organizational behavior
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This document summarizes a chapter about group behavior from an organizational behavior textbook. It defines groups and discusses different types of groups. It also covers key topics about groups such as stages of group development, roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness, decision making, and cultural differences in groups. The chapter provides frameworks for understanding group properties and dynamics, and implications for managers in evaluating and influencing group effectiveness.
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organizational behavior
- 1. Kelli J. Schutte William Jewell College Robbins, Judge, and Vohra Organizational Behavior 14th Edition Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Foundations of Group BehaviorFoundations of Group Behavior 9-1
- 2. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Chapter Learning ObjectivesChapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: – Define groups, and distinguish the different types of groups. – Identify the five stages of group development. – Show how role requirements change in different situations. – Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior. – Show how group size affects group performance. – Contrast the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups. – Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. – Compare the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, nominal, and electronic meeting groups. – Evaluate evidence for cultural differences in group status and social loafing, and the effects of diversity in groups. 9-2
- 3. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Defining and Classifying GroupsDefining and Classifying Groups Group: – Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives Formal Group: – Defined by the organization’s structure with designated work assignments establishing tasks Informal Group: – Alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined – Appear naturally in response to the need for social contact – Deeply affect behavior and performance 9-3
- 4. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Subclassifications of GroupsSubclassifications of Groups Formal Groups Command Group – A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager Task Group – Those working together to complete a job or task in an organization but not limited by hierarchical boundaries Informal Groups Interest Group – Members work together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned Friendship Group – Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics 9-4
- 5. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Why People Join Groups – Social IdentityWhy People Join Groups – Social Identity Similarity Distinctiveness Status Uncertainty Reduction 9-5
- 6. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Five Stages of Group Development ModelFive Stages of Group Development Model 9-6 E X H I B I T 9-1 E X H I B I T 9-1
- 7. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e The Five Stages of Group DevelopmentThe Five Stages of Group Development 1. Forming – Members feel much uncertainty 2. Storming – Lots of conflict between members of the group 3. Norming – Members have developed close relationships and cohesiveness 4. Performing – The group is finally fully functional 5. Adjourning – In temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance 9-7
- 8. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Critique of the Five-Stage ModelCritique of the Five-Stage Model Assumption: the group becomes more effective as it progresses through the first four stages – Not always true – group behavior is more complex – High levels of conflict may be conducive to high performance – The process is not always linear – Several stages may occur simultaneously – Groups may regress Ignores the organizational context 9-8
- 9. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Temporary groups with deadlines don’t follow the five- stage model Punctuated-Equilibrium Model – Temporary groups under deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activity—at the halfway point, they experience an increase in productivity. – Sequence of Actions 1. Setting group direction 2. First phase of inertia 3. Half-way point transition 4. Major changes 5. Second phase of inertia 6. Accelerated activity An Alternative Model for Group FormationAn Alternative Model for Group Formation 9-9 E X H I B I T 9-2 E X H I B I T 9-2
- 10. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group PropertiesGroup Properties 9-10
- 11. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Property 1: RolesGroup Property 1: Roles Role – A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit Role Perception – An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation Role Expectations – How others believe a person should act in a given situation – Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual expectations of management and employees Role Conflict – A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations 9-11
- 12. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Zimbardo’s Prison ExperimentZimbardo’s Prison Experiment Set up a fake prison using student volunteers Randomly assigned student volunteers to guard and prisoner roles Within six days, the experiment was halted due to following concerns: – Guards had dehumanized the prisoners – Prisoners were subservient – Fell into the roles as they understood them – No real resistance felt 9-12
- 13. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Property 2: NormsGroup Property 2: Norms Norms – Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members Classes of Norms – Performance norms - level of acceptable work – Appearance norms - what to wear – Social arrangement norms - friendships and the like – Allocation of resources norms - distribution and assignments of jobs and material 9-13
- 14. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Norms and the Hawthorne StudiesGroup Norms and the Hawthorne Studies A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932 Research Conclusions – Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related – Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual behavior – Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing individual worker output – Money was less a factor in determining worker output than were group standards, sentiments, and security 9-14
- 15. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Norms and BehaviorNorms and Behavior Conformity – Gaining acceptance by adjusting one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group Reference Groups – Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform Asch’s studies – Demonstrated the power of conformity – Culture-based and declining in importance 9-15
- 16. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Deviant Workplace Behavior – Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility – Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization – Typology: • Performance – working speed • Material – damage and stealing • Interpersonal – favoritism, gossip, and sexual harassment Defying Norms: Deviant Workplace BehaviorDefying Norms: Deviant Workplace Behavior 9-16 SEE E X H I B I T 9-4 SEE E X H I B I T 9-4
- 17. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Influence on Deviant BehaviorGroup Influence on Deviant Behavior – Group norms can influence the presence of deviant behavior – Simply belonging to a group increases the likelihood of deviance – Being in a group allows individuals to hide – creates a false sense of confidence that they won’t be caught 9-17 E X H I B I T 9-5 E X H I B I T 9-5
- 18. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Property 3: StatusGroup Property 3: Status Status – A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others – it differentiates group members – Important factor in understanding behavior – Significant motivator Status Characteristics Theory – Status derived from one of three sources: • Power a person has over others • Ability to contribute to group goals • Personal characteristics 9-18
- 19. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Status EffectsStatus Effects On Norms and Conformity – High-status members are less restrained by norms and pressure to conform – Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status members so long as it doesn’t affect group goal achievement On Group Interaction – High-status members are more assertive – Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativity On Equity – If status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in various forms of corrective behavior. 9-19
- 20. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Property 4: SizeGroup Property 4: Size Size – Twelve or more members is a “large” group – Seven or fewer is a “small” group Group size affects behavior Best group sizes based on requirement: 9-20 Attribute Small Large Speed X Individual Performance X Problem Solving X Diverse Input X Fact-finding Goals X Overall Performance X
- 21. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Issues with Group SizeIssues with Group Size Social Loafing – The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually – Ringelmann’s Rope Pull: greater levels of productivity but with diminishing returns as group size increases – Caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of responsibility (free riders) Managerial Implications – Build in individual accountability – Prevent social loafing by: • Setting group goals • Increasing intergroup competition • Using peer evaluation • Distributing group rewards based on individual effort 9-21
- 22. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Property 5: CohesivenessGroup Property 5: Cohesiveness Cohesiveness − Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group Managerial Implication – To increase cohesiveness: • Make the group smaller. • Encourage agreement with group goals. • Increase time members spend together. • Increase group status and admission difficulty. • Stimulate competition with other groups. • Give rewards to the group, not individuals. • Physically isolate the group. 9-22
- 23. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Decision Making vs. Individual ChoiceGroup Decision Making vs. Individual Choice Group Strengths: – Generate more complete information and knowledge – Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity – Increased acceptance of decisions – Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most accurate group member) Group Weaknesses: – Time-consuming activity – Conformity pressures in the group – Discussions can be dominated by a few members – A situation of ambiguous responsibility 9-23
- 24. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Decision-Making PhenomenaGroup Decision-Making Phenomena Groupthink – Situations where group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views – Hinders performance Groupshift – When discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. This causes a shift to more conservative or more risky behavior. 9-24
- 25. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Group Decision-Making TechniquesGroup Decision-Making Techniques Made in interacting groups where members meet face-to- face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication. Brainstorming – An idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure for conformity Nominal Group Technique (NGT) – Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process – Members are physically present but operate independently Electronic Meeting – Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50 people 9-25
- 26. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Evaluating Group EffectivenessEvaluating Group Effectiveness Type of Group Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Brain- storming Nominal Electronic Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High Social Pressure High Low Moderate Low Money Costs Low Low Low High Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Task Orientation Low High High High Potential for Interpersonal Conflict High Low Moderate Moderate Commitment to Solution High N/A Moderate Moderate Development of Group Cohesiveness High High Moderate Low 9-26 E X H I B I T 9-7 E X H I B I T 9-7
- 27. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Global ImplicationsGlobal Implications Status and Culture – The importance of status varies with culture – Managers must understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from another culture Social Loafing – Most often in Western (individualistic) cultures Group Diversity – Increased diversity leads to increased conflict – May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale – If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse groups may perform better 9-27
- 28. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e Summary and Managerial ImplicationsSummary and Managerial Implications Performance – Typically, clear role perception, appropriate norms, low status differences and smaller, more cohesive groups lead to higher performance Satisfaction – Increases with: • High congruence between boss and employee’s perceptions about the job • Not being forced to communicate with lower-status employees • Smaller group size 9-28
- 29. Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Authorized adaptation from the United States edition of Organizational Behavior, 14e All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 9-29
Editor's Notes
- Groups are defined as two or more individuals who come together to achieve a set goal. There are two main types of groups. The first is a formal group where the organization establishes the group with defined work tasks and outcomes. The second group is an information group that is not part of the organizational structure. They are often established in reaction to a need for social interaction and form naturally. Informal groups can have a significant influence on behavior and performance.
- Within the category of formal groups there are two main types. The command group is one that reports directly to a given manager such as a department or unit. A task group is formed to accomplish a particular objective but is not limited by the structure or departments of the organization. Informal groups also have subgroups. They are typically formed around a common interest such as an interest group or around common characteristics such as a friendship group.
- There are many reasons that people will join groups. However, the social identity theory suggests that people have emotional reactions to the failures or successes of a group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identity is developed when the characteristics of similarity, distinctiveness, status, and uncertainty reduction are present. Members of groups often join groups of people who are similar to them, however, they want there to be a distinctiveness to the group. Since people define themselves by groups they are connected to, they will tend to want to be a part of high-status groups. People also join groups to reduce uncertainty as a way to maintain a sense of who they are and how they fit into this world.
- The five-stage group development model characterizes groups as moving through five distinct stages in the group process. They are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
- The forming stage is filled with uncertainty as group members figure out their roles and the group norms. The storming stage occurs as the roles are continued to be developed and conflict arises between group members. As members develop closer relationships and a sense of cohesiveness they move into the norming stage. When the group is functioning well together and achieving their goals they are in the performing stage. If it is a temporary group they will wrap up activities and adjourn in the final stage.
- Although the five-stage development model is widely accepted there are some critiques of the model. The assumption that the group becomes more effective through each of the stages is somewhat suspect. The process is not always that linear and several stages may occur at the same time. Also, groups may regress into early stages at some point in the process. Also, the model ignores the organizational context. We have seen in our study of earlier theories that context can have a large impact on behavior.
- The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model offers an alternative model of group formation for groups with deadlines. Groups that are temporary in nature tend to go through their own unique sequence of actions. These include setting the group direction, the first phase of inertia, a half-way point of transition, major changes, a second phase of inertia and accelerated activity.
- There are several properties of groups that help shape group behavior and explain and predict individual behavior. They are roles, norms, status, size, and cohesiveness.
- Roles are the expected behavior individuals will take on in a group such as the leader or the task master. Each role is assigned a certain identity that explains expected attitudes and behaviors that correspond with the role identity. Each individual has their own point of view of how they are supposed to act in the context of the group; this is called role perception. Role expectations looks at how others believe a person should act in a given situation. Role conflict occurs when the expected behaviors don’t match up with the behaviors being exhibited.
- Zimbardo conducted a prison experiment at Stanford University where he randomly assigned students to the role of guards and prisoners. He set up a fake prison in the psychology building on Stanford’s campus and made the experiment as realistic as possible. Within six days the guards and prisoners had taken to their roles in such a way that the experiment was halted due to concerns about the impact on the participants. The guards took their role seriously and treated the prisoners with disdain and disrespect. In response, the prisoners, even though they were only assigned the role, were subservient to the guards. They could have fought back or rebelled but they fell into the role and took the negative behavior of the guards as if they were truly prisoners.
- Norms are standards of behavior that are acceptable by group members. There are different types of norms such as performance norms that look at an acceptable work level or quality or appearance norms about what to wear. Social arrangement norms look at acceptable relationships and allocation of resources norms look at how things are distributed.
- The Hawthorne studies were conducted in the 1920/30’s. Their findings have been widely used in the understanding of group interactions. These studies found that worker behavior was highly influence by group norms and that individual productivity was influenced by the standards the group set forth. Also, money was not as important in determining worker output as group standards and sentiments were.
- Group norms and behavior are based on conformity where individuals will gain acceptance with the group by changing their behavior to more closely match that of the group. Individuals will match their behavior to reference groups, groups they see as important. The Asch studies furthered our understanding of conformity and demonstrated the power of conformance. Asch set forth a series of experiments where the answers were fairly easy and straightforward. However, when he had group members answer incorrectly, it influenced the subject to answer incorrectly as well, even though the answer was not difficult. This study, however, was done a number of years ago and some research has shown that conformity is decreasing in importance and can be culturally bound.
- Some individuals do not like to conform and adhere to set norms due to a number of reasons. Individuals of this nature may engage in deviant workplace behavior or behavior that goes against organizational norms and hinders the desired outcomes of the organization.
- Group norms can discourage deviant behavior because the group won’t accept the behavior. But group membership can also encourage deviant behavior because the individual will feel like they can hide in the group and the chance of being caught is lowered.
- Status is another group property and refers to the position or rank given to groups or their members in a way to differentiate members. Status can influence behavior and has been found to be a significant motivator. The status characteristics theory suggest that status is derived by one of three sources: the power a person has over others; the ability to contribute to group goals; or personal characteristics.
- Status can have an impact on a number of things in groups. First, it can impact norms within a group where high-status members don’t feel the need to conform to group norms, but can pressure others to conform. Second, it can impact group interaction where members who hold more status tend to be more assertive and can hinder new ideas being presented. Finally, it impacts perceived equity in a group which will influence how engaged others are in the group process.
- Size is an important factor in group behavior as well and impacts the behavior in groups. The larger the group, the harder it is to get contribution by all members and do so in a timely manner. Whereas small groups can be limited in their problem-solving ability and the availability of resources could be limited.
- There are some detrimental behaviors that can occur around group size. Social loafing is an example where there is a tendency for individuals to not work as hard in groups as they would on an individual basis. This is exhibited in Ringelmann’s rope pull example discussed in the book. Initially the group brought about greater productivity but as the group grew larger each individual contributed less to the group. This could be due to the fact that peopled didn’t think things are equitable or they let others take the responsibility because they know they don’t have to for the outcome to occur. This is often referred to as free riding. When working with groups managers, one must be sure to build in individual accountability. Social loafing can be prevented by setting up goals, encouraging intergroup competition, using peer evaluation as part of the feedback process, and linking group rewards to individual behavior.
- The final property of groups is group cohesiveness or the degree to which group members want to stay together and are motivated to work together as a group. Managers can do a lot to encourage group cohesiveness but they can’t prescribe it. Some things they can do to foster cohesiveness is to keep groups small, encourage all members understanding of group goals, increase the time the group spends together, and heighten their perceived status. In addition, by stimulating competition with other groups, members will find ways to work together. Managers can also reward the group as a whole and not just individuals within the group. Finally they can physically isolate the group by sending them on a retreat or giving them their own work space. Their actions can significantly influence group cohesiveness.
- Group decision making comes with its strengths and weaknesses when compared to individual decision making. Groups do tend to generate more complete information and knowledge as well as offer a greater diversity of views and increased creativity. Since more people are involved in the decision, there tends to be an increased acceptance of decisions and generally group decisions are more accurate. However, group decisions also are more time consuming and can conform to pressures in the group, thus limiting their effectiveness. In the process, discussions can be dominated by a few members. The members of the group may not always take responsibility for the actions of the group as it is hard to assign responsibility to a single person.
- In the decision-making process some problems can arise. A common problem is groupthink. This occurs when the group is seeking conformity and there is pressure to come to a conclusion without critically appraising alternative viewpoints. Another phenomenon in the group decision-making process is groupshift where once a solution is selected, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. This can cause a shift to a more conservative or risky decision.
- Some group techniques can assist in the decision-making process. The first technique that can help is brainstorming. This is a process that is aimed at generating ideas where all ideas are welcomed and the group tries to create an environment that overcomes pressure for conformity. The nominal group technique works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process to help participants to operate independently. The third method is to utilize computers to hold large meetings and people submit their ideas in writing electronically.
- This grid helps to evaluate the effectiveness of groups based on various criteria and type of group.
- Many group theories will vary by culture so it is important to look at the context in which they are being applied. For example, status varies quite a bit with culture and managers must understand how it will be perceived in the culture they are in. Social loafing is a phenomenon that is primarily applicable in Western cultures that are more individualistic in nature. Another application is group diversity. The more diverse the group is, the more conflict that will normally occur which may cause people to remove themselves from the group or lower morale. If diverse groups can get over the initial difficulties, then they tend to perform very well.
- Effective group processing can increase performance and job satisfaction. Performance with groups is highly tied to group cohesiveness. Satisfaction can be increased with a congruence of goals, a recognition of member’s need for status, and smaller group size.