Organisms require nutrients from food for energy, growth, repair, and health. There are six main types of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids provide energy and are made up of smaller units called monosaccharides, amino acids, and fatty acids, respectively. These macronutrients are broken down into their smaller subunits before the body can use them. In contrast, water and minerals can be absorbed directly.
The document discusses macromolecules, specifically carbohydrates. It provides details on the four main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, such as sucrose and lactose. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage and providing structural components in cells.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by classifying carbohydrates as simple or complex, and as reducing or non-reducing. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are introduced. Glucose is discussed as a key monosaccharide, with its preparation from sucrose and starch. Structural features of glucose such as cyclic and linear forms are described. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are presented as important disaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are highlighted as significant polysaccharides. Stereoisomers including anomers are defined. The biological importance of carbohydrates as an energy source and in structural roles is summarized. Common carbohydrate chemical
This document discusses various types of macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining biochemistry and explaining that it studies the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, focusing on substances like enzymes, hormones, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA. It then discusses the importance of biochemistry in pharmacy and nursing, explaining how it helps understand drug constitution, metabolism, storage and biochemical tests. The document proceeds to discuss carbohydrates in depth, explaining their classification into mono-, di-, oligo- and polysaccharides. It provides examples and functions of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, starch and cellulose. Finally, it briefly introduces lipids and
The document discusses the key nutrients needed by the human body - carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water. It defines each nutrient, describes their chemical composition and basic units, functions in the body, sources, and common tests used for their identification.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their complexity. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and participating in biological processes as components of other biomolecules.
Thromboxane is a lipid derived from arachidonic acid that plays an important role in blood clotting. There are two main types of thromboxane - thromboxane A2, which is produced by activated platelets and stimulates further platelet activation and aggregation, and thromboxane B2, an inactive metabolite of thromboxane A2. The primary function of thromboxane is to restrict blood flow and promote platelet aggregation, helping to form clots that stop bleeding at sites of vascular injury.
Carbohydrates are one of the four major macromolecules and are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structural components, and cell signaling. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Polysaccharides serve important structural and storage roles. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides through digestion before being absorbed.
The document discusses macromolecules, specifically carbohydrates. It provides details on the four main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, such as sucrose and lactose. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage and providing structural components in cells.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by classifying carbohydrates as simple or complex, and as reducing or non-reducing. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are introduced. Glucose is discussed as a key monosaccharide, with its preparation from sucrose and starch. Structural features of glucose such as cyclic and linear forms are described. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are presented as important disaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are highlighted as significant polysaccharides. Stereoisomers including anomers are defined. The biological importance of carbohydrates as an energy source and in structural roles is summarized. Common carbohydrate chemical
This document discusses various types of macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining biochemistry and explaining that it studies the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, focusing on substances like enzymes, hormones, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA. It then discusses the importance of biochemistry in pharmacy and nursing, explaining how it helps understand drug constitution, metabolism, storage and biochemical tests. The document proceeds to discuss carbohydrates in depth, explaining their classification into mono-, di-, oligo- and polysaccharides. It provides examples and functions of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, starch and cellulose. Finally, it briefly introduces lipids and
The document discusses the key nutrients needed by the human body - carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water. It defines each nutrient, describes their chemical composition and basic units, functions in the body, sources, and common tests used for their identification.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their complexity. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and participating in biological processes as components of other biomolecules.
Thromboxane is a lipid derived from arachidonic acid that plays an important role in blood clotting. There are two main types of thromboxane - thromboxane A2, which is produced by activated platelets and stimulates further platelet activation and aggregation, and thromboxane B2, an inactive metabolite of thromboxane A2. The primary function of thromboxane is to restrict blood flow and promote platelet aggregation, helping to form clots that stop bleeding at sites of vascular injury.
Carbohydrates are one of the four major macromolecules and are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structural components, and cell signaling. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Polysaccharides serve important structural and storage roles. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides through digestion before being absorbed.
This document provides information on carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and explains their four main functions in living organisms. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document focuses on monosaccharides, describing their structures, classifications, stereochemistry including D and L isomers, anomers, mutarotation, and important naturally occurring monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose. It also outlines important reactions of monosaccharides such as oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation, and phosphate ester formation.
This document discusses lipids and their metabolism in the body. It begins by describing lipids and their roles, including as structural components of biological membranes and as an energy storage form. It then details the digestion, absorption, and utilization of dietary lipids. Lipids are emulsified and partially digested in the stomach by lingual and gastric lipases. In the small intestine, emulsification further increases the surface area of lipid droplets for further digestion by pancreatic lipases and absorption. Those unable to digest lipids properly, such as those with cystic fibrosis who lack pancreatic enzymes, rely more on lingual and gastric lipases.
Lipids are fatty substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They serve important structural and energy storage functions in the body. There are three main classes of lipids: simple lipids like fatty acids and triglycerides, compound lipids including phospholipids, and steroids such as cholesterol. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and a precursor for bile acids, vitamin D, and steroid hormones. Cholesterol is transported through the bloodstream within lipoproteins, with LDL cholesterol increasing risk of atherosclerosis and HDL cholesterol protecting against it through reverse cholesterol transport.
The document provides information on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and enzymes. It defines each biomolecule and describes their basic components and structures. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Proteins contain amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures. Lipids are nonpolar and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have optimal pH and temperature ranges for activity. They act specifically by binding substrates in their active sites.
Lec 5 level 3-de(chemistry of carbohydrates)dream10f
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their definition, functions, nomenclature, classification, and digestion. Key points include:
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve as the main energy source. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded together, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides in the mouth, stomach and small intestine by
This document provides an overview of biomolecules. It defines biomolecules and lists the main types as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are further classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document discusses the structures, functions, and medical relevance of various biomolecules.
The document provides an overview of the key biological macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It defines macromolecules as polymers formed from smaller monomer units, and discusses the monomers that make up each macromolecule type (e.g. glucose for carbohydrates). The structures, functions, and examples of each macromolecule are described, such as how carbohydrates provide energy and structure, the levels of protein structure, and how nucleic acids contain the genetic code. Key differences between DNA and RNA are also highlighted.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as an important energy source. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starches/fibers (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further, while disaccharides like sucrose break down into two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides provide structure or store energy and break down into many monosaccharides. Carbohydrates are found widely in plants and are produced through photosynthesis. They are classified based on their structure and whether they are digestible or provide structure. Identification tests can determine the type of unknown carbohydrate sample.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are five major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and nucleotides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed through the joining of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides allow for large storage of glucose and include starch, glycogen, and dietary fiber such as cellulose. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structure, and components of proteins.
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains covalently attached to polypeptide side chains through a process known as glycosylation. There are two main types of glycoproteins: N-linked glycoproteins where sugars are attached to nitrogen on asparagine residues, and O-linked glycoproteins where sugars are attached to oxygen on serine or threonine residues. Glycoproteins play important roles as integral membrane proteins, in cell-cell interactions, stimulating coagulation, and as enzymes, receptors, and proteins involved in homeostasis. Examples include mucins in mucus which have water-holding capacity and resistance to digestion, and antibodies and MHC proteins which interact with antigens and T
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Fats and oils make up 95% of nutritional lipids and occur as both storage and structural components in plants and animals. Lipids play important roles including providing palatability to foods, supplying essential fatty acids, and aiding in vitamin absorption. They are classified based on their structure as simple lipids like fats/oils, compound lipids containing additional groups, or derived lipids formed from hydrolysis. Biological membranes contain lipids that form a fluid bilayer, maintaining permeability and hosting embedded proteins. Membranes are essential for cellular structure and function.
This document discusses different types of polysaccharides. It defines polysaccharides as macromolecules made of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides are divided into homo-polysaccharides containing a single type of monosaccharide (e.g. starch, glycogen) and hetero-polysaccharides containing multiple types (e.g. peptidoglycan, heparin). Key homo-polysaccharides discussed are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and agar. Starch and glycogen function as energy storage, while cellulose provides structure. Key hetero-polysaccharides discussed are mucopolysaccharides, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and peptidoglycan.
Lipids are classified based on their solubility properties. They are soluble in nonpolar solvents but insoluble in water. Lipids serve important functions like energy storage, forming cell membranes, and regulating cell activities. They can be classified as saponifiable or non-saponifiable based on whether they undergo alkaline hydrolysis. Fatty acids are the main constituents of lipids and contain a polar carboxyl group and a nonpolar hydrocarbon chain. Triacylglycerols are composed of fatty acids esterified to glycerol and can be solid fats or liquid oils. Polar lipids like glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids contain a polar head and nonpolar tails, making them essential components of
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as a major energy source. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short-chain sugars), and polysaccharides (long-chain sugars). Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic units that link together to form more complex carbohydrates. Polysaccharides provide structure and storage functions, with cellulose giving structure to plants and glycogen storing glucose in animal tissues. Carbohydrates serve vital energy, structural, and storage roles across living organisms.
estrogen and progestrone persentation ppt is aiaivable here and it is fre for you bto read and take advantage
all rights reserved foe this ppt ( presentation)
The document provides information about biomolecules called carbohydrates. It discusses the three main groups of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is introduced as an important monosaccharide that serves as the major energy source for most cells. The structure of glucose and its alpha and beta isomers are described. Other monosaccharides like fructose and galactose are also mentioned. The document further explains polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen, including their structures and functions in plants and animals. Tests for detecting carbohydrates like Benedict's test and iodine test are also summarized.
Classification of Carbohydrate - Part-II.pptxABHIJIT BHOYAR
1. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made of long chains of monosaccharides bonded together. They are classified as either homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides.
2. Important homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and inulin. Starch is the plant storage carbohydrate made of amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen serves the same function in animals. Cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls.
3. Heteropolysaccharides contain different sugar units and include mucopolysaccharides. Important examples are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and keratin sulfate, which are components of connective tissue.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Ecologists study both abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) environmental factors that influence organisms. Key abiotic factors include light, water, temperature, and soil properties. Biotic factors include habitats, ecological niches, populations, communities, food webs, and ecosystems. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and is lost at each trophic level, forming pyramids of numbers, biomass, and energy. Carbon and nitrogen cycles are essential for providing these elements to living things. Parasitism, like malaria, harms hosts to benefit parasites. Malaria is transmitted between humans and Anopheles mosquitoes.
Nutrition in humans involves the intake and digestion of food. Digestion comprises feeding, digestion, absorption, and assimilation. In humans, food is ingested and enters the mouth, where chewing and saliva begin to break it down. It then moves to the stomach through the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further broken down by gastric juices and churning. Partially digested food moves to the small intestine, where pancreatic juices, bile, and intestinal juices complete digestion, breaking nutrients into absorbable molecules. Peristalsis propels food through the digestive system for processing.
This document provides information on carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates and explains their four main functions in living organisms. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document focuses on monosaccharides, describing their structures, classifications, stereochemistry including D and L isomers, anomers, mutarotation, and important naturally occurring monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and ribose. It also outlines important reactions of monosaccharides such as oxidation, reduction, glycoside formation, and phosphate ester formation.
This document discusses lipids and their metabolism in the body. It begins by describing lipids and their roles, including as structural components of biological membranes and as an energy storage form. It then details the digestion, absorption, and utilization of dietary lipids. Lipids are emulsified and partially digested in the stomach by lingual and gastric lipases. In the small intestine, emulsification further increases the surface area of lipid droplets for further digestion by pancreatic lipases and absorption. Those unable to digest lipids properly, such as those with cystic fibrosis who lack pancreatic enzymes, rely more on lingual and gastric lipases.
Lipids are fatty substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They serve important structural and energy storage functions in the body. There are three main classes of lipids: simple lipids like fatty acids and triglycerides, compound lipids including phospholipids, and steroids such as cholesterol. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and a precursor for bile acids, vitamin D, and steroid hormones. Cholesterol is transported through the bloodstream within lipoproteins, with LDL cholesterol increasing risk of atherosclerosis and HDL cholesterol protecting against it through reverse cholesterol transport.
The document provides information on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and enzymes. It defines each biomolecule and describes their basic components and structures. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Proteins contain amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures. Lipids are nonpolar and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have optimal pH and temperature ranges for activity. They act specifically by binding substrates in their active sites.
Lec 5 level 3-de(chemistry of carbohydrates)dream10f
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their definition, functions, nomenclature, classification, and digestion. Key points include:
- Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve as the main energy source. They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded together, such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
- Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides in the mouth, stomach and small intestine by
This document provides an overview of biomolecules. It defines biomolecules and lists the main types as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are further classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The document discusses the structures, functions, and medical relevance of various biomolecules.
The document provides an overview of the key biological macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It defines macromolecules as polymers formed from smaller monomer units, and discusses the monomers that make up each macromolecule type (e.g. glucose for carbohydrates). The structures, functions, and examples of each macromolecule are described, such as how carbohydrates provide energy and structure, the levels of protein structure, and how nucleic acids contain the genetic code. Key differences between DNA and RNA are also highlighted.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as an important energy source. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starches/fibers (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further, while disaccharides like sucrose break down into two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides provide structure or store energy and break down into many monosaccharides. Carbohydrates are found widely in plants and are produced through photosynthesis. They are classified based on their structure and whether they are digestible or provide structure. Identification tests can determine the type of unknown carbohydrate sample.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on Earth. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are five major classifications of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and nucleotides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are formed through the joining of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides allow for large storage of glucose and include starch, glycogen, and dietary fiber such as cellulose. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structure, and components of proteins.
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains covalently attached to polypeptide side chains through a process known as glycosylation. There are two main types of glycoproteins: N-linked glycoproteins where sugars are attached to nitrogen on asparagine residues, and O-linked glycoproteins where sugars are attached to oxygen on serine or threonine residues. Glycoproteins play important roles as integral membrane proteins, in cell-cell interactions, stimulating coagulation, and as enzymes, receptors, and proteins involved in homeostasis. Examples include mucins in mucus which have water-holding capacity and resistance to digestion, and antibodies and MHC proteins which interact with antigens and T
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Fats and oils make up 95% of nutritional lipids and occur as both storage and structural components in plants and animals. Lipids play important roles including providing palatability to foods, supplying essential fatty acids, and aiding in vitamin absorption. They are classified based on their structure as simple lipids like fats/oils, compound lipids containing additional groups, or derived lipids formed from hydrolysis. Biological membranes contain lipids that form a fluid bilayer, maintaining permeability and hosting embedded proteins. Membranes are essential for cellular structure and function.
This document discusses different types of polysaccharides. It defines polysaccharides as macromolecules made of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides are divided into homo-polysaccharides containing a single type of monosaccharide (e.g. starch, glycogen) and hetero-polysaccharides containing multiple types (e.g. peptidoglycan, heparin). Key homo-polysaccharides discussed are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and agar. Starch and glycogen function as energy storage, while cellulose provides structure. Key hetero-polysaccharides discussed are mucopolysaccharides, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and peptidoglycan.
Lipids are classified based on their solubility properties. They are soluble in nonpolar solvents but insoluble in water. Lipids serve important functions like energy storage, forming cell membranes, and regulating cell activities. They can be classified as saponifiable or non-saponifiable based on whether they undergo alkaline hydrolysis. Fatty acids are the main constituents of lipids and contain a polar carboxyl group and a nonpolar hydrocarbon chain. Triacylglycerols are composed of fatty acids esterified to glycerol and can be solid fats or liquid oils. Polar lipids like glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids contain a polar head and nonpolar tails, making them essential components of
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as a major energy source. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short-chain sugars), and polysaccharides (long-chain sugars). Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic units that link together to form more complex carbohydrates. Polysaccharides provide structure and storage functions, with cellulose giving structure to plants and glycogen storing glucose in animal tissues. Carbohydrates serve vital energy, structural, and storage roles across living organisms.
estrogen and progestrone persentation ppt is aiaivable here and it is fre for you bto read and take advantage
all rights reserved foe this ppt ( presentation)
The document provides information about biomolecules called carbohydrates. It discusses the three main groups of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is introduced as an important monosaccharide that serves as the major energy source for most cells. The structure of glucose and its alpha and beta isomers are described. Other monosaccharides like fructose and galactose are also mentioned. The document further explains polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen, including their structures and functions in plants and animals. Tests for detecting carbohydrates like Benedict's test and iodine test are also summarized.
Classification of Carbohydrate - Part-II.pptxABHIJIT BHOYAR
1. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates made of long chains of monosaccharides bonded together. They are classified as either homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides.
2. Important homopolysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and inulin. Starch is the plant storage carbohydrate made of amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen serves the same function in animals. Cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls.
3. Heteropolysaccharides contain different sugar units and include mucopolysaccharides. Important examples are hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and keratin sulfate, which are components of connective tissue.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Ecologists study both abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) environmental factors that influence organisms. Key abiotic factors include light, water, temperature, and soil properties. Biotic factors include habitats, ecological niches, populations, communities, food webs, and ecosystems. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains and is lost at each trophic level, forming pyramids of numbers, biomass, and energy. Carbon and nitrogen cycles are essential for providing these elements to living things. Parasitism, like malaria, harms hosts to benefit parasites. Malaria is transmitted between humans and Anopheles mosquitoes.
Nutrition in humans involves the intake and digestion of food. Digestion comprises feeding, digestion, absorption, and assimilation. In humans, food is ingested and enters the mouth, where chewing and saliva begin to break it down. It then moves to the stomach through the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further broken down by gastric juices and churning. Partially digested food moves to the small intestine, where pancreatic juices, bile, and intestinal juices complete digestion, breaking nutrients into absorbable molecules. Peristalsis propels food through the digestive system for processing.
Chromosomes contain DNA and are found in the nucleus of cells. Genes located on chromosomes control inherited traits and are segments of DNA that produce proteins. Meiosis produces gametes with half the normal number of chromosomes to allow fertilization to restore the diploid number. Genetic variation arises from independent assortment of chromosomes and different combinations of maternal and paternal genes during fertilization.
The document summarizes transport in plants. It describes that transport is carried out by vascular tissues called xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and minerals upwards from roots to stems and leaves, providing mechanical support. Phloem transports sugars and amino acids throughout the plant. Transpiration pull is the driving force to transport water upwards, while translocation transports sugars via the phloem. Plant adaptations help maximize transport and minimize water loss.
1. The kidneys remove waste from the blood through a process called ultrafiltration where small molecules pass through blood vessel membranes into kidney tubules.
2. Useful substances like water, glucose and salts are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood while waste like urea remain.
3. The kidneys play an important role in homeostasis by regulating water and salt concentrations to maintain a constant blood composition despite fluctuations in intake. Kidney failure can be fatal without medical intervention like dialysis or transplant.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up in the process. They are made of proteins and have a unique three-dimensional shape that allows them to bind specifically to substrates. This specificity and ability to catalyze reactions at low temperatures without denaturing makes enzymes highly efficient for their roles in processes like digestion and cellular respiration. The document discusses the characteristics of enzymes like their temperature, pH, and substrate concentration optima as well as how their shape enables catalysis based on the lock and key model. It also covers enzyme classification, examples of different enzyme types, and factors that can affect enzyme activity levels.
The document discusses various transport mechanisms in cells:
- Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from high to low concentration without energy input. Osmosis is diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane.
- Active transport moves particles against a concentration gradient and requires energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in cells to absorb nutrients like ions.
- Factors like concentration gradient, temperature, and surface area affect diffusion rate. Plant cells maintain turgor pressure through osmosis, while animal cells can burst in hypotonic solutions.
1. Sound is a form of energy that travels as longitudinal waves through air and other materials. Sources of sound vibrate and transmit the sound waves.
2. Sound waves travel through the air and are detected by our ears. They can be reflected, refracted, or diffracted as they travel.
3. Ultrasonic waves with frequencies above human hearing are used for applications like medical imaging and motion sensors. They can be detected electronically.
This document discusses microorganisms and their uses and harms. It describes different types of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. It explains that useful microorganisms like yeast are used in baking, brewing, and nitrogen fixation by plants. However, it also notes that harmful microorganisms can cause diseases and decay food. The document outlines several methods for food preservation like heating, canning, and refrigeration that kill microorganisms.
Thermal energy flows from warmer to cooler areas through three methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy through direct contact of particles. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the circulation of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the emission and transmission of electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium for transfer.
This document provides information on coordination in mammals through the nervous system and endocrine system. It discusses:
- How the nervous system coordinates through transmission of nerve impulses between receptors and effectors via nerve fibers.
- The structure and function of the key parts of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) including the brain, spinal cord, and neurons.
- How reflex actions and voluntary actions differ in terms of the neural pathways and levels of conscious control involved.
- How the endocrine system coordinates through hormones secreted from endocrine glands that diffuse into the bloodstream and target specific organs.
This document summarizes the key differences between converging and diverging lenses. A converging lens is thicker in the center and bends light inward, while a diverging lens is thinner in the center and spreads light out. The focal length of a converging lens is real and positive, while the focal length of a diverging lens is virtual and negative. Key terms like optical center, principal axis, focal point, and focal length are also defined. Tables compare properties of converging and diverging lenses and explain short-sightedness and long-sightedness.
A Guide to a Winning Interview June 2024Bruce Bennett
This webinar is an in-depth review of the interview process. Preparation is a key element to acing an interview. Learn the best approaches from the initial phone screen to the face-to-face meeting with the hiring manager. You will hear great answers to several standard questions, including the dreaded “Tell Me About Yourself”.
Resumes, Cover Letters, and Applying OnlineBruce Bennett
This webinar showcases resume styles and the elements that go into building your resume. Every job application requires unique skills, and this session will show you how to improve your resume to match the jobs to which you are applying. Additionally, we will discuss cover letters and learn about ideas to include. Every job application requires unique skills so learn ways to give you the best chance of success when applying for a new position. Learn how to take advantage of all the features when uploading a job application to a company’s applicant tracking system.
Job Finding Apps Everything You Need to Know in 2024SnapJob
SnapJob is revolutionizing the way people connect with work opportunities and find talented professionals for their projects. Find your dream job with ease using the best job finding apps. Discover top-rated apps that connect you with employers, provide personalized job recommendations, and streamline the application process. Explore features, ratings, and reviews to find the app that suits your needs and helps you land your next opportunity.
Leadership Ambassador club Adventist modulekakomaeric00
Aims to equip people who aspire to become leaders with good qualities,and with Christian values and morals as per Biblical teachings.The you who aspire to be leaders should first read and understand what the ambassador module for leadership says about leadership and marry that to what the bible says.Christians sh
2. Nutrients
●Organisms require food for:
○Providing energy for the vital activities of the body
○Synthesize new protoplasm for growth and repair of worn-
out parts of the body and for reproduction
○Maintain health and fight against diseases
●Nutrients are the substances in food that provide for
cell development, growth and repair.
3. Types of nutrients
Carbohydrates Organic Nutrients
Fats
Proteins
Vitamins
Dietary fibre
Water Inorganic Nutrients
Mineral Salts
There are 6 kinds of nutrients that are available in
food
4. Organic and Inorganic
Nutrients
●Organic nutrients:
○Carbohydrates
○Proteins
○Lipids, and
○Vitamins
●Organic Nutrients are compounds of carbon
●Inorganic Nutrients:
○Minerals
○Water
●Inorganic Nutrients do not contain the element carbon and
care called
5. Nutrients
●Foods containing carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are
usually too complex to be absorbed right away by the
body.
○They are broken down into simpler molecules before the
body can utilize them.
●In contrast, minerals and water can be absorbed
directly into your bloodstream
○They do not require digestion or breakdown.
6. Macromolecules
●Biological molecules are very large and hence called
macromolecules.
●Most macromolecules are polymers.
●Polymers are large molecules of many similar "units"
linked together. These individual units are called
monomers
●Macromolecules are made by the process termed
condensation
●Macromolecules are broken down by a process termed
hydrolysis
7. Carbohydrates
●Carbohydrates are the main sources of energy for
organisms.
●Carbohydrates forms structural components such as
cell walls. E.g., cellulose
●Carbohydrates are used as energy reserves in plants
and animals. E.g., starch and glycogen
●Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms.
●They have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y. E.g., glucose
is (CH2O)6 which can be re-written as C6H12O6.
8. Functions of Carbohydrates
●main source of energy
●cellulose:
○fibrous material of Plant Cell Wall
○dietary fibre: stimulates Peristalsis
●excess carbohydrates
○stored as glycogen in liver & muscle
○stored as fats under skin
10. Monosaccharides
●Are the simplest sugars
●ratio of H : O = 2 : 1
●all are reducing sugars
●all are sweet and soluble in water
●Can be used for ‘fuel’
●Can be converted into other organic molecules
●Can be combined to form disaccharides and polysaccharides
●Can be produced by photosynthetic organism from CO2, H2O
and sunlight.
●Serves as raw material for other organic molecules
●Monosaccharides can be made up of
○3-carbon (triose)
○5-carbon (pentose)
○6-carbon sugars (hexose)
11. Monosaccharides
●Common hexose monosaccharides
include
○Glucose (found in all animals)
○Galactose (present in milk as milk
sugar)
○Fructose (common in plants)
●All three monosaccharides have
exactly the same chemical formula
C6H12O6.
○The atoms are arranged differently
within the molecules.
○Hence, they have different chemical
and biological properties
12. Disaccharides
●A double sugar that consists of two monosaccharides
joined together through condensation reaction.
○Eg. sucrose consists of a unit of glucose and fructose
Table sugar, most prevalent
disaccharide, transport form
in plants
Present in milk
Used in brewing beer
13. Test for reducing sugars
(Benedict's Test)
1. Is there any color change in
tubes A and B?
Ans: Only the mixture in tube A
has a color change
2. What is the sequence of
color change?
Ans: The blue solution changes
first to green, then to yellow, and
eventually a brick-red precipitate
is produced
14. Polysaccharides
●Consist of polymers of a few
hundred or thousand of
monosaccharides.
●Have 2 important biological
functions:
○Energy storage
■starch and glycogen
■Cells can hydrolyse storage
polysaccharides into sugars
as needed.
○Structural support
■cellulose and chitin
15. Condensation reaction
A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which two
simple molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule
with the removal of one molecule of water.
H2O
water
+
+
C12H22O11
maltose (larger
molecule)
C6H12O6
glucose
(simple
molecule)
C6H12O6
glucose
(simple
molecule)
16. Hydrolysis reaction
Hydrolysis or a hydrolytic reaction is a reaction in which a water
molecule is needed to break up a complex molecule into smaller
molecules.
H2O
water
+
+
C12H22O11
maltose (double
sugar)
C6H12O6
glucose (single
sugar)
C6H12O6
glucose (single
sugar)
maltase
(enzyme)
17. Starch
●Glucose polymer that is a storage polysaccharides in
plants
○Stored as granules in plant cells.
○Amylose, the simplest from, is an unbranched polymer.
○Amylopectin is the branched polymer
○Most animals have digestive enzymes to hydrolyse starch.
○Major sources in the human diet are potato tubers and
grains (eg. wheat, corn, and rice)
18. Test for starch (Iodine Test)
1. What is the color change seen
in tube A?
Ans: The solution changes from
brown to blue-black
2. What is the purpose of setting
up tube B?
Ans: To act as a control
19. Hydrolysis of starch
part of a starch
molecule
maltose
molecules
glucose molecules
further bond-breaking by
maltase enzymes releases
glucose
maltas
e
maltas
e
maltas
e
maltas
e
amylas
e
amylas
e
amylas
e
20. Glycogen
●Glucose polymer that is a storage polysaccharide in
animals.
●Large glucose polymer that is more highly branched
than amylopectin.
●Stored in the muscle and liver of human and other
vertebrates.
21. Cellulose
●Linear unbranched polymer of glucose
●A major structural component of plant cell walls
●Differ from starch (also glucose polymer) in its
monomer linkages.
●Cellulose reinforce cell walls.
●Cellulose cannot be digested by most organisms,
including humans, because they lack an enzyme.
●Certain bacterial and fungi have the enzyme to digest
cellulose.
23. Proteins
●Polymers of amino acids are called polypeptides. A protein
consists of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into
specific conformations.
●Very extensive in structure, each type has a unique 3D shape.
●Though vary in structure and functions, are commonly made of
only 20 amino acids monomers.
●cannot be stored
○excess proteins deaminated by liver
■to urea which will be excreted by the kidneys
■to carbohydrates (glycogen) which will be stored in the
liver
24. Functions of Proteins
Function Example
Structural support Silk of insects and spiders, collagen in
skin, keratin in hair and nails
Storage Albumin in egg white
Transport For making haemoglobin in blood
Signaling Chemical messenger
Movement Contractile proteins
Defence For making antibodies in blood
Catalyzing reactions To produce enzymes
25. Amino acids
●Amino acid is building block molecule of a protein.
●about 20 different types -
○essential and non-essential types
●Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
●Sulphur and phosphorus sometimes present
●Consists of
○Acidic group
○Amino group
○Side chain (variable R-group) specific to each amino acid.
27. Polypeptide
●Polypeptide chains are polymers that are formed when
amino acid monomers are linked by peptide bonds.
○Peptide bonds are formed by a condensation reaction.
●Polypeptide chains range in length from a few
monomers to more than a thousand.
28. Protein structure and function
●Protein’s function depends on its specific 3-D shape.
●Protein shape is stabilized by many weak bonds.
●The specific 3-D shape of the protein is mainly held by
these weak bonds.
○Hydrogen bonds, which are easily broken by heat, acids
and alkalis
○The breaking of these cross-links causes the denaturation
of the protein
●The shape of the protein determines its function. For
example, haemoglobin.
29. Sickle-cell anaemia
●A single substitution of an amino acid is enough to
destabilize the protein structure that causes the sickle-cell
disease.
●The sickle-cells do not effectively transport oxygen because they
block circulation in small blood vessels.
30. Protein denaturation
●If a protein’s environment is
altered it may become
denatured and loses its
structure.
●Denaturation is a process
that alters a protein structure
and biological activity.
●Proteins can be denatured by:
○Excessive heat
○Chemical agents that disrupts
the chemical bonds
○Acids and bases
○Agitation
31. Digestion of proteins
●Proteins must be broken down
in animals before absorption.
○Protein molecules are too large
to pass through the plasma
membranes.
●Proteins are broken down to
amino acids in the human body
by the process known as
hydrolysis.
●The process of protein digestion
involves enzymes.
Hydrolysis of protein
32. Protein deficiency
●In human beings, the average adult needs 50 to 100g
of proteins a day
●The deficiency of proteins in the diet of children may
lead to a disease called kwashiorkor
○Swollen abdomens, skin cracks and becomes scaly
33. Test for proteins (Biuret Test)
1. What color changes seen in
tubes A and B?
Ans: Mixture in tube A changes
from blue to purple while mixture
in tube B remains blue without
any change
34. Lipids
●Oils, Fats, and Waxes Are Lipids Containing Only Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen
●A diverse group of substances that are insoluble in water.
●Important groups are fats, phospholipids and steroids
●Fats are macromolecules constructed from:
1.Glycerol
2.Fatty acid
●During formation of a fat, enzyme catalysed condensation
reactions
○Each glycerol is bonded to three fatty acids
○The resultant product is called a triglyceride.
35. Hydrolysis of fats
Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by hydrolysis. This
involves the addition of water molecules (hydrolysis) and occurs readily
with an enzyme or a catalyst.
catalyst
glycerol three fatty acid
molecules
three water
molecules
fat molecule
+
+
H O
H - C - O - C - R
=
_
=
=
_
_
O
H - C - O - C -
R
H
O
H - C - O - C - R
_
H2O
H2O
H2O
H
H - C - OH
_
_
_
H - C - OH
H
H - C - OH
_
O
HO - C - R
=
=
=
O
HO - C - R
O
HO - C - R
36. Characteristics of fat
●Fats are insoluble in water.
●Fatty acids in a fat may all be the same or some (or all) may
differ.
●Fatty acids may vary in length.
●Fats may be saturated or unsaturated
●Saturated
○Usually a solid at room temperature
○Most animal fats: Bacon grease, lard and butter
○Fatty acid chains are straight
●Unsaturated
○Vegetable fats
○Do not cause heart diseases
○Have kinks in the fatty acid chains
37. Functions of fat
●As an efficient source and storage of energy
○1 g of fat stores twice as much energy as a g of polysaccharide.
●More compact fuel reservoir than carbohydrate. Animals
store more energy with less weight than plants which use
starch, a bulky form of energy storage.
●Cushions vital organs in mammals
●Insulates against heat loss
●Reduce water loss – glands in skin secrete oily substances
●As a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and many other vital
hormones
●As constituent of protoplasm, especially in the protoplasmic
membranes
38. Phospholipids
●Are major constituents of cell membranes.
●At the cell surface, phospholipids form a bilayer held
together by hydrophobic interaction.
●Phospholipids in water will spontaneously form such a
bilayer.
39. Steroids
●Steroids include substances such as cholesterol and
hormones.
●Despites its ‘bad’ reputation cholesterol provides the
starting point for other necessary lipids such as
vitamine D and the hormones such as oestrogen and
testosterone.
●Cholesterol is a common component of animal cell
membrane.
40. Ethanol emulsion test for fats
1. In which test tube is an emulsion formed?
Ans: test tube A
2. What happens to the other tube?
Ans: The mixture separates into two layers because fats do
not dissolve in water.
41. Water
●Why is water is important to life?
○Water interacts with many other molecules.
○Water is an essential component of the protoplasm.
○Water makes up about 70% of the body mass.
○Every cell in the human body needs water.
■Many body’s processes, including chemical reactions take
place in water.
○Water makes up a large part of our blood and tissue fluid.
○Water is a component in digestive juices.
42. Functions of water
●Solvent: water dissolves many biological molecules
and substances
Functions Mode of action
Transport Main part of blood and body fluid
Medium for transport of nutrients
Reactions Solvent for chemical reaction
Needed for digestion
Lubrication Part of the fluid in muscular joint
Part of mucus in the alimentary canal
Homeostasis Evaporation of water, cools down the body
Prevents overheating
43. Vitamins
●Organic compounds nor built in a definite pattern like
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
●no energy value
●Required in small quantities for normal health and
development
●Excessive of some vitamins may be harmful
●2 types
○Fat-soluble vitamins: can be stored in the fats of the body
(A, D, E, K_
○Water-soluble vitamins: cannot be stored in the body, and
have to be supplied in the daily diet (B, C)
44. Vitamin D
Vitamins Sources Functions Deficiency
D
(fat-soluble)
●Fish liver oils (eg.
cod and halibut)
●UV rays in sunlight
can convert a
natural substance
(ergosterol) in the
skin to vitamin D
●Promotes
absorption of
calcium and
phosphorus
compounds from
the intestines
●Enables the body to
use these
compounds in the
formation of teeth
and bone
●May result in
demineralization of
the bones with
multiple fractures
and widespread
calcification of
many soft tissues,
including the lungs
and kidneys
●formed in the skin from UV light
●helps to regulate calcium and phosphorus metabolism
45. Vitamin C
Vitamins Sources Functions Deficiency
C
Ascorbic acid
Note: easily
destroyed y
heat eg
cooking and
canning
Excess is
excreted by
body
●Richest sources are
fresh citrus fruits
(oranges, lemons),
other fruits (eg
papaya, guava,
tomatoes, bananas)
●Fresh green
vegetables
●Fruit juices such as
blackcurrant juice
and rose hip syrup
●Needed for the
formation of
intercellular
substances. Such
substances are
found in between
the cells and they
hold the cells
together
●Necessary for
maintaining healthy
epithelial cells
●Scurvy,
characterized by
swollen bleeding
gums and
loosening of the
teeth
●Haemorrhages or
internal bleeding in
the musces and
skin, poor healing
of wounds and
painful swollen
joints
●destroyed after prolonged cooking
●necessary for healing wounds
46. Detection of Vitamin C in lemon juice
using DCPIP
1. What color change has occurred?
Ans: the blue DCPIP decolourizes
2. What can you conclude?
Ans: Lemon juice contains vitamin C
which decolourizes blue DCPIP
47. Other vitamins
●Vitamin A
○Needed for
■formation of a light-sensitive pigment (visual purple) in
the retina to maintain dim light vision
■maintaining healthy epithelial tissues
○Rich sources include dairy products, fish liver oils, and
green leafy vegetables
○destroyed at high temperature
●Vitamin B complex
○Several are important coenzymes in cellular respiration
○Deficiency diseases: beri-beri, pellagra, pernicious
anaemia
○Sources: yeast, liver and bran
48. Vitamin deficiencies
Vitamin Sources Deficiency
A egg yolk, cheese,
milk, carrot, green
vegetables
night blindness
C fresh fruits and
green vegetables
scurvy
D cod liver oil, egg
yolk
rickets
49. Minerals
●Inorganic salts which do not provide energy but are
indispensable to bodily functions
●needed in small amounts
●include Ca, S, K, Na, Mg, Fe, I
●functions
○necessary for construction of certain tissues
○essential for healthy growth
○regulate body metabolism
●We obtain minerals from other animals or from plants
●Mineral elements required in large amounts include
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and iron
50. Calcium
Mineral Sources Requirements Functions
Calcium
Severe
deficiency
results in
crickets
●Milk, cheese,
eggs
●Small fish
eaten with their
bones
●Cereals, soya
beans, dark
green
vegetables
such as
spinach and
watercress
●About 1g a day in
growing children
●Adults need
slightly less –
more is required
during pregnancy
and lactation
●Required for the
building of bones
and teeth
●Needed for the
normal functioning
of the muscles
●Necessary for the
clotting of blood to
prevent excessive
loss of blood
51. Iron
Mineral Sources Requirements Functions
Iron
Deficiency
results in
lowering of the
haemoglobin
level in the
blood -
anaemia
●Liver, red
meat, egg
yolk
●Bread, flour,
dark green
vegetables
●Very little is
required –
about 0.02g a
day
●Pregnant
women
required more
●Iron is a structural
component of the following
and so is essential for their
formation
●Haemoglobin: the red
coloured pigment that
transports oxygen in the
body
●Myoglobin: a protein in
muscle cells which stores
oxygen for use in muscular
contraction
●Certain enzymes involved in
cellular respiration
52. Trace elements and
Dietary Fibre
●Trace elements
○Minerals needed in minute quantities
○Eg iodine, zinc, manganese
●Dietary fibre
○Indigestible fibrous materials eg cellulose
○Prevents constipation
○Good sources are fresh fruits and vegetables, bran, cereals,
and wholemeal bread
○Important because it provides bulk to the intestinal contents and
helps peristalsis
○Peristalsis is a series of wavelike, muscular movements of the
walls of the digestive tract
■Such movements enable food to be mixed with the digestive
juices
■Also cause food to move along the digestive canal
53. Balanced diet
●A balanced diet contains the right amount of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water,
and fibre to meet the daily requirements of the body
●The amount of energy needed to carry on vital life
processes of the body when it is in complete rest is
known as basal metabolism
○Affected by climate, body size, age, sex, health,
occupation of an individual
54. Energy value of food
●Different organic food substances have different energy
values.
●Energy value of
○carbohydrates is 16kJ/g
○proteins is 17kJ/g
○fats is 38kJ/g
55. Measure the energy value of food
1. Explain why the energy
value of the peanut is lower
than those from standard
tables
Ans: Because there is a number
of inaccuracies associated with
this method due to incomplete
combustion and heat loss
56. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
●minimum amount of energy needed by an individual lying
awake in bed to maintain breathing, body temperature and
heartbeat
●varies from person to person
●daily energy requirement > basal metabolic rate
57. Summary
Carbohydrates
may be
Functions of water In
animals, water: • is a
medium for chemical
reactions to occur; •
transports digested
food products,
excretory products,
and hormones from
one part of the body to
another; • is an
essential part of
protoplasm, lubricants,
digestive juices and
blood; • is essential for
hydrolysis; and • helps
to control body
temperature.
Monosaccharides
(single sugars), e.g.
glucose, fructose
and galactose
In plants, water: • is essential for photosy
is needed to keep plant cells turgid; • tran
mineral salts from the roots to the leaves
transports food substances from the leav
other parts of the plants.
Water
Fats
Organic compounds
made up of carbon,
hydrogen and
oxygen but they
contain much less
oxygen in proportion
to hydrogen.
Organic compounds made up of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.
Organic compounds made up
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen. Sulphur may
also be present.
Inorganic nutrient. Water
does not contain carbon.
Protein
s
Disaccharides
(double sugars), e.g.
maltose, lactose and
sucrose
Polysaccharides
(complex
carbohydrates)
made up of many
monosaccharides
e.g.
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose • forms the cell walls in plants; and • cannot be digested by
mammals, but is used as fibre in their diet.
Identification
Test for
reducing
sugars: A
reducing sugar
gives a brick-red
precipitate when
boiled with
Benedict’s
solution.
Sucrose is a
non-reducing
sugar.
• serves as the main form of storage for carbohydrates in
green plants; and • gives a blue-black colour with iodine
(test for starch).
• serves as the main form of storage for carbohydrates in
animals and fungi.
Basic units Fats
are hydrolysed to
form fatty acids
and glycerol.
Identification Test
for fats: A cloudy
white emulsion is
formed in the
ethanol emulsion
test.
Basic units Proteins
consist of amino acids
linked together by peptide
bonds.
Identification Test for
proteins: Proteins give a
violet colouration with
Biuret reagent.
amino acids
polypeptide
s
proteins
Editor's Notes
Needed for hydrolytic reactions (digestion)
Waters helps to transport dissolve substances around the body
Digested food
Excretory products
Hormones
Serves as lubricants found in joints.
Keep mucous membranes moist, such as those of the lungs and mouth.
Water helps to control body temperature (homeostasis). Water is a component of sweat.
As the water evaporates, it cools the body.
Water vapour is also lost from the body with every breath you exhale and in urine
Serve as a shock absorber inside the eyes, spinal cord and in the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus in pregnancy.