1. NS 2 COVERAGE FOR
EXAMINATION 2
Other Organ Systems, Reproduction and Aging,
Genetics and Inheritance, Evolution and Advances in
Biological Sciences

2. TOPIC CONTENTS
• Circulation and Respiration (including
immune system)
• Digestion (Mechanical and Chemical)
• Reproduction and Aging
• Genes and Inheritance
• Man and the Environment (Evolution,
Advances in Biology)

3. CIRCULATION AND
RESPIRATION

4. THE OPEN & CLOSE TYPE
OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• OPEN: Circulatory medium directly
bathes peripheral tissues; Blood is
conveyed directly to organs; Less readily
regulated blood distributed; Usually a low
pressure system; Sustained pressure is
possible (due to small body size); Return
to heart is often slow
• CLOSED: tissues are not bathed in CM;
Blood is conveyed directly to organs;
Well-regulated blood distribution (via the
sphincters, valves and hormones; Usually
high pressure system; Hydraulic pressure
sustained; requires high peripheral
resistance (provided by arteries’ elastic
vessels); Rapid return of blood to heart

5. VARYING NUMBER OF
HEART CHAMBERS

6. FOCUS: HEART, BLOOD
AND BLOOD VESSELS

7. FUNCTIONS OF THE
HEART
• Pumps blood into 2 closed circuits (systemic/
pulmonary)
• Left: pumps freshly oxygenated blood into the
systemic circulation
• Right: pumps deoxygenated blood into the
pulmonary circulation

8. PATH OF BLOOD

9. SA NODE: PACEMAKER
• Development of abnormal
self-excitability of ectopic
pacemakers (ocassional)
• Extra beats
• Pace heart for some period
of time
• Caffeine and Salbutamol may
have the same effect
• Triggers ectopic activity

10. THE HEART BEAT
• SYSTOLE: WHEN • 0.8 SECONDS =
THE HEART ONE CYCLE
CONTRACT
• AT REST: ATRIA
• DIASTOLE: WHEN AND VENTRICLES
THE HEART RELAX IN DIASTOLE =
0.4S

11. FETAL CIRCULATION
• Both the umbilical vein and the umbilical
arteries are housed in the umbilical cord which
attaches the placenta to the umbilicus (future
belly button) of the fetus
• umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood
• umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood
• RECALL: Blood returning from the lungs to the
left atrium closes the flap between the two atria
• In some cases, the flap does not close and
causes a "blue baby" that is not getting
enough blood to the lung for oxygenation

12. THE BLOOD
VESSELS

13. APPRECIATING HOW
VESSELS WORK

14. CONTROL OF BLOOD
PRESSURE AND BLOOD FLOW

15. STROKE VS HEART ATTACK

16. STROKE VS HEART ATTACK

17. BLOOD
• A liquid connective • FUNCTIONS:
tissue
• TRANSPORTATION
• Heavier, thicker and (gases, hormones,
more viscous than nutrients, wastes)
water
• REGULATION
• Temperature about 38C (buffering and ion
balance)
• pH = 7.4
• PROTECTION (WBC,
• 8% of body weight inflammation and
clotting)
• 1.5 gallons (male); 1.2
gallons (female)

18. WHAT YOUR
CBC TELL YOU
• INCREASED WBC =
INFECTION
• INCREASED NEUTROPHIL
= BACTERIAL INFECTION
• DECREASED PLATELET =
DENGUE, ETC
• INCREASED LYMPHOCYTE
= VIRAL INFECTION

19. BLOOD COMPOSITION
AND THEIR FUNCTION

20. BLOOD PRODUCTION AND
“RECYCLING”

21. BLOOD DOPING AND BEING SPORTY
!"#$%##&'()%**&+(
,-.$(/.%-0(1%*2(
3445(67'8-&"#&#(9:&(
;.-<(*."+(.,(9:&(
:&"-9(===(
!"
!"#$%##&'()%**&+(
,-.$(/.%-0(1%*2(
3445(67'8-&"#&#(9:&(
;.-<(*."+(.,(9:&(
:&"-9(===!"

22. BLOOD: WHEN TO CLOT AND WHEN NOT TO
Text
Hemophilia
Hereditary deficiency of clotting
Hemophilia A: absence of factor VIII (males)
Hemophilia B: absence of factor IX (males)
Hemophilia C: absence of factor XI (males and females)
Vitamin K
Required for synthesis of clotting factors by liver cells (II, VII, IX and X)

23. FIBRINOLYTIC
SYSTEM: FOR
UNWANTED CLOTS
3(&,/+$)>#$%
&'12&*#0%*)% 3(&,/+$%0+,,)(2#%
!"#$%&%'()*%+,%
3456789%?@% *"#%'()*%?@%
-)./#0%+$&'12#%
*".)/?+$A% 0+>#,1$>%G8HI89%
3456789:;<9%
&'12&*#0%-&'*).%B88% *".#&0,%&$0%
+$').=).&*#0%+$*)%
&$0%1,,C#D +$&'12&1$>%
*"#%'()*%
=(&,/+$)>#$% G8HI89:;<9A%#*'J%
&'12&*).%E*D35F%

24. BLOOD TYPING AND
THE Rh FACTOR

26. MODIFIED SCHEDULE
• FEB 26: NO CLASS
• MARCH 2: LAST LECTURE
• MARCH 5 AND 9: FINISH
VIDEO
• MARCH 12:VIDEO
SHOWING
• MARCH 16: EXAM 2
• FINALS and DEADLINE
OF REQUIREMENTS:
MARCH 26

27. LET’S TALK ABOUT
FIGHTING DISEASES...

28. THE IMMUNE/LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• Protecting against invasion (immune responses)
• T cells: destroys invaders directly or
indirectly
• B cells: develop into antibody-producing
plasma cells
• Types of Immunity:
• Non-specific defenses
• Specific defenses

29. NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSE (1st line)
• MECHANICAL • CHEMICAL
PROTECTION PROTECTION
• EPIDERMIS and MUCOUS • SEBUM
MEMBRANES
• PERSPIRATION
• LACRIMAL APPARATUS
• GASTRIC JUICE
• SALIVA and VOMITING
• VAGINAL SECRETIONS
• FLOW OF URINE (ACIDIC)
• VAGINAL SECRETIONS
• DEFECATION

30. NON-SPECIFIC
DEFENSE

31. NON-SPECIFIC
DEFENSE

32. FEVER and YOUR
IMMUNE SYSTEM
• Abnormally high body temperature
• Due to toxins triggering release of
fever-causing cytokines and
interleukins (ILK-1)
• Intensify effects of interferons (to
inhibit microbes and speed up
repair)
• Commonly occurs during infection
and inflammation

33. SPECIFIC DEFENSE
When the first line missed the target!!!

34. TYPES OF IMMUNITY

36. MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY
COMPLEX
• REASONS WHY TISSUES ARE REJECTED DURING TRANSPLANTS
• APPEAR ONLY ON THE SURFACE OF ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS OR APC)
• Help T cells recognize foreign invaders

37. ANTIBODIES

38. IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY

39. HIV/AIDS and the IMMUNE
SYSTEM
• Attacks helper T cells
which stimulates the
activities of B cells
(recall: B cells produce
antibodies)
• Patient more susceptible
to infection
• Why a vaccine not
applicable?

40. ALLERGIES, HYPERSENSITIVITIES
and AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE
• Overactive immune • Increased capillary
system/ permeability
HYPERSENSITIVTY
• Fluid loss and shock
• IgE causes allergies
• Allergy shots (IgG before
• Allergen attaches to allergen reach IgE)
IgE antibodies of mast
cells
• AUTOIMMUNE
DISEASE:
• Release histamine
• Preceded by an infection
• Mucous secretion and that results in cytotoxic T
cells attacking the body’s
airway restriction
own organs
• Basophils release
substances into the blood • Examples: multiple
stream sclerosis and systemic
lupus

41. RESPIRATION IN THE
ANIMAL WORLD

42. MUST
TRY!
MECHANICS
OF
BREATHING

43. CAN I SWALLOW MY FOOD
WHILE BREATHING?
• A thin flap of tissue
called the epiglottis
covers your windpipe
when you swallow
• This prevents food or
drink from entering the
air passages that lead to
your lungs

44. EXTERNAL RESPIRATION: air
from environment to alveoli to
blood (gas exchange)
INTERNAL RESPIRATION: air
from blood to cells (gas
transport)

45. • Do you wonder why you are • The extra force needed comes from
supposed to inhale (breathe in) CONTRACTION of the abdominal
before the crunch and exhale muscles
(breathe out) during the
crunch?
• So when you crunch, you are
contracting your abdominal muscles
• In forced expiration (what you do (what you want to do) and exhaling
when you crunch) relaxation of the
diaphragm doesn't create enough
force to cause necessary for rapid
• If you inhale (or try to) at the
same time you are contracting
expiration your abs, you are working at
cross purposes

46. MODIFIED RESPIRATORY
MOVEMENTS

47. SPIROMETER or
PNEUMOGRAPH

48. !"#$%&'%()* &0++1*2$33$0*
+,"-$.'/(+.* %$-$.$%'/(+.*

49. • Most O2 is transported by hemoglobin as
oxyhemoglobin within RBCs = Most CO2 is
transported in blood plasma as bicarbonate ions

50. • pH • PARTIAL PRESSURE OF CO2
• As pH decreases affinity of • CO2 can bind to hemoglobin
hemoglobin for O2 decreases (Bohr effect)
resulting to dissociation
(Bohr effect)
• As pCO2 increase hemoglobin
releases more O2
• During exercise: lactic acid
• Low blood pH results from
• Excess CO2: carbonic acid high Pco2

51. • TEMPERATURE • BPG OR
BIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE
• As temperature
increases, amount of O2 • Decreases affinity of
released from hemoglobin for O2 thus
hemoglobin increases facilitating release
• Heat: by-product of • When BPG binds to
metabolism = raises body hemoglobin, hemoglobin
temperature = promotes binds O2 less tightly
release of O2
• Hormones increasing
• Active/exercise or Fever formation of BPG:

52. DIGESTION

53. HORMONES

54. ENZYMES

55. ACTIVITIES IN THE MOUTH

59. IMPORTANT TO
NOTE…when you
swallow you stop
breathing for 1-2

60. ACTIVITIES IN THE STOMACH

63. • Heart Burn
Heartburn
• HCl from the stomach contents
can irritate the esophageal wall
resulting in a burning sensation
and Vomiting
• Not related to cardiac problem
(though sensation near the heart)
• How to avoid: Eat food in smaller
amounts; Do not lie down after
meal
• Vomiting
• Forcible expulsion of the contents
of the GI tract through the mouth
• Stimulus: irritation and distention
of stomach, unpleasant sights,
dizziness and certain drugs

64. THE HEAVIEST
GLAND IN THE BODY

65. CAN I DONATE PARTS OF
MY LIVER AND STILL LIVE?
• November 1989: University of Chicago Medical Center
• 1st living-donor liver transplant (US)
• Child received part of left lobe of mother
• Child’s case: closure or absence of some of the major
bile ducts
• GOOD NEWS!!!
• Liver capable of regeneration
• Mother’s liver returned to normal size (2 months)
• TRUE for lungs, pancreas, kidneys and bone marrow

66. FATTY FOOD DIET?

67. SMALL
INTESTINES

68. LARGE INTESTINES

69. HOW ARE YOUR FECES FORMED
*%+%/$'*#(#%&!(
!"#$%&#"'&(')(
#%&#'*0(&%*1%(
*%+$,-(.,--(
"2/3-#%#($'(#,+*,-(
+4567896:45(4;(6<=( #/"&,-(+'*!(
>45?:6@A:58>(7=968>(
B@C9>=C(C<476=5C(6<=(
7=96@BD(:597=8C:5?( 24647(:BE@>C=C(;74B(
E7=CC@7=(:5C:A=(:6( 6<=(947A(678F=>(8>45?(
E878CGBE86<=6:9(5=7F=C(
/7=CC@7=(8>45?(J:6<( H89I(64(6<=(A=C9=5A:5?(
F4>@5687G(94567896:45C(4;( 94>45D(C:?B4:A(94>45D(
6<=(A:8E<78?B(85A( 7=96@B(85A(85@C(
8HA4B:58>(B@C9>=C(85A(
E878CGBE86<=6:9(
)%+%#(,*%(%K/%--%!(
C6:B@>86:45(4E=5C(6<=(
$L*'3ML(,&3#(
:56=758>(CE<:596=7(

70. HOW DO THEY
LOOK
TODAY???

71. GO FORTH &
MULTIPLY....
Reproduction and Aging in Organisms

72. ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Binary Fission
• Budding
• Regeneration
• Vegetative
Propagation
• Spore
Formation

73. SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

74. Text
SEX IN NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

75. VASCULAR PLANTS: ANGIOSPERMS
MALE OR
FEMALE
(Staminate or
Pistillate)
• Monoecious plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant (e.g., corn and
pecan)
• Some monoecious plants bear only male flowers at the beginning of the growing season, but
later develop both sexes (e.g., cucumbers and squash).
• Dioecious species have separate male and female plants (e.g. holly, ginkgo, and pistachio)
• In order to set fruit, male and female plants must be planted close enough together for
pollination to occur

76. POLLINATION: leads to fertilization,
resulting in the production of seeds and
fruits, thus ensuring continuity of life
• SELF-POLLINATION:
is the transference of
the pollen grains from
the anther to the
stigma of either the
same or of another
flower borne on the
same plant.
• CROSS-
POLLINATION: t is
the transference of the
pollen grains from the
anther of one flower to
the stigma of another
flower borne on a
different plant of the
same species

78. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
continued...

79. GETTING TO KNOW HOW YOUR BODY
PREPARES YOU FOR REPRODUCTION

80. GETTING TO KNOW HOW YOUR BODY
PREPARES YOU FOR REPRODUCTION

81. WHAT THE GUYS NEED TO
KNOW
• ERECTION – first effect of male sexual
stimulation
• LUBRICATION – during sexual stimulation;
causes glands to secrete mucus which flows to
urethra to aid in lubrication during copulation
• EMISSION AND EJACULATION – mark the
culmination of male sexual response

82. •
MALE RADIATION EFFECTS – affects
activity of actively dividing cells
FERTILITY • TEMPERATURE EFFECTS –
prevents spermatogenesis
and causes degeneration of
ST
• SPERM COUNT – 3.5 ml = 120
M sperms
• Average : 400 M/ejaculate
• Below 20 M infertile…. Oh No,
WHY???
• SPERM VIABILITY – 3-4 days
• SPERM JOURNEY – 30 min to
3 hrs

83. GETTING TO KNOW HOW YOUR BODY
PREPARES YOU FOR REPRODUCTION

84. FEMALE HORMONAL CYCLES

85. WHY THE NEED TO KNOW
YOUR CYCLE GIRLS?

86. COPULATION TO FERTILIZATION TO
EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

87. POPULATION ISSUES & PLEASE BE
RESPONSIBLE
BIRTH CONTROL
• TEACHING YOU
HOW TO BE
RESPONSIBLE
WHILE YOUNG
• HELPING YOU HOW
TO HAVE A QUALITY
LIFE WITH YOUR KIDS
WHEN YOUR A
COUPLE
• AWARENESS ABOUT

88. POPULATION ISSUES &
BIRTH CONTROL
• TEACHING YOU HOW
TO BE RESPONSIBLE
WHILE YOUNG
NATURAL ARTIFICIAL
• HELPING YOU HOW
TO HAVE A QUALITY
LIFE WITH YOUR
KIDS WHEN YOUR A
COUPLE
• AWARENESS ABOUT
STDs

89. • RHYTHM METHOD/
NATURAL CALENDAR METHOD
METHODS • ABSTINENCE
• Only 100% method of
birth control
• Abstinence is when
partners do not engage
in sexual intercourse
• Communication
between partners is
important for those
practicing abstinence
to be successful

90. POPULATION ISSUES
& BIRTH CONTROL
• TEACHING YOU HOW
TO BE RESPONSIBLE
WHILE YOUNG
• HELPING YOU HOW
TO HAVE A QUALITY
LIFE WITH YOUR KIDS
WHEN YOUR A
COUPLE
• AWARENESS ABOUT
STDs

91. GENDER SENSITIVITY: THE BARRIER
METHODS

92. can’t get pregnant...will i do it?

93. AGING IS INEVITABLE...CELLS
GROW, MULTIPLY AND SAY
GOODBYE...AFTER ALL,
THAT’S LIFE

95. SOME SIGNS OF NATURAL AGING

96. RADIATION AND AGING

97. IS IT POSSIBLE TO AGE WELL?

98. THE CURIOUS CASE OF
BENJAMIN BUTTON

99. THE NOT SO CURIOS
CASE OF PROGERIA

100. • affected person ages prematurely with a life
PROGERIA: expectancy of thirteen years (occurrence one
per eight million live births)
rare; , “rapid
aging” disease • also called “Hutchinson–Gilford progeria
syndrome” named after Jonathan Hutchinson and
Hastings Gilford who arrived at the explanation
of the disease independently.
• not an inheritable disease and is mainly caused by
mutation in Lamin A a protein part of main
building block of nuclear components required by
the body growth
• symptoms: affected child fails to have normal
physical growth accompanied by localized
hardening of skin
• can be confirmed with a genetic test
• no successful treatment for this disease (reduce
the complications : growth hormone treatment)

101. MAN AND HIS
INTERACTIONS WITH
HIS ENVIRONMENT

102. MAN AND
MICROBES

103. MAN AND
VECTORS
PREVENTION: CUT WAYS OF
TRANSMISSION

104. LET’S TALK ABOUT HIV/AIDS

105. LET’S TALK ABOUT HIV/AIDS

106. LET’S TALK ABOUT HIV/AIDS

107. IT’S IN YOUR
GENES: ISSUES on
INHERITANCE

108. MENDEL AND HIS PEAS
• UNIT FACTORS IN PAIRS
• Genetic characters are controlled by unit
factors that exist in pairs in individual
organisms
• Example: tall x dwarf
• 3 combinations possible: 2 tall factors, 2
dwarf factors, or 1 of each factor
• DOMINANCE/ RECESSIVENESS
• When two unlike unit factors responsible
for a single character are present in a
single individual, one unit factor is
dominant to the other, which is said to be
recessive
• Important: should be in pairs (1 dominant
and 1 recessive)
• SEGREGATION
• During the formation of gametes, the
paired unit factors separate or segregate
randomly so that each gamete receives
one or the other with EQUAL likelihood

109. TO UNDERSTAND HOW IT WORKS
GET TO KNOW THEM FIRST...
• Phenotype • Genotype
• Physical appearance of a • Genetic make-up of an
trait individual in symbols
• Yellow, dwarf, round, • Example: Dd, Yy, XX, zz
wrinkled
• Homozygous
• Genes
• Both alleles are the same
• Units of inheritance (XX, YY, xx, yy)
• Alleles • Heterozygous
• Alternative form of a single • When alleles are different
gene (Yy, Xx)

115. TRY THIS...
• What was the tool used
to observe cross
frequencies of flamingoes?
• How many red flamingoes
will result from the cross?
• How many blue
flamingoes will result
from the cross?
• What type of cross was
described by this
example? Justify.

116. HEMOPHILIA INHERITANCE

117. END OF EXAM 2
COVERAGE