1. The experiment demonstrated pulse-code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
2. The DAC output had a staircase-like waveform that was smoothed into an analog signal by a low-pass filter.
3. The sampling frequency determined by the pulse generator affected the time between samples but did not change the cutoff frequency of the filter or the output frequency, which matched the input analog signal frequency.
EMBEDDED SYSTEM PROJECTS ABSTRACT-An automated external dc defibrillator usin...ASHOKKUMAR RAMAR
An automated external defibrillator (AED) is a portable device that can diagnose and treat ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia through defibrillation. The AED applies electrode pads to the bare chest to analyze the heart rhythm and deliver an electrical shock if needed to restore a normal rhythm. It uses a microcontroller and other components to sense the heartbeat, analyze the rhythm, charge the defibrillator unit, and control delivery of the shock through electrode pads connected to the patient's chest.
The document provides an overview of the topics to be covered in a basic Perl programming course, including an introduction to Perl, variables, control structures, loops, subroutines, regular expressions, Boolean logic, and file handling. The agenda lists the main topics as Perl introduction, variables, control structures, loops, defining and using subroutines, regular expressions, using Boolean logic for true/false conditions, and file handling. Examples are then provided for many of the programming concepts.
This document describes an experiment to analyze the frequency response of passive low-pass and high-pass filters. The objectives are to plot the gain and phase responses of first-order RC filters, determine cutoff frequencies, and observe how component values affect cutoff frequency. Simulation results show that low-pass filters pass low frequencies and attenuate high frequencies above the cutoff frequency. High-pass filters do the opposite, passing high frequencies and attenuating low frequencies below the cutoff. For both filters, the cutoff frequency is determined by the RC time constant, and increasing or decreasing resistance and capacitance values lowers the cutoff frequency as expected. The phase response also shifts as expected, with about a 45 degree phase shift at the cutoff frequency for both single
This document outlines an experiment to analyze the gain, phase, and cutoff frequency responses of first-order passive low-pass and high-pass RC filters. The objectives are to plot the gain and phase responses of the filters, determine how the cutoff frequency is affected by the R and C component values, and answer related questions at various steps of the experiment.
The document summarizes the history and development of cellular technology through its different generations. It discusses the transition from 1G analog networks to 2G digital networks using technologies like GSM. 2G introduced features like SMS messaging. 3G networks focused on packet switching and higher data speeds for internet access through emerging standards like WCDMA and CDMA2000. The first 3G networks launched in 2001 in Japan and South Korea.
The document summarizes satellite communications and its components. It discusses how satellites are placed in geosynchronous orbit to appear stationary over a location on Earth. It describes the uplink and downlink systems, and how multiple satellites can provide global coverage through cross-linking. The key components of a satellite are also outlined, including the transponder and antenna system, power package, and control/information and thruster systems. Common uses of satellite communications discussed include traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, and television broadcasting.
The document discusses various types of amplitude modulation including double sideband full carrier (DSB-FC), double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), and single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC). It also covers power in amplitude modulation, noting that the carrier contains most power while each sideband contains half the carrier power. Finally, it defines modulation index as the ratio of the modulating signal to the unmodulated carrier signal, which should not exceed 1 or 100% modulation to avoid signal distortion.
EMBEDDED SYSTEM PROJECTS ABSTRACT-An automated external dc defibrillator usin...ASHOKKUMAR RAMAR
An automated external defibrillator (AED) is a portable device that can diagnose and treat ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia through defibrillation. The AED applies electrode pads to the bare chest to analyze the heart rhythm and deliver an electrical shock if needed to restore a normal rhythm. It uses a microcontroller and other components to sense the heartbeat, analyze the rhythm, charge the defibrillator unit, and control delivery of the shock through electrode pads connected to the patient's chest.
The document provides an overview of the topics to be covered in a basic Perl programming course, including an introduction to Perl, variables, control structures, loops, subroutines, regular expressions, Boolean logic, and file handling. The agenda lists the main topics as Perl introduction, variables, control structures, loops, defining and using subroutines, regular expressions, using Boolean logic for true/false conditions, and file handling. Examples are then provided for many of the programming concepts.
This document describes an experiment to analyze the frequency response of passive low-pass and high-pass filters. The objectives are to plot the gain and phase responses of first-order RC filters, determine cutoff frequencies, and observe how component values affect cutoff frequency. Simulation results show that low-pass filters pass low frequencies and attenuate high frequencies above the cutoff frequency. High-pass filters do the opposite, passing high frequencies and attenuating low frequencies below the cutoff. For both filters, the cutoff frequency is determined by the RC time constant, and increasing or decreasing resistance and capacitance values lowers the cutoff frequency as expected. The phase response also shifts as expected, with about a 45 degree phase shift at the cutoff frequency for both single
This document outlines an experiment to analyze the gain, phase, and cutoff frequency responses of first-order passive low-pass and high-pass RC filters. The objectives are to plot the gain and phase responses of the filters, determine how the cutoff frequency is affected by the R and C component values, and answer related questions at various steps of the experiment.
The document summarizes the history and development of cellular technology through its different generations. It discusses the transition from 1G analog networks to 2G digital networks using technologies like GSM. 2G introduced features like SMS messaging. 3G networks focused on packet switching and higher data speeds for internet access through emerging standards like WCDMA and CDMA2000. The first 3G networks launched in 2001 in Japan and South Korea.
The document summarizes satellite communications and its components. It discusses how satellites are placed in geosynchronous orbit to appear stationary over a location on Earth. It describes the uplink and downlink systems, and how multiple satellites can provide global coverage through cross-linking. The key components of a satellite are also outlined, including the transponder and antenna system, power package, and control/information and thruster systems. Common uses of satellite communications discussed include traditional telecommunications, cellular networks, and television broadcasting.
The document discusses various types of amplitude modulation including double sideband full carrier (DSB-FC), double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), and single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC). It also covers power in amplitude modulation, noting that the carrier contains most power while each sideband contains half the carrier power. Finally, it defines modulation index as the ratio of the modulating signal to the unmodulated carrier signal, which should not exceed 1 or 100% modulation to avoid signal distortion.
This document describes an experiment on pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The objectives are to demonstrate PCM encoding and decoding, show how the ADC sampling rate relates to analog signal frequency, and examine the effect of low-pass filtering on the DAC output. The experiment involves using an 8-bit ADC to sample an analog signal and an 8-bit DAC to reconstruct the signal, with a low-pass filter to smooth the DAC output.
This document describes an experiment to demonstrate pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The objectives are to encode and decode analog signals using PCM and observe the effects of sampling rate and low-pass filtering. An 8-bit ADC samples an analog input and converts it to an 8-bit digital code. The DAC then reconverts the digital code to an analog output. Low-pass filtering the DAC output smooths the steps to approximate the original analog signal.
1) The experiment demonstrated pulse code modulation (PCM) encoding using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and decoding using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
2) The sampling frequency determined by the pulse generator was measured to be 250 kHz, which was higher than twice the analog input frequency, satisfying the Nyquist criterion.
3) After low-pass filtering the DAC output, the waveform was smoothed into a close approximation of the original analog input signal.
This document describes an experiment to demonstrate pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The experiment will encode an analog input signal using an 8-bit ADC and decode it back to an analog output using an 8-bit DAC. The sampling rate of the ADC will determine how well high frequency components of the original analog signal are represented. Passing the DAC's staircase output through a low-pass filter will smooth it into a representation that is closer to the original analog waveform.
1. The experiment demonstrated pulse code modulation (PCM) encoding using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and PCM decoding using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
2. The sampling frequency determined by the ADC sampling rate generator affected the time between samples on the DAC output. A lower sampling frequency resulted in a longer time between samples and vice versa.
3. The filter cutoff frequency was unaffected by changes to the sampling frequency generator. It was determined solely by the filter capacitor value. With a higher capacitor value, the cutoff frequency decreased.
This document describes an experiment to demonstrate pulse-code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The objectives are to encode and decode analog signals using PCM and demonstrate how the sampling rate affects the reproduction of analog signals. The experiment uses an 8-bit ADC to sample an analog input signal and convert it to an 8-bit digital code. The digital output is then converted back to an analog signal using an 8-bit DAC. A low-pass filter is used to smooth the staircase output of the DAC into a representation of the original analog input signal.
The document describes an experiment demonstrating pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The experiment showed how the ADC sampling rate must be at least twice the analog signal frequency to avoid aliasing. It also showed that a low-pass filter can smooth the DAC's staircase output into a representation of the original analog signal. The conclusions were that PCM can digitize analog signals for digital communication, with ADC and DAC performing the encoding and decoding, and that the filter output retains the analog input frequency regardless of the sampling rate.
The document presents information on digital to analog conversion (DAC). It discusses the basic concept of DAC, where a digital input is converted to a proportional analog output. It then describes two common types of DAC - the weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC. Applications of DACs are also highlighted, such as in digital audio, function generators, and motor controllers. The document provides details on the circuit design and output calculation for both weighted resistor and R-2R ladder DACs. It concludes that the R-2R ladder DAC only requires two resistor values but has slower conversion than the weighted resistor DAC.
This document provides information on the 74F08 integrated circuit, which is a quad two-input AND gate. It includes specifications on propagation delay, supply current, pin configurations, logic diagram, input/output loading, and absolute maximum ratings. The 74F08 is available in commercial and industrial temperature ranges from -40°C to +85°C.
1. The document describes the design of a dynamo-speedometer system that uses the rotational power of a bicycle to determine its speed.
2. The system works by converting the AC voltage output of the dynamo into a regulated DC voltage, then measuring the frequency of the AC signal to determine the rotational speed.
3. The speed is determined either by a digital circuit that counts pulses and displays the speed on 7-segment displays, or by a microcontroller that uses timers to measure frequency and displays the speed on an LCD screen.
This document discusses digital to analog converters (DACs). It begins by defining analog and digital signals and what a DAC is. It then describes two common types of DACs: (1) weighted resistor DACs, which use a series of weighted resistors to convert digital codes to analog voltages; and (2) R-2R ladder DACs, which only require two resistor values and are easier to implement accurately. The document concludes by listing some applications of DACs such as digital audio players, signal generators, and motor controllers.
A digital to analog converter (DAC) accepts a binary input and produces a proportional analog output signal. A 4-bit DAC has 4 digital inputs representing the 4 bits, with the most significant bit (MSB) as d0 and least significant bit (LSB) as d3. The output voltage v0 is plotted against all possible 16 input combinations. An inverted R/2R ladder DAC uses identical resistors and voltage scaling instead of resistor scaling and a common reference used in a binary-weighted resistor DAC. It uses additional series resistors between nodes for voltage dropping. In a 3-bit R/2R ladder DAC, the binary input 001 connects switches to ground or the inverting op
The Arduino is described as being low cost, easy to use, open source and compatible with multiple platforms. The initial labs focus on basics like blinking an LED and interfacing with the serial port. Later labs introduce communicating with GPS devices and integrating multiple devices. The document outlines various common electronic components that can be interfaced with Arduino like displays, sensors and more. It also defines some common terms used and provides instructions for setting up the Arduino software and board. Contact information is provided for further queries.
The document is a presentation on digital to analog conversion (DAC) submitted by three students to their lecturer. It provides an overview of DAC, including definitions and applications. It describes the operation of two common DAC types: weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC. For each, it explains how the output analog voltage is determined from the digital input and compares their advantages and disadvantages.
The document describes an algorithm for synthesizing a system-level bus from a set of communication channels. The algorithm determines the optimal bus width to balance performance and interconnect cost. It computes the bus rate based on width and delay, and channel rates based on data access patterns and transfer sizes. The bus rate must be greater than or equal to the peak rates of the channels to avoid bottlenecks. The algorithm relates the bus and channel rates to efficiently implement the channels with a single bus.
1. Analog to digital converters (ADCs) sample analog signals and convert them into digital words. This allows analog signals from sensors to be processed digitally.
2. The conversion process has two steps - quantization breaks down the analog value into discrete levels, and encoding assigns a digital code to each level. For example, a 3-bit ADC of a 0-10V signal quantizes it into 8 levels separated by 1.25V and encodes each with a 3-bit binary code.
3. There are several types of ADCs including flash, successive approximation, delta-sigma, and dual slope. Flash ADCs are fastest but most expensive, while successive approximation and dual slope ADCs are slower
The buck converter simulation example evaluates the switching waveforms and power switch voltages and currents. The specifications include a voltage output of 5V from an input voltage ranging from 7-40V. Inductor and capacitor values are selected to be 330uH and 330uF respectively. Simulation results are obtained for the switching waveforms, power switch voltages and currents using the average models with analysis directives to skip the breakpoints for a 10ms transient simulation.
The document discusses different types of analog to digital converters (ADCs). It describes 6 main types - counter/ramp ADC, tracking ADC, successive approximation ADC, flash ADC, delta-sigma ADC, and dual slope integrating ADC. For each type it provides a brief overview of the operating principle and block diagram. It also discusses important ADC specifications and parameters such as resolution, quantization error, dynamic range, signal to noise ratio, aperture delay etc.
The document describes an 8-bit pipelined analog-to-digital converter (ADC) with a selectable resolution of 5-8 bits. The ADC was fabricated in a 0.13-micron CMOS process and achieves an effective number of bits of 6.10 in 8-bit mode with a 162 MHz input signal. Key aspects of the ADC include double sampling to relax amplifier settling times, redundant sign digit correction to compensate comparator offsets, and a two-stage op-amp design to provide sufficient gain and signal headroom given the low 1.2V supply voltage. Measured performance meets the requirements for medium resolution and sampling rate ADCs in modern synthetic aperture radar systems.
This document describes a simple 0-5V digital voltmeter circuit using an 8051 microcontroller. The circuit uses an ADC0804 analog-to-digital converter to convert the input voltage to a digital value which is then displayed on a 7-segment display. The program controls the ADC to get a digital reading, manipulates the value to display it on the display properly, and multiplexes the display digits by activating the display driver transistors at different times.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 2 - FINALS (for PULA)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes an experiment conducted on a class B push-pull power amplifier. The objectives were to determine the dc and ac load lines, observe crossover distortion, measure maximum output voltage and power, and calculate efficiency. The circuit diagram and theory of operation for a class B push-pull amplifier are provided. Key steps in the procedure involve using simulations and equipment to analyze the input/output waveforms, dc bias voltages, and performance metrics.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 2 - FINALS (for CAUAN)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes Experiment #2 on a class B push-pull power amplifier. The objectives are to determine the dc and ac load lines, observe crossover distortion, measure voltage gain, output power, and efficiency. Sample computations are provided for voltage gain, output power, input power, and efficiency. The theory section describes class B push-pull amplifiers and how biasing the transistors slightly above cutoff can eliminate crossover distortion. Procedures are outlined to simulate and measure the amplifier's input, output, voltage gain, power output, and efficiency.
This document describes an experiment on pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The objectives are to demonstrate PCM encoding and decoding, show how the ADC sampling rate relates to analog signal frequency, and examine the effect of low-pass filtering on the DAC output. The experiment involves using an 8-bit ADC to sample an analog signal and an 8-bit DAC to reconstruct the signal, with a low-pass filter to smooth the DAC output.
This document describes an experiment to demonstrate pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The objectives are to encode and decode analog signals using PCM and observe the effects of sampling rate and low-pass filtering. An 8-bit ADC samples an analog input and converts it to an 8-bit digital code. The DAC then reconverts the digital code to an analog output. Low-pass filtering the DAC output smooths the steps to approximate the original analog signal.
1) The experiment demonstrated pulse code modulation (PCM) encoding using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and decoding using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
2) The sampling frequency determined by the pulse generator was measured to be 250 kHz, which was higher than twice the analog input frequency, satisfying the Nyquist criterion.
3) After low-pass filtering the DAC output, the waveform was smoothed into a close approximation of the original analog input signal.
This document describes an experiment to demonstrate pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The experiment will encode an analog input signal using an 8-bit ADC and decode it back to an analog output using an 8-bit DAC. The sampling rate of the ADC will determine how well high frequency components of the original analog signal are represented. Passing the DAC's staircase output through a low-pass filter will smooth it into a representation that is closer to the original analog waveform.
1. The experiment demonstrated pulse code modulation (PCM) encoding using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and PCM decoding using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
2. The sampling frequency determined by the ADC sampling rate generator affected the time between samples on the DAC output. A lower sampling frequency resulted in a longer time between samples and vice versa.
3. The filter cutoff frequency was unaffected by changes to the sampling frequency generator. It was determined solely by the filter capacitor value. With a higher capacitor value, the cutoff frequency decreased.
This document describes an experiment to demonstrate pulse-code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The objectives are to encode and decode analog signals using PCM and demonstrate how the sampling rate affects the reproduction of analog signals. The experiment uses an 8-bit ADC to sample an analog input signal and convert it to an 8-bit digital code. The digital output is then converted back to an analog signal using an 8-bit DAC. A low-pass filter is used to smooth the staircase output of the DAC into a representation of the original analog input signal.
The document describes an experiment demonstrating pulse code modulation (PCM) using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The experiment showed how the ADC sampling rate must be at least twice the analog signal frequency to avoid aliasing. It also showed that a low-pass filter can smooth the DAC's staircase output into a representation of the original analog signal. The conclusions were that PCM can digitize analog signals for digital communication, with ADC and DAC performing the encoding and decoding, and that the filter output retains the analog input frequency regardless of the sampling rate.
The document presents information on digital to analog conversion (DAC). It discusses the basic concept of DAC, where a digital input is converted to a proportional analog output. It then describes two common types of DAC - the weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC. Applications of DACs are also highlighted, such as in digital audio, function generators, and motor controllers. The document provides details on the circuit design and output calculation for both weighted resistor and R-2R ladder DACs. It concludes that the R-2R ladder DAC only requires two resistor values but has slower conversion than the weighted resistor DAC.
This document provides information on the 74F08 integrated circuit, which is a quad two-input AND gate. It includes specifications on propagation delay, supply current, pin configurations, logic diagram, input/output loading, and absolute maximum ratings. The 74F08 is available in commercial and industrial temperature ranges from -40°C to +85°C.
1. The document describes the design of a dynamo-speedometer system that uses the rotational power of a bicycle to determine its speed.
2. The system works by converting the AC voltage output of the dynamo into a regulated DC voltage, then measuring the frequency of the AC signal to determine the rotational speed.
3. The speed is determined either by a digital circuit that counts pulses and displays the speed on 7-segment displays, or by a microcontroller that uses timers to measure frequency and displays the speed on an LCD screen.
This document discusses digital to analog converters (DACs). It begins by defining analog and digital signals and what a DAC is. It then describes two common types of DACs: (1) weighted resistor DACs, which use a series of weighted resistors to convert digital codes to analog voltages; and (2) R-2R ladder DACs, which only require two resistor values and are easier to implement accurately. The document concludes by listing some applications of DACs such as digital audio players, signal generators, and motor controllers.
A digital to analog converter (DAC) accepts a binary input and produces a proportional analog output signal. A 4-bit DAC has 4 digital inputs representing the 4 bits, with the most significant bit (MSB) as d0 and least significant bit (LSB) as d3. The output voltage v0 is plotted against all possible 16 input combinations. An inverted R/2R ladder DAC uses identical resistors and voltage scaling instead of resistor scaling and a common reference used in a binary-weighted resistor DAC. It uses additional series resistors between nodes for voltage dropping. In a 3-bit R/2R ladder DAC, the binary input 001 connects switches to ground or the inverting op
The Arduino is described as being low cost, easy to use, open source and compatible with multiple platforms. The initial labs focus on basics like blinking an LED and interfacing with the serial port. Later labs introduce communicating with GPS devices and integrating multiple devices. The document outlines various common electronic components that can be interfaced with Arduino like displays, sensors and more. It also defines some common terms used and provides instructions for setting up the Arduino software and board. Contact information is provided for further queries.
The document is a presentation on digital to analog conversion (DAC) submitted by three students to their lecturer. It provides an overview of DAC, including definitions and applications. It describes the operation of two common DAC types: weighted resistor DAC and R-2R ladder DAC. For each, it explains how the output analog voltage is determined from the digital input and compares their advantages and disadvantages.
The document describes an algorithm for synthesizing a system-level bus from a set of communication channels. The algorithm determines the optimal bus width to balance performance and interconnect cost. It computes the bus rate based on width and delay, and channel rates based on data access patterns and transfer sizes. The bus rate must be greater than or equal to the peak rates of the channels to avoid bottlenecks. The algorithm relates the bus and channel rates to efficiently implement the channels with a single bus.
1. Analog to digital converters (ADCs) sample analog signals and convert them into digital words. This allows analog signals from sensors to be processed digitally.
2. The conversion process has two steps - quantization breaks down the analog value into discrete levels, and encoding assigns a digital code to each level. For example, a 3-bit ADC of a 0-10V signal quantizes it into 8 levels separated by 1.25V and encodes each with a 3-bit binary code.
3. There are several types of ADCs including flash, successive approximation, delta-sigma, and dual slope. Flash ADCs are fastest but most expensive, while successive approximation and dual slope ADCs are slower
The buck converter simulation example evaluates the switching waveforms and power switch voltages and currents. The specifications include a voltage output of 5V from an input voltage ranging from 7-40V. Inductor and capacitor values are selected to be 330uH and 330uF respectively. Simulation results are obtained for the switching waveforms, power switch voltages and currents using the average models with analysis directives to skip the breakpoints for a 10ms transient simulation.
The document discusses different types of analog to digital converters (ADCs). It describes 6 main types - counter/ramp ADC, tracking ADC, successive approximation ADC, flash ADC, delta-sigma ADC, and dual slope integrating ADC. For each type it provides a brief overview of the operating principle and block diagram. It also discusses important ADC specifications and parameters such as resolution, quantization error, dynamic range, signal to noise ratio, aperture delay etc.
The document describes an 8-bit pipelined analog-to-digital converter (ADC) with a selectable resolution of 5-8 bits. The ADC was fabricated in a 0.13-micron CMOS process and achieves an effective number of bits of 6.10 in 8-bit mode with a 162 MHz input signal. Key aspects of the ADC include double sampling to relax amplifier settling times, redundant sign digit correction to compensate comparator offsets, and a two-stage op-amp design to provide sufficient gain and signal headroom given the low 1.2V supply voltage. Measured performance meets the requirements for medium resolution and sampling rate ADCs in modern synthetic aperture radar systems.
This document describes a simple 0-5V digital voltmeter circuit using an 8051 microcontroller. The circuit uses an ADC0804 analog-to-digital converter to convert the input voltage to a digital value which is then displayed on a 7-segment display. The program controls the ADC to get a digital reading, manipulates the value to display it on the display properly, and multiplexes the display digits by activating the display driver transistors at different times.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 2 - FINALS (for PULA)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes an experiment conducted on a class B push-pull power amplifier. The objectives were to determine the dc and ac load lines, observe crossover distortion, measure maximum output voltage and power, and calculate efficiency. The circuit diagram and theory of operation for a class B push-pull amplifier are provided. Key steps in the procedure involve using simulations and equipment to analyze the input/output waveforms, dc bias voltages, and performance metrics.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 2 - FINALS (for CAUAN)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes Experiment #2 on a class B push-pull power amplifier. The objectives are to determine the dc and ac load lines, observe crossover distortion, measure voltage gain, output power, and efficiency. Sample computations are provided for voltage gain, output power, input power, and efficiency. The theory section describes class B push-pull amplifiers and how biasing the transistors slightly above cutoff can eliminate crossover distortion. Procedures are outlined to simulate and measure the amplifier's input, output, voltage gain, power output, and efficiency.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for PULA)Sarah Krystelle
The document describes Experiment #1 on a class A power amplifier. It involves determining the operating point (Q-point) on the DC and AC load lines, measuring the voltage gain, maximum undistorted output, and efficiency. The student is to perform steps such as calculating voltages/currents, drawing load lines, measuring gain, and adjusting the emitter resistance to center the Q-point on the AC load line. Objectives include analyzing the amplifier's DC and AC characteristics, measuring linearity and maximum output before clipping occurs.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for CAUAN)Sarah Krystelle
This document describes an experiment conducted on a Class B push-pull power amplifier. The experiment involves determining the operating point on the DC and AC load lines, centering the operating point on the AC load line, measuring the voltage gain, maximum undistorted output power, and efficiency of the amplifier. Objectives of the experiment include locating the operating point, drawing load lines, measuring voltage gain, output power, and efficiency. Components used include a transistor, resistors, capacitors, a power supply, function generator, oscilloscope and multimeter. Calculations are shown for determining load lines, voltage gain, output power and efficiency. Results are recorded for undistorted output voltage and input voltage.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for AGDON)Sarah Krystelle
This experiment analyzed the operation of a class A power amplifier. Key findings include:
1) The initial operating point (Q-point) was not centered on the AC load line, resulting in output clipping.
2) Adjusting the emitter resistance centered the Q-point on the AC load line, eliminating clipping and increasing the maximum undistorted output voltage.
3) A class A amplifier has low efficiency due to conduction over the entire input cycle, but provides the most linear amplification.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT 1 - FINALS (for ABDON)Sarah Krystelle
The document describes Experiment #1 on a class A power amplifier. Key points:
1. The operating point (Q-point) of the amplifier was initially not centered on the AC load line, causing distortion. Adjusting the emitter resistor centered the Q-point.
2. With the centered Q-point, the maximum undistorted output voltage increased. The expected and measured output voltages matched closely.
3. A class A amplifier has low efficiency due to conduction over the full input cycle, but provides an undistorted output waveform.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT AMPLITUDE MODULATIONSarah Krystelle
1. The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) involving modulating a carrier signal with different modulation indexes and frequencies.
2. Key objectives are to demonstrate AM signals in the time and frequency domains, determine modulation indexes and bandwidths, and compare side frequency levels.
3. Amplitude modulation varies the amplitude of a carrier signal based on an information-carrying modulating signal. This generates sidebands above and below the carrier frequency.
SIGNAL SPECTRA EXPERIMENT AMPLITUDE MODULATION COPY 2Sarah Krystelle
This experiment demonstrates amplitude modulation (AM) using a circuit that multiplies a carrier signal with a modulating signal and adds the results.
1. The experiment showed AM signals in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes. In the time domain, the envelope matched the modulating signal.
2. For 100% modulation, the sideband voltages were half the carrier voltage, matching expectations. The bandwidth matched the modulating frequency.
3. Reducing the modulating signal amplitude to 0.5 V resulted in a modulation index near 50%, close to the expected value, demonstrating the circuit can produce AM signals.
This document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation. The objectives are to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains, determine modulation index from plots, and examine how modulation index affects sideband levels. The experiment uses a circuit to multiply a carrier and modulating signal, producing an AM carrier viewed on an oscilloscope in the time domain and a spectrum analyzer in the frequency domain. For a modulation index of 1, the sideband voltage is half the carrier voltage as expected. Changing the modulating signal amplitude produces a lower modulation index as seen in the modulated carrier plot.
1. The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) that demonstrates AM in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and modulating frequencies.
2. Key objectives are to observe the modulation index, sideband frequencies, bandwidth, and power distribution between the carrier and sidebands for AM signals.
3. The experiment uses a circuit that multiplies a carrier signal with a modulating signal to generate an AM signal, which is then observed on an oscilloscope in the time domain and a spectrum analyzer in the frequency domain.
The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM). The objectives are to demonstrate AM signals in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies. Key aspects covered include modulation index, sideband frequencies, bandwidth, and power distribution between the carrier and sidebands. The experiment uses function generators, an oscilloscope, and spectrum analyzer to generate and analyze AM signals.
1. The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) that aims to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies.
2. Key objectives are to determine modulation index, side frequency levels, signal bandwidth, and effects of complex modulation.
3. AM involves varying the amplitude of a carrier wave using a modulating signal, generating sidebands above and below the carrier frequency. The bandwidth occupied depends on the modulating signal frequencies.
1) The document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM) involving demonstrating AM signals in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies.
2) Key aspects of AM are discussed, including how the modulation index is defined and relates to percent modulation. Modulation indexes above 1 cause overmodulation and distortion.
3) AM generates sidebands above and below the carrier frequency by the modulating frequency. The bandwidth occupied depends on the highest modulating frequency components.
This document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation. The objectives are to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains for different modulation indexes and frequencies. The experiment uses a circuit to mathematically multiply a carrier signal with a modulating signal. Key findings include:
- For a 5 kHz modulating signal, the modulation index was 100% and sideband frequencies were 5 kHz from the 100 kHz carrier.
- Reducing the modulating signal to 0.5 V reduced the modulation index to 51%, as expected based on the signal amplitudes.
- Sideband voltage levels were half the carrier voltage for 100% modulation, matching theoretical calculations.
This experiment examines amplitude modulation (AM) using a circuit that mathematically multiplies a carrier signal and a modulating signal.
When the modulating signal amplitude is 1 V, the modulation index is 100% based on both calculation and observation of the modulated carrier waveform. The frequency spectrum shows sidebands separated from the carrier by the modulating frequency.
Reducing the modulating signal to 0.5 V yields a modulation index of 50% as expected. Overall the experiment demonstrates the generation of an AM signal and measurement of modulation index from the signal waveform and spectrum.
This document describes an experiment on amplitude modulation (AM). The objectives are to demonstrate AM in the time and frequency domains, determine modulation index and bandwidth, and examine how sideband power depends on modulation index. The experiment uses a circuit to mathematically multiply a carrier and modulating signal. Measurements are made on an oscilloscope in the time domain and a spectrum analyzer in the frequency domain. Results show the expected relationships between carrier, sideband frequencies and voltages, and how modulation index impacts bandwidth and sideband power. Changing the modulating signal amplitude alters the measured modulation index as expected.
This document discusses Fourier theory and how it can be used to represent non-sinusoidal signals as a combination of sinusoidal waves of different frequencies and amplitudes. It provides examples of how square waves and triangular waves can be produced by adding together sine and cosine waves. The document also discusses the difference between analyzing signals in the time domain versus the frequency domain and how these representations provide different insights. Finally, it discusses how Fourier analysis can be used to understand the bandwidth requirements to transmit digital pulses accurately.
1. The document describes an experiment on Fourier theory and how signals can be represented in both the time domain and frequency domain. Square waves and triangular waves are generated from a series of sine and cosine waves (Fourier series) and plotted in both domains.
2. Low-pass filters are used to remove higher harmonics from signals. This distorts the original waveshape as more harmonics are removed. The bandwidth needed to transmit pulses with minimal distortion depends on the duty cycle.
3. Objectives include learning how square and triangular waves can be produced from Fourier series, comparing time and frequency domain plots, and examining how duty cycle and filtering affect pulses in both domains.
This document discusses Fourier analysis of signals in the time and frequency domains. It explains that any non-sinusoidal periodic signal can be represented as a sum of sinusoidal waves of different frequencies and amplitudes. Signals are normally expressed in the time domain but Fourier theory allows expressing them in the frequency domain. The frequency spectrum reveals the bandwidth needed to transmit the signal with minimal distortion. Fourier analysis is useful for analyzing digital pulses, and the duty cycle of a periodic pulse train affects its frequency spectrum. Sample circuits are provided to generate square and triangular waves using Fourier series approximations.
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Objective2
1. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Amafel Bldg. Aguinaldo Highway Dasmariñas City, Cavite
EXPERIMENT 2
Digital Communication of Analog Data Using Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM)
Bani, Arviclyn C. September 20, 2011
Signal Spectra and Signal Processing/BSECE 41A1 Score:
Engr. Grace Ramones
Instructor
2. Objectives:
1. Demonstrate PCM encoding using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
2. Demonstrate PCM encoding using an digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
3. Demonstrate how the ADC sampling rate is related to the analog signal frequency.
4. Demonstrate the effect of low-pass filtering on the decoder (DAC) output.
4. Data Sheet:
Materials
One ac signal generator
One pulse generator
One dual-trace oscilloscope
One dc power supply
One ADC0801 A/D converter (ADC)
One DAC0808 (1401) D/A converter (DAC)
Two SPDT switches
One 100 nF capacitor
Resistors: 100 Ω, 10 kΩ
Theory
Electronic communications is the transmission and reception of information over a communications
channel using electronic circuits. Information is defined as knowledge or intelligence such as audio voice
or music, video, or digital data. Often the information id unsuitable for transmission in its original form
and must be converted to a form that is suitable for the communications system. When the
communications system is digital, analog signals must be converted into digital form prior to
transmission.
The most widely used technique for digitizing is the analog information signals for transmission on a
digital communications system is pulse-code modulation (PCM), which we will be studied in this
experiment. Pulse-code modulation (PCM) consists of the conversion of a series of sampled analog
voltage levels into a sequence of binary codes, with each binary number that is proportional to the
magnitude of the voltage level sampled. Translating analog voltages into binary codes is called A/D
conversion, digitizing, or encoding. The device used to perform this conversion process called an A/D
converter, or ADC.
An ADC requires a conversion time, in which is the time required to convert each analog voltage into its
binary code. During the ADC conversion time, the analog input voltage must remain constant. The
conversion time for most modern A/D converters is short enough so that the analog input voltage will
not change during the conversion time. For high-frequency information signals, the analog voltage will
change during the conversion time, introducing an error called an aperture error. In this case a sample
and hold amplifier (S/H amplifier) will be required at the input of the ADC. The S/H amplifier accepts the
input and passes it through to the ADC input unchanged during the sample mode. During the hold
mode, the sampled analog voltage is stored at the instant of sampling, making the output of the S/H
amplifier a fixed dc voltage level. Therefore, the ADC input will be a fixed dc voltage during the ADC
conversion time.
The rate at which the analog input voltage is sampled is called the sampling rate. The ADC conversion
time puts a limit on the sampling rate because the next sample cannot be read until the previous
conversion time is complete. The sampling rate is important because it determines the highest analog
signal frequency that can be sampled. In order to retain the high-frequency information in the analog
signal acting sampled, a sufficient number of samples must be taken so that all of the voltage changes
in the waveform are adequately represented. Because a modern ADC has a very short conversion time,
a high sampling rate is possible resulting in better reproduction of high0frequency analog signals.
Nyquist frequency is equal to twice the highest analog signal frequency component. Although
5. theoretically analog signal can be sampled at the Nyquist frequency, in practice the sampling rate is
usually higher, depending on the application and other factors such as channel bandwidth and cost
limitations.
In a PCM system, the binary codes generated by the ADC are converted into serial pulses and
transmitted over the communications medium, or channel, to the PCM receiver one bit at a time. At the
receiver, the serial pulses are converted back to the original sequence of parallel binary codes. This
sequence of binary codes is reconverted into a series of analog voltage levels in a D/A converter (DAC),
often called a decoder. In a properly designed system, these analog voltage levels should be close to the
analog voltage levels sampled at the transmitter. Because the sequence of binary codes applied to the
DAC input represent a series of dc voltage levels, the output of the DAC has a staircase (step)
characteristic. Therefore, the resulting DAC output voltage waveshape is only an approximation to the
original analog voltage waveshape at the transmitter. These steps can be smoothed out into an analog
voltage variation by passing the DAC output through a low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency that is
higher than the highest-frequency component in the analog information signal. The low-pass filter
changes the steps into a smooth curve by eliminating many of the harmonic frequency. If the sampling
rate at the transmitter is high enough, the low-pass filter output should be a good representation of the
original analog signal.
In this experiment, pulse code modulation (encoding) and demodulation (decoding) will be
demonstrated using an 8-bit ADC feeding an 8-bit DAC, as shown in Figure 2-1. This ADC will convert
each of the sampled analog voltages into 8-bit binary code as that represent binary numbers
proportional to the magnitude of the sampled analog voltages. The sampling frequency generator,
connected to the start-of conversion (SOC) terminal on the ADC, will start conversion at the beginning of
each sampling pulse. Therefore, the frequency of the sampling frequency generator will determine the
sampling frequency (sampling rate) of the ADC. The 5 volts connected to the VREF+ terminal of the
ADC sets the voltage range to 0-5 V. The 5 volts connected to the output (OE) terminal on the ADC will
keep the digital output connected to the digital bus. The DAC will convert these digital codes back to the
sampled analog voltage levels. This will result in a staircase output, which will follow the original analog
voltage variations. The staircase output of the DAC feeds of a low-pass filter, which will produce a
smooth output curve that should be a close approximation to the original analog input curve. The 5 volts
connected to the + terminal of the DAC sets the voltage range 0-5 V. The values of resistor R and
capacitor C determine the cutoff frequency (fC) of the low-pass filter, which is determined from the
equation
Figure 23–1 Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM)
6. XSC2
G
T
A B C D
S1 VCC
Key = A 5V
U1
Vin D0
S2
D1
V2 D2
D3 Key = B
2 Vpk D4
10kHz
D5
0° Vref+
D6
Vref-
D7
SOC VCC
OE EOC 5V
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
ADC
V1 Vref+ R1
VDAC8 Output
5V -0V Vref- 100Ω
200kHz
U2
R2
10kΩ C1
100nF
In an actual PCM system, the ADC output would be transmitted to serial format over a transmission line
to the receiver and converted back to parallel format before being applied to the DAC input. In Figure
23-1, the ADC output is connected to the DAC input by the digital bus for demonstration purposes only.
PROCEDURE:
Step 1 Open circuit file FIG 23-1. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement. Make sure that
the following settings are selected. Time base (Scale = 20 µs/Div, Xpos = 0 Y/T),
Ch A(Scale 2 V/Div, Ypos = 0, DC) Ch B (Scale = 2 V/Div, Ypos = 0, DC), Trigger
(Pos edge, Level = 0, Auto). Run the simulation to completion. (Wait for the
simulation to begin). You have plotted the analog input signal (red) and the DAC
output (blue) on the oscilloscope. Measure the time between samples (T S) on the
DAC output curve plot.
TS = 4 µs
Step 2 Calculate the sampling frequency (fS) based on the time between samples (TS)
fS = 250 kHz
Question: How did the measure sampling frequency compare with the frequency of the sampling
frequency generator?
They have a difference of 50 kHz.
How did the sampling frequency compare with the analog input frequency? Was it more than twice the
analog input frequency?
It is 20 times the analog input frequency. Yes it is more than twice the analog input frequency.
How did the sampling frequency compare with the Nyquist frequency?
7. It 6.28 times more than the sampling frequency.
Step 3 Click the arrow in the circuit window and press the A key to change Switch A to the
sampling generator output. Change the oscilloscope time base to 10 µs/Div. Run the
simulation for one oscilloscope screen display, and then pause the simulation. You are
plotting the sampling generator (red) and the DAC output (blue).
Question: What is the relationship between the sampling generator output and the DAC staircase
output?
The staircase output and the sampling generator output are both in digital form
Step 4 Change the oscilloscope time base scale to 20 µs/Div. Click the arrow in the circuit window
and press the A key to change Switch A to the analog input. Press the B key to change the
Switch B to Filter Output. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation
to completion. You are plotting the analog input (red) and the low-pass filter output (blue)
on the oscilloscope
Questions: What happened to the DAC output after filtering? Is the filter output waveshape a close
representation of the analog input waveshape?
The DAC output became analog after it was being filtered. Yes.
Step 5 Calculate the cutoff frequency (fC) of the low-pass filter.
fC = 15.915 kHz
Question: How does the filter cutoff frequency compare with the analog input frequency?
They have difference of approximately 6 kHz.
Step 6 Change the filter capacitor (C) to 20 nF and calculate the new cutoff frequency (f C).
fC = 79.577 kHz
Step 7 Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion again.
Question: How did the new filter output compare with the previous filter output? Explain.
It is almost the same.
Step 8 Change the filter capacitor (C) back to 100 nF. Change the Switch B back to the DAC output.
Change the frequency of the sampling frequency generator to 100 kHz. Bring down the
oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion. You are plotting the analog
input (red) and the DAC output (blue) on the oscilloscope screen. Measure the time
between the samples (TS) on the DAC output curve plot (blue)
TS = 9.5µs
Question: How does the time between the samples in Step 8 compare with the time between the
samples in Step 1?
It doubles.
Step 9 Calculate the new sampling frequency (f S) based on the time between the samples (TS) in
Step 8?
fS=105.26Hz
Question: How does the new sampling frequency compare with the analog input frequency?
It is 10 times the analog input frequency.
Step 10 Click the arrow in the circuit window and change the Switch B to the filter output. Bring
down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation again.
Question: How does the curve plot in Step 10 compare with the curve plot in Step 4 at the higher
sampling frequency? Is the curve as smooth as in Step 4? Explain why.
Yes, they are the same. It is as smooth as in Step 4. Nothing changed. It does not affect
the filter.
Step 11 Change the frequency of the sampling frequency generator to 50 kHz and change Switch B
back to the DAC output. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to
completion. Measure the time between samples (TS) on the DAC output curve plot (blue).
8. TS = 19µs
Question: How does the time between samples in Step 11 compare with the time between the samples
in Step 8?
It doubles.
Step 12 Calculate the new sampling frequency (fS) based on the time between samples (TS) in Step
11.
fS=52.631 kHz
Question: How does the new sampling frequency compare with the analog input frequency?
It is 5 times the analog input.
Step 13 Click the arrow in the circuit window and change the Switch B to the filter output. Bring
down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion again.
Question: How does the curve plot in Step 13 compare with the curve plot in Step 10 at the higher
sampling frequency? Is the curve as smooth as in Step 10? Explain why.
Yes, nothing changed. The frequency of the sampling generator does not affect the filter.
Step 14 Calculate the frequency of the filter output (f) based on the period for one cycle (T).
T=10kHz
Question: How does the frequency of the filter output compare with the frequency of the analog input?
Was this expected based on the sampling frequency? Explain why.
It is the same. Yes, it is expected.
Step 15 Change the frequency of the sampling frequency generator to 15 kHz and change Switch B
back to the DAC output. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to
completion. Measure the time between samples (TS) on the DAC output curve plot (blue)
TS = 66.5µs
Question: How does the time between samples in Step 15 compare with the time between samples in
Step 11?
It is 3.5 times more than the time in Step 11.
Step 16 Calculate the new sampling frequency (fS) based on the time between samples (TS) in Step
15.
fS=15.037 kHz
Question: How does the new sampling frequency compare with the analog input frequency?
It is 5 kHz greater than the analog input frequency.
How does the new sampling frequency compare with the Nyquist frequency?
It is 6.28 times smaller than the Nyquist frequency.
Step 17 Click the arrow in the circuit window and change the Switch B to the filter output. Bring
down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion again.
Question: How does the curve plot in Step 17 compare with the curve plot in Step 13 at the higher
sampling frequency?
They are the same.
Step 18 Calculate the frequency of the filter output (f) based on the time period for one cycle (T).
f=10kHz
Question: How does the frequency of the filter output compare with the frequency of the analog input?
Was this expected based on the sampling frequency?
It is the same. Yes, it is expected.
9. CONCLUSION:
Therefore, I conclude that we can convert analog data to digital data through Pulse-Code
Modulation. An ADC or Analog-to –Digital Converter is use to encode PCM while DAC or Digital-to-Analog
Converter is use to decode PCM. The DAC output is looks like a staircase. The frequency is supplied by the
sampling frequency generator and is inversely proportional to the sampling time. The cutoff frequency is
generated by the capacitor and the resistor, and is not affected by the sampling frequency generator. It is
inversely proportional to the capacitance and resistance. The frequency of the output filter is the same with
the frequency of the input analog frequency, and also the waveshape of the output filter is a close
representation to the input analog signal. The sampling frequency and the DAC output are both digital while
the filter output and the input signal are both in analog.