug or definitive treatment for coronavirus disease 2019 viral infection, and the identification of novel hits against therapeutic targets has become a global emergency. Echinacea purpurea is a traditional herb utilized to treat cough, fever, sore throat, respiratory tract infection, and so on as an immune stimulant. In this study, in silico molecular docking approach was used to screen phytocompounds from E. purpurea against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 main protease 3C-like protease (3CLpro) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus main peptidase (96% sequence similarity) to blunt the viral gene expression and viral replication. Methods: Initially, we screened phytocompounds for their druggability and ADMET property. Furthermore, x-ray crystallographic structures of main proteases 3CLpro and main peptidase having Protein Data Bank ID 6LU7 and 2GTB were used as protein targets for the identification of potential drug candidates. We performed docking using AutoDock Vina by PyRx 0.8 software. BIOVIA Discovery Studio Visualizer v2019 was used to analyze ligand-protein complex. The probable protein targets of the selected compound were predicted by BindingDB (P ≥ 0.7). STRING and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways are utilized to identify the molecular pathways modulated by the predicted targets (FDR ≤ 0.05), and the network interaction between compounds and protein pathways was constricted by Cytoscape 3.6.1. Results: Among all the compounds, chlorogenic acid showed druggable characteristics and scored the lowest binding energy with main protease and main peptidase via interacting with active site 1 domain amino acid residues. Interestingly, chlorogenic acid interacted with Phe140 main protease 3CLpro, which is potentially involved in the dimerization. Enrichment analysis identified chlorogenic acid to modulate insulin resistance, necroptosis, interleukin-17, tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway, legionellosis, T helper 17 cell differentiation, advanced glycation end products and receptor for advanced glycation end products, mitogen-activated protein kinase, Ras, estrogen, vascular endothelial growth factor, B-cell receptor, nuclear factor kappa B, Rap1, hypoxia inducible factor-1, phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase-Akt, insulin, mechanistic target of rapamycin, p53, retinoic acid inducible gene I like receptor, and ErbB signaling pathways. Conclusion: Chlorogenic acid may act as a potent main protease 3CLpro inhibitor and may also inhibit the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 dimerization, viral gene expression, and replication within the lung epithelium. Chlorogenic acid may go a long way in finding one of the multipronged solutions to tackle coronavirus disease 2019 viral infection in the future.
A comprehensive review on Polyalthia longifoliaLucyPi1
Abstract
Herbal plants act as a significant source for discovering new compounds with potential therapeutic activities.
Polyalthia longifolia, which is commonly known as an Indian mast tree, has various pharmacological properties,
such as an anticancer, ulcer protective, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, a corrosion inhibitor, a bio-adsorbent, and few
more. Moreover, it is known as false ashoka owing to its close resemblance with Saraca indica (ashoka tree).
Various compounds have been reported from the extract of some parts of the plant, such as leaves, bark, root, and
seeds. These extracts possess an ability to treat a number of human ailments, such as fever, ulcer, skin diseases,
helminthiasis, and cardiac problems. Studies performed on the leave extract shows evidence that some compounds
cause cell death in various cancer cell lines. The plant also has some biological applications, such as antibacterial,
antiviral, and antimicrobial, which makes it clinically significant and useful. This review is an effort to explore and
gather plant information in an organized manner. It reveals detailed information about the propagation, synonyms,
vernaculars, varieties of plant, medicinal significance, ecology and distribution, botanical and ethnobotanical
description, phytochemical constituents, and pharmacological activity of the plant.
Reliability and validity of the Tibetan medicine constitution scale: a cross-...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The constitutional theory is an important aspect of Tibetan medicine, however a quantitative measurement tool for constitution identification still does not exist. The objective of this study is to evaluate the reliability and validity of a Tibetan medicine constitution scale (TMCS) that consists of three sub-scales and 31 items. Methods: From June to July 2019, 622 people from the general population in Beijing, China, aged 18 to 60 were investigated. We employed Cronbach’s alpha (α), split-half reliability, and test-retest reliability to determine the reliability of the scale. The content validity and contract validity of the TMCS were evaluated using factor analysis and correlation analysis based on Tibetan medicine theory. The items were screened according to the reliability test results. Results: After the items were screened, 22 items remained in the scale. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the internal consistency reliability of the TMCS was 0.754 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.700–0.761). The correlation coefficient for the two-week test-retest of the total score was 0.726 (95% CI: 0.571–0.834). The split-half coefficient was 0.689 (95% CI: 0.640–0.734). The scale can be explained by eight potential factors, including morphological structure, physiological function, personality, adaptability, etc. The body mass index was negatively correlated with the score of the sub-rlung scale (r = − 0.376), slightly positively correlated with the sub-mkhris pa scale (r = 0.099), and positively correlated with the sub-bad kan scale (r = 0.362). Conclusion: The TMCS is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used to assess the body constitution of the general population in Beijing, China. Future studies are needed to explore the differences in biological characteristics among the constitutional types and the association between constitution and disease.
The riddles of number nine in Chinese medicine processing methodLucyPi1
Abstract The “nine cycles of steaming and shining”, “nine making”, “nine turns” and “nine cycles of calcining and quenching” methods that are recorded and used since ancient times are merely one aspect of the unique processing methods of traditional Chinese medicine. Inducing the Chinese medicine processing method “nine cycles of steaming and shining” from historical review and summarizing the practical wisdom based on the canonical aspects of traditional Chinese medicine and the experiences of ancient Chinese medicine sages to promote the new development of traditional Chinese medicine. After the long-term and multiple “nine” processing, the materials of traditional Chinese medicine exhibit significant beneficial changes in terms of taste, efficacy, and chemical composition contents, thus emphasizing that Chinese medicine processing plays a significant role in their efficacy enhancement and toxicity reduction. Heshouwu (Polygoni Multiflori Radix), Dihuang (Rehmanniae Radix), Huangjing (Rhizoma Polygonati), Dahuang (Radix et Rhizoma Rhei), and Xixiancao (Herba Siegesbeckiae) are representatives of Chinese medicinal materials prepared using the “nine-system” processing method. This review discovers the aim and the molecular mechanism of “nine” processing of the abovementioned herbs from the viewpoints of modern pharmacochemistry and pharmacology to provide a theoretical support for the “nine” processing method of traditional Chinese medicine and to promote the international market of traditional Chinese medicine.
Research progress in the use of leeches for medical purposesLucyPi1
Abstract Leeches are invertebrates that have a long history of application in the development of human medicine in both the East and the West. This paper comprehensively analyzes and evaluates current research and the latest progress with regard to the application of leeches, their medical value, and their application prospects from various perspectives, so as to provide a reference for new viewpoints and directions for research on leeches. Modern research has revealed that leeches contain various bioactive components, which have pharmacological effects such as anticoagulation, antithrombosis, blood viscosity reduction, and anti-atherosclerosis. Leech therapy is an important treatment approach for venous congestion after microsurgery and is also an effective adjuvant treatment for diabetic feet, chronic pain, and tumors. Therefore, leeches are of importance for the research and development of new drugs, the restoration of blood supply after surgery, and the adjuvant treatment of diseases accompanied by blood blocking. In addition, leeches can also be used as model organisms for research in evolutionary biology and invertebrate neurophysiology as well as in neurophysiological, behavioral, and functional studies.
Brucea javanica oil inhibits proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells ...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Brucea javanica oil (BJO), distributed primarily in Southeast Asia, has long been utilized as a therapeutic agent for treating malignancies. However, its anticancer mechanisms are not clearly understood. The objective of this study was to examine the mechanisms underlying its treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Methods: CCK8 assay was used to evaluate cell viability. Hoechst33342 staining and flow cytometry analyses were used to examine apoptosis. Mito-Tracker Red CMXRos kit was used to measure the membrane potential of mitochondria. ATP assay kit was used to evaluate ATP levels. Western blots were used to assess the presence of AKT, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, Caspase3, Caspase9, Bax, and Bcl-2. Results: BJO inhibited the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells HepG2 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. It induced apoptosis, with the percentage of cells treated with 50–150 μg/mL BJO increasing from 8.01% to 28.02% in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05, when 50 μg/mL of BJO group compared with the control group; P < 0.001, when 100 or 150 μg/mL of BJO group compared with the control group). After exposed to BJO, the expression of C-caspase3, C-caspase9 and Bax upregulated while that of Bcl-2 downregulated. BJO suppressed the PI3K/AKT pathway and promoted phosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, while repressing the phosphorylation of mechanistic target of rapamycin. Compared with treatment by BJO alone, the PI3K/AKT agonist 740Y-P increased the survival rate of HepG2 cells (P < 0.01) and attenuated the inhibitory effect of BJO on cell apoptosis (P < 0.05). Conclusion: BJO is capable of inhibiting proliferation of HepG2 cells and inducing apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT pathway.
Effect of Jianpi-yangwei decoction on gut fungi in the patients with gastric ...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Our previous study shows that the empirical formula of Chinese medicine Jianpi-yangwei decoction (JYD) can improve the quality of life in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy by increasing beneficial gut bacteria and decreasing harmful bacteria. The present study aims to investigate the effect of JYD on gut fungi in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy. Methods: A total of 73 patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy were recruited. Twenty-nine patients in the chemotherapy group were given standard chemotherapy and 44 patients in the observation group were given JYD plus standard chemotherapy. A control group (55 cases) was recruited from the healthy medical examiners. After 3 months of treatment, life-quality score was evaluated and fecal microbiota was tested by high-throughput sequencing based on the 18S rRNA gene. Results: After treatment, life-quality score in the observation group was significantly lower than that in the chemotherapy group (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference between the observation and control groups’ diversity and richness indices of intestinal fungi. The Chao index for intestinal fungi in the chemotherapy group was significantly lower than that in the observation group (P < 0.05). There was a significant difference between the control and chemotherapy groups in the intestinal fungi according to Shannon and Simpson indices (P < 0.05). Linear discriminant analysis effect size analysis showed no significant differences among the three groups, but significant difference in intestinal fungi was observed between the observation group and the chemotherapy group. At the genus level, the relative abundance of the Aspergillus genus in the observation and control groups was significantly lower (P < 0.05), the relative abundance of the Cutaneotrichosporon, Galactomyces, and Ganoderma genus taxa was significantly higher compared with those in the chemotherapy group (P < 0.05), and there was no significant difference between the observation group and control group. Conclusion: JYD can ameliorate chemotherapy-induced fungal dysbacteriosis in patients with gastric cancer undergoing chemotherapy and improve the quality of life of patients.
A broad perspective on COVID-19: a global pandemic and a focus on preventive ...LucyPi1
Abstract Coronavirus 2019 has become a highly infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, a strain of novel coronavirus, which challenges millions of global healthcare facilities. Coronavirus are sub-microscopic, single stranded positive sense RNA viruses that leads to multi organ dysfunction syndrome, severe acute and chronic respiratory distress syndrome and pneumonia. The spike glycoprotein structure of the virus causes the viral protein to bind with the receptors on the lung and gut through angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. In some cases, the infected patients become hyper to the immune system because of the uncontrolled production of cytokines resulting in “cytokine storm”, a devastating consequence of coronavirus disease 2019. Due to the rapid mutant strain and infective nature of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, discovering a drug or developing a vaccine remains a global challenge. However, some anti-viral agents, certain protease inhibitor drugs, non-steroidal inflammatory drugs and convalescent plasma treatment were suggested. The containment and social distancing measures only aim at reducing the rate of new infections. In this view, we suggest certain traditional herbs and complementary and alternative medicine as a supporting public healthcare measure to boost the immune system and also may provide some lead to treat and prevent this infection.
The coastal medicinal plant Vitex rotundifolia: a mini-review on its bioactiv...LucyPi1
This document summarizes research on the coastal medicinal plant Vitex rotundifolia. It provides background on the plant's long history of traditional medicinal use in European and Asian countries to treat various ailments. The review focuses on the bioactive compounds (flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes) that have been isolated from V. rotundifolia and research on their pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These compounds may be useful for developing new pharmaceuticals to treat disease.
International expert consensus on clinical application of traditional Chinese...LucyPi1
Abstract Guided by the theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), TCM formula granules are made through the optimal process of extraction, concentration, drying, and granulation by combining modern new preparation technologies and pharmaceutical technologies. TCM formula granules are stable, safe, convenient, and effective. Compared with TCM decoction pieces, TCM formula granules can achieve the full process control of its industry chain from field to workshop and standardize the management of the origin of medicinal materials, processing of decoction pieces, processing technology, quality inspection, sales, and products distribution. TCM formula granules can partially replace Chinese patent medicines. Only available for around 800 common varieties of TCM, TCM formula granules cannot replace decoction pieces for many types which are not commonly used in clinical practice. A large number of formula granules are used in clinical and animal studies so that investigators no longer need to extract and control the quality of TCM decoction pieces. How to improve the production process, establish the quality standard, perfect the regulatory system, and expand the clinical application are the problems we need to solve as soon as possible for the better development of formula granules.
Bibliometric analysis of acupuncture research through the Web of Science data...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: The main points of focus of bibliometric analysis of acupuncture treatment of diseases include pain (headache, low back pain), insomnia, and knee osteoarthritis, for example. In this paper, we analyze the frontiers, hotspots, and research trends of acupuncture over the past 30 years and compare them for each of three 10-year periods. Methods: All the studies on acupuncture research in three different periods (1990–1999, 2000–2009, 2010–2019) were collected from the Web of Science database. The evolution of the research, hotspots, and trends in acupuncture were explored intuitively by analyzing the frequency, betweenness centrality, and subject word clustering of the three periods. Results: (1) 1990–1999, the main content relating to research was the mechanism of research of acupuncture treatment of pain. Naloxone was the high-frequency subject word, and centrality included, for example, the spinal cord, enkephalin, smoking cessation, and detoxification. The results of keyword cluster analysis showed that the main research content included capsaicin-induced neurogenic edema, chemical dependency treatment, afferent fiber, and sufferers from xerostomia. (2) 2000–2009, during this stage, the frequency of keywords appeared in new research content such as randomized controlled trials of acupuncture and low back pain, but pain still dominated the main research content. From the perspective of intermediary centrality, along with the rise in randomized controlled trials, there were many important meta-analyses, as well as the management of acupuncture treatment. The main elements of the keyword cluster analysis included, for example, systematic review, randomized controlled pilot study, add-on therapy, brief overview, and ovarian morphology. (3) 2010–2019, during this period, compared with the previous two stages, there was increased frequency of keywords, a growth in clinical randomized controlled trials, and distribution of centrality was evident in the emergence of acupuncture in care, osteoarthritis treatment, and breast cancer research. The keyword clustering covered, for example, neural specificity, inflammatory reaction, chronic pain, sleep pattern, and consort statement. Conclusion: This article summarizes the trend of development of acupuncture from 1990 to 2019 and compares the main research categories and hotspots in each of three different 10-year periods within this span, thereby helping elucidate the research direction within the field.
Investigation of in vitro antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and flavon...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Vine tea from fermented Ampelopsis grossedentata leaves has been used as a herbal tea and folk medicine in the southern region of China for hundreds of years. The aim of this investigation was to analyze the total flavonoids found in vine tea, including three bioactive flavonoids, and the total phenolic contents in the aqueous methanol extracts of 10 vine tea samples. In addition, this study also aimed to examine the antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract. Methods: The total flavonoids and total phenolic content assay of extracts from vine tea were performed by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and epoch microplate spectrophotometer, respectively. Three bioactive flavonoids were quantified simultaneously using high performance liquid chromatography. The antioxidant activity of dihydromyricetin and vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract was evaluated in vitro using six different methods. Results: Vine tea contained a large number of flavonoids, with dihydromyricetin as its main constituent. The flavonoid-rich extract exhibited a significant scavenging effect on superoxide anion radicals, and on 3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radicals. It also possessed definite activity in lipid peroxidation inhibition, ferric reduction, and the moderation of Fe2+ ion chelation ability. There was a significant negative correlation between dihydromyricetin content and antioxidant activity in the vine tea samples, including superoxide anion radical scavenging activity (P = −0.754, P < 0.05), lipid peroxidation inhibition activity (P = −0.759, P < 0.05), ferric-reducing antioxidant power (P = −0.843, P < 0.01), respectively. Dihydromyricetin played a dominant role in the antioxidant activities of the flavonoid-rich extract. Conclusion: Vine tea’s flavonoid-rich extract could be used as a new antioxidant source to safeguard against oxidative stress.
Advances in anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenineLucyPi1
Abstract Sinomenine, a major active ingredient from traditional Chinese medicine Qingfengteng (Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd.et Wils.), has been proven to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory and other pharmacological effects, and is clinically used for various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. However, due to complex molecular mechanisms and pathological characteristics in inflammatory and immune responses, the precise anti-inflammatory and immunological mechanisms of sinomenine are still unclear. This review summarizes the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenine during recent years in rheumatoid arthritis, respiratory system, nervous system, digestive system and organ transplant rejection. The molecular pharmacological mechanisms of sinomenine responsible for anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects were in detail introduced based on 3 aspects including cytokines induction, signal pathways modulation and immune cells function regulation. Moreover, this review also raises some concerns and challenges in future sinomenine study, which will contribute to crucial theoretical and practical significance for in-depth development and utilization of sinomenine as medicinal resource.
Abstract Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) can cause insulin resistance (IR) and diabetes. Our previous studies have demonstrated that Jian-Gan-Xiao-Zhi decoction (JGXZ) could be effective for the treatment of NAFLD and IR. However, the possible mechanism underlying the effects of JGXZ on NAFLD and IR remains unknown. Methods: Fifty rats received a high-fat high-carbohydrate (HFHC) diet for 12 weeks to induce NAFLD. After 4 weeks of HFHC treatment, rats were orally treated with JGXZ (8, 16, and 32 g/kg weight) for 8 weeks. Ten rats in the control group received standard chow. In the positive control group, rats were orally treated with metformin (90 mg/kg weight) for 8 weeks. After JGXZ and metformin treatment, H&E staining was conducted on rat livers and serum biochemical markers, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), triglyceride (TG), and total cholesterol (TC), were measured using test kits. Moreover, a fasting blood glucose test and an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were conducted. Serum levels of insulin were determined using ELISA kit, and the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was calculated. The levels of total insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS1), AMP-activated protein kinase-α (AMPKα) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) as well as the levels of phosphorylation of IRS1 (p-IRS1), phosphorylation of AMPK (p-AMPK) and phosphorylation of JNK (p-JNK) were measured using western blotting. Results: The body weights in JGXZ low-, middle-, and high-dose groups were lower than those in the model group (P < 0.05, P < 0.01, P < 0.01, respectively). The serum levels of AST (P < 0.05 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups), ALT (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle-dose group and P < 0.05 in JGXZ high-dose group), TG (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups), and TC (P < 0.01) upon JGXZ treatment were lower those than in NAFLD model rats. H&E staining showed that JGXZ treatment reduced steatosis of the hepatocytes in NAFLD model rats. JGXZ decreased the levels of fasting blood glucose (P < 0.01), HOMA-IR (P < 0.01), AUC (area under the curve) of the OGTT (P < 0.05) and p-IRS1 (P < 0.01 in JGXZ middle- and high-dose groups, P < 0.05 in JGXZ low-dose groups). Moreover, JGXZ regulated the hepatic AMPKα/JNK pathway in NAFLD model rats, which reflected the induction of p-AMPKα and inhibition of p-JNK. Conclusion: This study showed that JGXZ improved liver function and reduced steatosis of the hepatocytes in NAFLD model rats. Moreover, JGXZ improved IR in NAFLD model rats. The possible mechanism underlying the effects of JGXZ on NAFLD and IR involves the modulation of the AMPK/JNK pathway.
Omics technology: an important tool in mechanism studies of Chinese herbal fo...LucyPi1
Identifying the active ingredients from natural herbal medicines and demonstrating their potential mechanisms are key points in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) field. In recent years, increasing studies have focused on the effects and mechanisms of Chinese herbal formulas. Basic studies on these formulas further coincide with the theory and practical use of TCM according to the clinical experiences for thousands of years. Single compounds have specific molecular structures; therefore, their methodologies in effect and mechanism studies are similar in both Western and Eastern medicines, making them more acceptable by researchers worldwide. On the contrary, the multicomponent, multitarget, and multipathway structures of Chinese formulas make it challenging to explore their mechanisms accurately where the routine method used in Western medicine studies would be inapplicable, which is the main reason for the unacceptance of Chinese herbal formulas by researchers worldwide and presents a huge obstacle to the modernization of TCM. With the rapid progress in basic TCM studies, scientific and technological innovations have achieved a breakthrough in TCM. Omic technology, a series of research methods based on high-throughput analysis and detection techniques in modern biological research system such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, evaluates thousands of targets and pathways rather than focusing on a single target or pathway and could screen the global changes in genes, proteins, metabolites, and other factors involved in the process of biological signaling transduction [1]. This is in agreement with the “holism” theory in TCM, which explains the overall mechanisms of Chinese herbal formulas comprehensively. In this study, we introduced the conventionally used omic technologies and their applications in research of mechanism studies of Chinese herbal formulas.
Gastrointestinal effects of Artemisia absinthium Linn. based on traditional P...LucyPi1
Abstract One of the most extensively used herbs in traditional Persian medicine (TPM) used in the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, is the plant Artemisia absinthium Linn. (AAL). It also has a wide range of activities such as analgesic and anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-fungal, and anti-bacterial activities, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities in addition to having gastroprotective effects. This article is a review comparing TPM resources with new medicines. This review investigates this herb in major TPM sources and strives to extrapolate the exact function it serves in the digestive tract and compares the collected information on the function of AAL with information found in new medical resource databases such as ISI, Pubmed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Scientific Information Database. AAL from the Asteraceae family of TPM, known as Afsentin, was used in the treatment of GI weaknesses, stomach pains, swellings, intestinal parasites, diarrhea, and vomiting. AAL increased appetite, so it was used for insect repellents and insecticide. Recent studies have indicated that the effects of this plant improved the symptoms of Crohn's disease and played a role in reducing inflammatory factors. It also has strong anti-parasitic, anti-insect, hepatoprotective, and antioxidant effects. Given the widespread use of AAL as a traditional medicine currently in use in different countries, particularly in the treatment of GI diseases, further clinical studies that focus on the therapeutic qualities of this plant are required in the future.
Jadwar (Delphinium denudatum Wall.): a medicinal plantLucyPi1
This review summarizes the medicinal uses of Delphinium denudatum Wall. (jadwar), according to historical documents and modern studies. Rhazes first documented its use in the 10th century to treat poisonings. Later, it was used for neurological, gastrointestinal, and other diseases. Modern studies show it has anti-microbial, anti-fatigue, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, analgesic, and liver protective properties. The review focuses on therapeutic effects of its extracts and identifies phytochemicals that may underlie these effects, such as alkaloids and flavonoids. It concludes that controlled clinical trials are still needed to confirm effects against various diseases.
Effects of chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) on nonalcoholic fatty liver diseaseLucyPi1
Abstract There is a dramatic increase in the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which is slowly turning into a pandemic as well as a major challenge across the world. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is described as a range of liver conditions such as fat accumulation, hepatic steatosis, or end-stage liver disease. Patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease are asymptomatic and their mortality is higher than people without nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease has not been clearly determined yet. The “two hits” hypothesis is designed to explain the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Dyslipidemia, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic inflammation are some of the morbidities involved in the progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) is an herbaceous perennial, known as chicory. Chicory contains various compounds, such as vitamins, sonchuside A, caffeic acid derivatives, fructo-oligosaccharides, chlorogenic acid, magnolialide, polysaccharides, coumarins, phenolic acids, terpenoids, flavonoids, polyphenol, cichoriosides, ixerisosides, eudesmanolides, inulin, bitter sesquiterpene lactones, and alkaloids. Current research has revealed that chicory supplementation might be effective in the treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic, and antioxidant properties of chicory provide plausible mechanisms by which chicory may affect the various steps of disease progression and severity. Existing studies have shown that chicory supplementation has beneficial effects on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, but the existence of only one human study and possible side effects of chicory necessitate further studies.
Effects of herbal medicine in gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms: a sys...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Pyrosis and regurgitation are the cardinal symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Several herbs have been used for treating gastrointestinal disorders worldwide. This systematic review was conducted to investigate the effects of medicinal herbs on gastroesophageal reflux disease and adverse events. Methods: MEDLINE (via PubMed; The United States National Library of Medicine, USA), Scopus, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, Magiran, and Scientific Information Database were systematically searched for human studies, without a time frame, using medical subject heading terms such as “gastroesophageal reflux disease”, “reflux”, “esophagitis” and “herbs”. Manual searches completed the electronic searches. Results: Thirteen randomized controlled trials were identified, including 1,164 participants from 1,509 publications. In comparing herbal medicine to placebo, there were no significant differences in terms of heartburn (P = 0.23 and 0.48), epigastric or abdominal pain (P = 0.35), reflux syndrome (P = 0.12), and effective rate (P = 0.60), but there was a significant difference in terms of acid regurgitation (P = 0.01). In comparing herbal medicine to drugs, there was a significant difference in terms of effective rate (P = 0.001), and there was one trial that reported a significant difference in terms of epigastric pain (P = 0.00001). Also, in comparing herbal medicine to drugs, there were no significant differences in terms of acid regurgitation (P = 0.39). Conclusion: This meta-analysis showed that herbal medicines are effective in treating gastroesophageal reflux disease. Further standardized researches with a large-scale, multicenter, and rigorous design are needed.
Evaluation of scientific evidence for abortifacient medicinal plants mentione...LucyPi1
Abstract Background: Miscarriage or spontaneous ending to a pregnancy takes place at the early stages of pregnancy without intervention. Pregnant women may use medicinal herbs to relieve some of the symptoms of pregnancy as they believe that all herbs are safe. Some abortion-inducing herbs were mentioned by the famous Iranian philosophers, Avicenna and Aghili, in documents of traditional Persian medicine titled Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine, written by Avicenna in the 11th century) and Makhzan Al-adviyah (The Storehouse of Medicaments, written by Aghili in the 18th century). Methods: Electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library and Web of Science were searched to find new scientific evidence that these plants are toxic during pregnancy. Data was collected from 1831 to 2019. Results: Twenty-one plants were found to be abortive according to Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine) and Makhzan Al-adviyah (The Storehouse of Medicaments). Scientific research has shown that these plants possess abortifacient effects by the mechanisms of toxic alkaloids, uterine stimulants, and emmenagogue that interferes with implantation and results in fetus toxicity. These studies included in vivo or in vitro studies. Some of these plants showed abortifacient effects by more than one mechanism. Ruta graveolens, Nigella sativa, Curcuma longa, Lupinus termis, Apium graveolens, Mentha longifolia, and Peganum harmala possess uterine stimulant properties. Ruta graveolens, Juniperus sabina, Cicer arietinum, Piper longum, Artemisia absinthium, and Citrullus colocynthis interfere with implantation. Ruta graveolens, Nigella sativa, Curcuma longa, Tanacetum parthenium, Piper longum, Laurus nobilis, Apium graveolens, Mentha longifolia, and Cinnamomum iners exhibit emmenagogue effects. Lupinus termis, Delphinium staphisagria, Laurus nobilis, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Zataria multiflora, and Artemisia absinthium contain toxic alkaloids and possess teratogenic effects. Conclusion: The results of this study of traditional Persian medicine resources have been confirmed with new scientific evidence. Therefore, pregnant women should avoid consuming herbs without knowledge of their safety.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
The dynamic changes and mechanisms of Rehmanniae radix processing based on Maillard reaction
1. Traditional Medicine Research
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Submit a manuscript: https://www.tmrjournals.com/tmr
doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603188
Traditional Chinese Medicine
The dynamic changes and mechanisms of Rehmanniae radix
processing based on Maillard reaction
Xiang-Long Meng1, 2#
, Bo Wang1#
, Xiao-Yan Zhang1
, Chen-Zi Lyu1
, Xiao-Juan Su1
, Chen-Xu Ning1
, Shuo-Sheng Zhang1*
1
College of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, Shanxi, China; 2
Department
of Herbology, College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Gyeongju 38066, Korea.
#
Bo Wang and Xiang-Long Meng are co-first authors for this paper.
*Corresponding to: Shuo-Sheng Zhang. College of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine,
No.121 University street, Yuci District, Jinzhong 030619, Shanxi, China. E-mail: zhangshuosheng@aliyun.com.
Highlights
The Maillard reaction occurs during the processing and carbonization of the Rehmanniae radix herb for
traditional Chinese medicine. Each time it is steamed and dried, as part of an age-old process, the level of
Maillard reaction increases significantly. The wine-steaming method had a significant effect on the quality
of the end-products.
Tradition
Rehmanniae radix was first recorded in the Han Dynasty of China (202 B.C.E.–220 C.E.). Various methods
can be used to transform the root into Rehmanniae radix preparata, the processed form. The Chinese
Pharmacopoeia (2015 Edition) includes four forms of the herb, depending on if and how they have been
processed.
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Background
Chinese herbal medicines are processed using a variety
of methods before they are administered to patients.
Based on the severity of the illness and a patient’s
clinical needs, the processing approach taken is meant
to give full play to the medicine’s preventive and
curative effects, while also overcome adverse reactions,
and ensuring safety and effectiveness [1]. As for
rehmannia root (Rehmanniae radix (RR), Dihuang in
Chinese), the perennial herb and its processed
components have made important tonics used in China
for thousands of years [2, 3]. As recorded in Shennong
Bencaojing (Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica), a
Chinese medical text book written in the Eastern Han
Dynasty (25 C.E.–220 C.E.), RR is derived from the
dry roots of Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch, which
belongs to the Scrophulariaceae family of flowering
plants [4, 5]. Because of its medicinal value, various
forms of natural and processed RR are often used in
clinical practice, such as raw RR, RR, processed RR
(RRP, Shu Dihuang in Chinese), and both carbonized
RR (CRR, Sheng Dihuangtan in Chinese) and RRP
(CRRP, Shu Dihuangtan in Chinese) [6] (Figure 1).
Raw RR is notable for its therapeutic properties in
traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) [7]. However,
because of its cold nature, raw RR is not suitable for
patients with indigestion. When the RR is processed
using steam from water, the resulting RRP is adept at
clearing “Heat” (a concept based on TCM theory) [8]
and generating body fluid. Alternatively, when it is
processed using steam from yellow wine, the RRP is
believed to open up blood vessels due to the volatility
of the wine.
Figure 1 Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch whole plant,
Rehmanniae radix slices and its processed
components
Since RR was first recorded, more processing
methods have been developed, including some
controversial steps, such as the addition of excipients,
steam cycles, and steaming times [9, 10]. The most
widely accepted way to assess the quality of RRP is to
follow the maxim: “Black as paint, sweet as sugar”,
which is based on a method of processing by steaming
and drying the herb typically over nine cycles. But the
traditional instructions warn: “If the processing is done
for too long, the taste will be sour.” [11].
The Maillard reaction, also known as the carbonyl
ammonia reaction, is a chemical process between
amino-containing compounds and compounds from the
carbonyl group, which polymerize to generate a new
compound [12]. It was named after the French
physicist and chemist Louis Camille Maillard
(1878–1936), who initially discovered the process,
which is also described as a nonenzymatic browning
reaction. When foods are processed or cooked at high
temperature, the Maillard reaction takes place between
amino acids and reducing sugars, to generate different
flavors and brownish colors. This reaction mainly
happens through condensation, cyclization, and the
rearrangement of Amadori molecules to produce
fructosyl amines. Under acidic conditions,
intermediate products, such as hydroxymethylfurfural,
are generated through 1, 2-enolization reaction,
dehydration, and deamination. These intermediate
products then undergo further condensation and
polymerization to form complex polymer pigments
[13]. This also takes place during the processing of RR
[14]. For example, during the processing of concocted
RRP, its color becomes darker and
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) is generated,
indicating the occurrence of the Maillard reaction.
Thermal analysis [15] is a technique used to measure
the physical properties of materials under different
temperatures and time, and can be called on to assess
processing of TCM.
In recent years, many new processes have been used
in the study of TCM. For example, the main method of
acquiring RRP is through stirring and calcination [16].
While other processing techniques have also been
developed to it, there is a lack of a common standard
for processing charred RRP, since the ingredient CRRP
is inconsistent. Moreover, information about RRP
processing technology, chemical components, medical
effects, optimization of processing technology, and
improving CRRP quality is mentioned in the related
references. By using the “steaming and drying for nine
cycles” method to obtain RRP, Lu Pengwei [17] aimed
to change the content of iridoids during processing.
Guo Yanxia [18] tried to study the Maillard reaction in
the processing of RRP, but the related books and
studies recorded neither the dynamic changes nor the
chemical components during the RRP processing
[19–21]. This paper is the first to analyze RR
processing time and the dynamics of the Maillard
reaction’s parameters, including pH value, A420 value,
amino acids, polysaccharides, and 5-HMF. We used
thermal analysis and pyrolysis kinetics to analyze the
influence of RRP processing and Maillard reaction in
the carbonization of RRP. We then went through the
process from RRP to processed CRRP, in order to
explain the scientific connection of processing RRP.
Materials and reagents
4. ARTICLE
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Instrument
We purchased an STA-409C multi-atmosphere
thermo-differential thermal analyzer (Netzch,
Germany), an Ultra-3660 UV-visible
spectrophotometer (Beijing Puyuan Precision
Technology Co., Ltd., China), a GZX-9140MBE
electric blast drying oven (Shanghai Boxun Industrial
Co., Ltd., China), an HHS thermostatic water bath
(Shanghai Boson Industrial Co., Ltd., China), a
DV215CD one-ten-thousandth precision electronic
balance (Ohaus Instrument Co., Ltd., China), an
ultrasonic cleaning machine (Ningbo Xinzhi
Biotechnology Co., Ltd., China), a DE-100g universal
high-speed crusher (Zhejiang Hongjingtian Industry &
Trade Co., Ltd., China), a PHS-3C+ acidity meter
(Chengdu Century Ark Technology Co., Ltd., China),
and a U3000 HPLC (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA).
Medicinal herbs
The raw RR used in this study was collected from
Xiangfen in Shanxi Province, China. These were
confirmed as the roots of Rehmannia glutinosa
Libosch. by Prof. Zhang Shuosheng, of Shanxi
University of Chinese Medicine of China.
To make the RRP [22], RR was put into a steamer
and heated for 6 h, and then dried in an oven for 24 h
at 60 °C. This formed one cycle of steaming and
drying, which is traditionally repeated nine times,
during which a sample was taken after each cycle.
Next, the samples were cut into pieces, dried at 60 °C
and labeled as S1 to S9.
In the case of RRP processed with yellow wine [23],
the ratio between the wine and the herb was set at 10:4,
and all other steps were as above. These samples were
labeled as SW1 to SW9.
Standard substances
5-HMF was purchased from Chengdu Pufeide Biotech
Co., Ltd (Sichuan, China, standard substances mass
fraction ≥ 98%, batch number MΜST-14099). Glycine
(Shanghai Standard Technology Co., Ltd., mass
fraction ≥ 98%, batch number 1863) was the other
substance used in this study.
Experimental method
Determination of A420 and pH value during RRP
processing
Samples of 2.5 g were placed in a 25 mL conical flask,
10mL distilled water was added, followed by 40 min
of ultrasound. The supernatant was decanted into a 50
mL tube and centrifuged (3,000 r/min), with the
supernatant separated. 5mL distilled water was then
added to the precipitate and the process was repeated.
The supernatant was combined three times and placed
in a 25 mL volumetric flask. The pH and the
absorbance A at 420 nm were measured (divided by 25
to obtain the absorbance of the RRP extract). The
sample was frozen at −20 °C.
Determination of free amino acid content during
RRP processing
Solution preparation. Ninhydrin solution: 1 g
ninhydrin was dissolved in ethanol to 50 mL to obtain
2% ninhydrin solution.
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate solution (0.2
mol/L): 1.36 g of potassium dihydrogen phosphate was
dissolved in distilled water to 50 mL and mixed well.
Sodium hydroxide solution (0.2 mol/L): 0.2 g of
sodium hydroxide was dissolved in distilled water to
25 mL and mixed well.
pH phosphate buffer preparation: 25 mL of 0.2
mol/L potassium dihydrogen phosphate solution plus
11.8 mL of 0.2 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution was
mixed in distilled water to 100 mL and mixed well.
Glycine reference solution: 0.05 g of dry glycine
reference substance was dissolved in distilled water to
50 mL, obtaining 1 mg/mL of glycine reference
solution.
Test solution: 2 mL of RRP water extract was mixed
with 8 mL of 95% ethanol, placed at 4 °C for 6 h and
centrifuged (3,000 r/min, 15 min). The supernatant was
separated. Distilled water was added to dissolve the
precipitate, and then mixed with 4 mL of 95% ethanol,
placed at 4 °C for 6 h, and centrifuged (3,000 r/min, 15
min). The supernatant was separated, and the
combined supernatant was dried at 45 °C and dissolved
in distilled water to volume 5 mL.
Standard curve. 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, and
0.45 mL of 1 mg/mL glycine reference solutions were
weighed, adding up to 0.45 mL with the distilled water,
respectively. Then 1 mL of 2% ninhydrin solution and
1 mL of pH 6.8 phosphate buffer were added and
mixed well. After heating in a 100 °C water bath for 15
min, the solutions were cooled down and distilled
water was added to 100 mL. After 15 min, it had been
diluted 1.67 times. The absorbance was measured at
567 nm. Then a standard curve was drawn with glycine
concentration C (mg/mL) as abscissa and absorbance A
as ordinate. Linear regression was used to calculate the
regression equation: A = 285.3C − 0.208, R2
= 0.9994.
Sample content determination. Sample
determination: 0.5 mL of sample solution was mixed
with 0.5 mL of 2% ninhydrin solution and 0.5 mL of
pH 6.8 phosphate buffer, followed by heating in a
100 °C water bath for 15 min. After the solution cooled,
distilled water was added to volume 5 mL after 15 min.
The absorbance was measured at 567 nm.
Sample blank determination: 0.5 mL of sample
solution was mixed with 0.5 mL of anhydrous ethanol
and 0.5 mL of pH 6.8 phosphate buffer, followed by
100 °C water bath for 15 min. After cooling down,
distilled water was added to volume 5 mL after 15 min.
The absorbance was measured at 567 nm. Actual
sample light absorption A = A(sample) − A(blank sample)
5. Traditional Medicine Research
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doi: 10.12032/TMR20200603188
Methodological study. According to methodological
investigation requirements, the precision, stability,
repeatability, and sample recovery rate were
investigated. SW1 was measured successively at 1, 2,
4, 8, 16, and 24 h, and repeated 6 times for stability
and repeatability. The relative standard deviation (RSD)
of stability and repeatability were 3.29% and 1.16%,
respectively. The control sample was continuously
injected 6 times to obtain the precision RSD 2.01%.
The average recovery was 100.01%, and the RSD was
0.72%.
Determination of 5-HMF content during RRP
processing [24]
Preparation of the test solution. Each sample (S1–S9,
SW1–SW9) of 0.5 g was put into a 50 mL volumetric
flask; methanol was added to volume 50 mL, followed
by soaking for 1.5 h at room temperature and
ultrasonic extraction at room temperature overnight.
Then the sample was replenished, filtered, and 25 mL
of continuous filtrate was collected. The residue
evaporated into dried material and then dissolved in 5
mL of 15% methanol. The solution was filtered with a
0.45 μm microporous membrane to obtain the test
solution. All samples were prepared in triplicate.
Preparation of reference solution. Reference 5-HMF
at 22.76 g was dried to a constant weight and weighed.
Added to was 10 mL methanol to obtain 2269 μg/mL
5-HMF as a control solution.
Chromatographic conditions. A Hypersil GOLD aQ
C18 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA; 250 nm × 46 nm)
column was used with a flow rate of 1 mL/min and
column temperature of 25 °C. Mobile phase of
acetonitrile: 0.1% phosphoric acid water (11:89).
Figure 2 shows a detection wavelength of 284 nm.
Figure 2 HPLC analysis of 5-HMF in the RRP. (A)
5-HMF as a standard compound; (B) 5-HMF in the
sample. RRP, processed Rehmanniae radix; 5-HMF,
5-hydroxymethylfurfural; HPLC, high-performance
liquid chromatography.
Linear relationship investigation. The control
substances were prepared as solutions at
concentrations from 0.455 to 227.6 μg/mL. The
injection volume was 10 μL. The peak area was
determined for each concentration, and the regression
equation was calculated: for 5-HMF it was Y = 1.073X
+ 0.458, R² = 0.999.
Methodological study. According to the
methodological investigation requirements, the
precision, stability, repeatability, and sample recovery
rate were investigated. SW1 was measured
successively at 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 24 h, and this was
repeated 6 times for stability and repeatability. The
RSD of stability and repeatability were 2.13% and
0.77%. The control sample was continuously injected 6
times to obtain the precision RSD 1.78%. The average
recovery of 5-HMF was 98.15%, and the RSD was
0.73%.
Thermogravimetric test
In the thermogravimetric simulation experiment, N2
was used as the carrier gas and the flow rate was 100
mL/min. The samples were placed in a crucible and the
temperature was increased from room temperature to
600 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min. The finished sample was
used for qualitative analysis.
Kinetic test
In this experiment, the activation energy of a certain
conversion rate was solved based on the
Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose method, the
Ozawa-Flynn-Wall method, and the Friedman method
under the isoconversional model. These methods
neglect the effects of heating rate and independent
reaction mechanism on pyrolysis and combustion,
while emphasizing the first-order process from
feedstock to pyrolysis products. The specific formula
is as follows:
ln (β/T2
) = ln (AE/Rg(x)) − E/RT
log (β) = log (AE/Rg(α)) − 2.315 − 0.457E/RT
(Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose method)
ln (dα/dt) = ln f(α) + ln A − E/RT (Friedman
method)
At a later stage of the experiment, based on the
commonly used solid-state reaction mechanism
function, the reaction mechanism was explored using a
single scan rate of uncertainty. In the process, the
common mechanism function g(α) of solid-state
thermal decomposition (Table 1) was brought into the
Coats-Redfern equation ln (g(α)/T2
) = ln (AR/βE) −
E/RT for linear fitting, to solve the dynamic parameters,
where α is the weight loss rate, T is the temperature, R
is the gas constant, β is the heating rate, and dα/dt is
the decomposition reaction rate. After comparison and
verification, the mapping analysis was carried out to
select the mechanism function that best described the
pyrolysis reaction of RR charcoal.
6. ARTICLE
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Table 1 Expression of commonly used solid-state reaction mechanism function
Mechanism function Number g(α)
Diffusion reaction
One-dimensional diffusion 1 α2
Two-dimensional diffusion 2 α + (1 − α) ln (1 − α)
Two-dimensional diffusion 3 (1 − (1 − α)1/2
)1/2
Two-dimensional diffusion 4 (1 − (1 − α )1/2
)2
Three-dimensional diffusion 5 (1 − (1 − α)1/3)1/2
Three-dimensional diffusion 6 (1 − (1 − α)1/3
)2
Three-dimensional diffusion 7 1 − 2α/3 − (1 − α)2/3
Three-dimensional diffusion 8 ((1 + α)1/3 − 1)2
Three-dimensional diffusion 9 ((1 − α)−1/3
− 1)2
First level 10 −ln (1 − α)
Chemical reaction
Zero level 11 Α
One-third level 12 3(1 − (1 − α)1/3
)
Half level 13 2(1 − (1 − α)1/2)
Two level 14 (1 − α)−1
Two-thirds level 15 (1 − α)−1/2
Three level 16 (1 − α)−2
Results
Determination of pH value and color change during
different RRP processing cycles
The pH values and the absorbances A at 420 nm are
shown in Figure 3A and Figure 3B. The pH values
significantly decreased with each step of the
processing cycle. For the water-steaming group,
although there were fluctuations, though the overall pH
values decreased from the first cycle (5.23 ± 0.02) to
the ninth cycle (4.82 ± 0.03). For the wine-steaming
group, the overall pH values decreased from the first
cycle (5.16 ± 0.02) to the ninth cycle (4.45 ± 0.02).
Moreover, the pH values in the water-steaming group
were significantly higher than in the wine-steaming
group, especially after the third cycle.
The absorbances A at 420 nm significantly increased
with each step of the processing cycle. For the
water-steaming group, although there are fluctuations,
the overall absorbances A at 420 nm increased from
the first cycle (0.10 ± 0.01) to the ninth cycle (0.32 ±
0.01). For the wine-steaming group, the overall
absorbances A at 420 nm decreased from the first cycle
(0.19 ± 0.01) to the ninth cycle (0.55 ± 0.01).
Meanwhile, the absorbances A at 420 nm of the
wine-steaming group were significantly higher than the
water-steaming group for every processing cycle,
especially after the third.
Determination of free amino acid content during
the different RRP processing cycles
The amino acid content of all samples is shown in
Figure 3C. In both processing methods, the content
decreased sharply from the first to the third cycle
(from 0.655 ± 0.006% to 0.327 ± 0.001% in the
wine-steaming group, and from 0.3440 ± 0.001% to
0.242 ± 0.019% in the water-steaming group), and then
remained at a relatively low level from the third to
ninth cycle (S9, SW9: 0.450 ± 0.030%, 0.320 ±
0.030%, respectively), in spite of small fluctuations.
Moreover, the amino acid content in the wine-steaming
group was significantly higher than the water-steaming
group in every processing cycle.
Determination of 5-HMF during different RRP
processing cycles [25, 26]
As shown in Figure 3D, the 5-HMF content increased
with each processing cycle. Moreover, it also showed
significant differences between the two groups over
each processing cycle, especially after the sixth cycle.
7. Traditional Medicine Research
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Pyrolysis characteristics of the different RRP
processing cycles [27, 28]
The pyrolysis combustion characteristics of RRP in
simulated air (N2:O2 = 4:1) has been investigated in
previous studies [29]. In TCM theory, CRRP is
produced by the carbonization of RRP within an
enclosed container in an anoxic state. Therefore, we
studied the pyrolysis characteristics of RRP in an inert
atmosphere (N2) (Figure 4), in order to understand the
correlation between different processing degrees, or
Maillard reaction degrees, and the processing results of
CRRP.
We focused on the pyrolysis stage, and our analysis
follows the reference [30]. At the pyrolysis stage, two
obvious thermal weight loss phases and two thermal
weight loss rate peaks were found for RR, with
different processing cycles and adjuvants. For RRP
processed with steam from yellow wine, the initial and
final temperatures over two stages were 155.9 ±
7.76 °C to 279.48 ± 2.95 °C and 279.48 ± 2.95 °C to
326.7 ± 2.21 °C, respectively. Moreover, the intensities
of thermal weight loss rate peaks were 5.76 ±
1.21 %/min and 2.52 ± 0.08 %/min, which appeared at
211.83 ± 4.11 °C and 326.7 ± 2.21 °C, respectively.
Similarly, for RRP processed with no adjuvant, the
initial and final temperatures over two stages were
162.4 ± 8.39 °C to 278.44 ± 7.15 °C and 278.44 ±
7.15 °C to 341.4 ± 7.15 °C, respectively. The
intensities of thermal weight loss rate peaks were 6.50
± 1.23 %/min and 2.43 ± 0.08 %/min, which appeared
at 211.52 ± 3.3 °C and 315.41 ± 14.31 °C, respectively.
With each increase in processing cycle, both the
mean intensity of the two thermal weight loss rate
peaks and temperature intervals (initial and final
temperature) decreased at the pyrolysis and
combustion stage.
Altogether, both the processing cycles and adjuvant
are important conditions for the carbonization process
of CRRP. The intensity of thermal weight loss rate
peak near 223.45 ± 4.32 °C, or 221.33 ± 0.2 °C, was an
important indicator for the degree of RRP processing.
Moreover, the corresponding temperature of the
thermal weight loss rate peak in the second stage of
pyrolysis combustion near 279.48 ± 2.95 °C or 278.44
± 7.15 °C was the upper temperature limit for RRP
carbonization.
Figure 3 Dynamic changes of pH value, A420, amino acid content, and 5-HMF content in processed RRP,
with steaming and drying times. (A) Dynamic changes of pH value; (B) absorbance at 420 nm; (C) amino acid
content; (D) content of 5-HMF in processed RRP with steaming and drying times. RRP, processed Rehmanniae
radix; 5-HMF, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural; S, water steaming method; SW, yellow wine-steaming method; N, time.
Data represent mean ± SD (n = 3 per group).
8. ARTICLE
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Figure 4 Pyrolysis characteristic TG/DTG curves for RRP. (A) Pyrolysis characteristic curve of TG by yellow
wine-steaming method; (B) pyrolysis characteristic curve of DTG by yellow wine-steaming method; (C) pyrolysis
characteristic curve of TG by water-steaming method; (D) pyrolysis characteristic curve of DTG by water-steaming
method. Different the water-steaming method in processed RRP with steaming and drying times. TG,
thermogravimetric; DTG, differential thermogravimetric; S, water steaming method; SW, yellow wine-steaming
method; Sp, steaming method according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia; SWP, yellow wine-steaming method
according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.
Pyrolysis reaction kinetics results
The corresponding activation energy results are shown
in Figure 5. Combined with the combustion pyrolysis
characteristics of each sample, the RRP processing
showed a heat loss rate peak (intensity −14.00 ±
1.00 %/min) at a conversion rate of about 0.25, 221 ±
0.2 °C, which was at the extreme point of activation
energy, indicating that 221 ± 0.2 °C was the
temperature limit for RRP carbonization.
In addition, the corresponding pyrolysis mechanism
(Coats-Redfern method) is shown in Figure 6.
According to the Coats-Redfern method, the optimum
mechanism function for the pyrolysis reaction of RRP
carbonation is g(α) = ((1 − α) − 1/3 − 1)2
.
As shown in Table 1, the commonly used solid-state
reaction mechanism function for the pyrolysis
mechanism of RRP is diffusion reaction. With the
increase of processing cycles, the carbonation reaction
process is always a diffusion reaction.
Discussion
According to TCM theory, herbal medicines processed
in different ways or with different adjuvants can exert
different therapeutic effects. During the RRP
processing, there are significance changes in herbal
characteristics, and the composition of the compounds
changes at the same time. Water-steaming and
wine-steaming are two common processing methods
for RRP, and each finished product can have a different
pharmaceutical effect. Water-steamed RRP is adept at
clearing “Heat” and generating body fluid, while
wine-steamed RRP can open up blood vessels because
of the volatility of the wine.
Compared to food processing, a more complicated
Maillard reaction occurs during TCM processing. This
reaction can change the color and taste of the medicine,
and also produce new ingredients with
pharmacological activity. Thus, the Maillard reaction is
directly related to the quality of TCM processing,
scientifically explaining the connotation “black
essence” in Chinese medicine processing. The Maillard
reaction involves free amino, free carboxyl, 5-HMF,
pH, temperature, and other parameters. Compared with
previous research on RRP, this paper has studied the
pyrolysis characteristics of RRP under inert
atmosphere (N2), as well as the related parameters of
the Maillard reaction. The goal of this study is to
understand the correlation between different
processing methods and Maillard reaction degrees.
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When RR’s color turns black, it indicates the
generation of new colored components during
processing. In food processing, the newly generated
colored components are mainly melanoid-like, which
are usually measured at a detection wavelength of 420
nm [31]. In this study, we have shown that as the
number of cycles increased, A420 also increased.
Consistently, the contents of amino acids, one of the
initial reactants of the Maillard reaction, decreased
with an increase in processing cycles at the beginning,
and then remained at a low level. At the same time, the
pH value of the RRP extract gradually decreased.
Moreover, with the increase of processing cycles, the
absorbance of RRP at 420 nm gradually increased: the
water-steaming method showed large fluctuations at 2
to 4 cycles and 6 to 8 cycles, and the wine-steaming
method showed a slowed increase at 6 to 8 cycles. In
both methods, the contents of 5-HMF in RRP
showed a rising trend with the increase in processing
cycles.
Figure 5 The relationship between conversion rate and activation energy of RRP with 9 different steaming
and drying times by two methods. (A) Relationship between conversion rate and activation energy of RRP with 9
different steaming and drying times by the wine-steaming method; (B) the relationship between conversion rate and
activation energy of RRP with 9 different water steaming and drying times by steaming method. S, water steaming
method; SW, yellow wine-steaming method; RRP, processed Rehmanniae radix.
Figure 6 Verification of the mechanism function of pyrolysis reaction in the process of carbonization of RRP.
A-1 to I-1 are the verification of the mechanism function of pyrolysis reaction in the process of carbonization of
RRP by the wine-steaming method; J-1 to R-1 are the verification of the mechanism function of pyrolysis reaction
in the process of carbonization of RRP by water steaming method. S, water steaming method; SW, yellow
wine-steaming method; a, weight loss rate; RRP, processed Rehmanniae radix. Due to length limitations, the only
retained dynamics results were under 10 °C/min heating rate.
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But there were also significant differences between
the two methods: before the fourth to fifth cycles, the
5-HMF content is slightly higher in the water-steaming
group; after the sixth cycle, the 5-HMF content
increased clearly in the wine-steaming megroupthod,
and became higher than the water-steaming groupe.
Comprehensive analysis shows that with the
increase in number of steaming and drying cycles, the
two RRP processing methods have a significant
difference in Maillard reaction. Adjunct yellow wine
can accelerate the Maillard reaction rate by virtue of its
alcohol-enhancing properties. Analysis of relevant
index components and previous studies [26] suggest
that both water-steamed and wine-steamed RRP
reached met the necessary processing requirements at
the fifth steaming. As for the reason why RR
processing traditionally involves steaming and drying
over nine cycles, we need to further combine these
results with pharmacology to confirm the reasons [26].
Conclusion
The Maillard reaction occurred during the processing
of RRP mixed with CRRP. The yellow wine had a
significant effect on the quality of processed products.
The thermal analysis found that 221 ± 0.2 °C was the
temperature limit for RRP carbonization. And the
optimum mechanism function during pyrolysis is g(α)
= ((1 − α) − 1/3 − 1)2
. The pyrolysis mechanism of
RRP charcoal is a diffusion reaction. With the increase
of processing cycles, the carbonation reaction is
always based on diffusion reaction. Analysis of
relevant index components suggests that both
water-steamed and wine-steamed RRP reached the
necessary processing requirements at the fifth steaming.
With each new steaming and drying step, the two
processing methods of RRP showed a significant
difference in the process of Maillard reaction.
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