This document discusses the concept of chemical equilibrium. Some key points:
1. Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, so concentrations of reactants and products no longer change.
2. The equilibrium constant, Kc, relates concentrations of products and reactants at equilibrium. When the reaction quotient, Q, equals Kc the system is at equilibrium.
3. Le Chatelier's principle states that if a system at equilibrium experiences a change, it will shift in a way to counteract the change and reestablish equilibrium. Changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature can disturb equilibrium.
3. Increasing temperature favors the endothermic reaction, while
The document discusses chemical equilibrium. It begins by defining chemical equilibrium as a dynamic state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, such that there is no net change in concentrations. It then discusses concepts such as the equilibrium constant K, reaction quotient Q, Le Chatelier's principle, and factors that affect equilibrium like concentration, pressure, temperature, and catalysts. In summary, (1) chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state with equal forward and reverse reaction rates, (2) the equilibrium constant K relates concentrations at equilibrium, and (3) systems at equilibrium will shift in response to changes to reduce stress and reestablish equilibrium.
This document discusses chemical equilibriums, including:
1) Equilibriums can be physical (phase changes) or chemical (reactions). At equilibrium, the forward and reverse rates are equal and concentrations/properties remain constant.
2) Equilibrium constants (K) describe the position of equilibrium. Factors like concentration, temperature, and catalysts affect the equilibrium position according to Le Chatelier's principle.
3) Acid-base equilibriums involve acid/base ionization constants (Ka/Kb). Strong acids fully ionize in water while weak acids only partially ionize. The strength of an acid/base depends on how easily it donates/accepts protons.
This document contains information about chemical equilibrium from Ranada Prasad Shaha University student Swarup Saha. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where forward and reverse reactions occur simultaneously at the same rate. It describes characteristics of chemical equilibrium such as stability with constant conditions, attainment through catalysis, and dynamic rather than static nature. The document also covers the law of mass action and Le Châtelier's principle.
Chemical equilibrium is about reversible reaction, how equilibrium set up n physical and chemical processes,equilibrium constant, its application and Le Chatlier's principle and factors altering the composition of equilibrium
AQA A-Level Chemistry New Spec: EquilibriaJonti Cole
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on Equilibria. Designed for the new Exam Series of June, but relevant for all series and exam boards. Topics covered: Industrial equilibria, factors affecting equilibria, le chatelier's principle, changing conditions of an equilibrium and the effect of a catalyst.
1. The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including the concept that at equilibrium the forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate, and the amounts of reactants and products remain constant.
2. It introduces the equilibrium constant expression and explains how to write the expression for different chemical equations.
3. Le Châtelier's principle is discussed, that systems at equilibrium will shift in response to changes in conditions to counteract the effect of changes in temperature, pressure, or concentration.
1) Chemical equilibrium occurs when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. The law of mass action states that the rate of a reaction depends on the concentrations of reactants.
2) The equilibrium constant, K, is defined as the ratio of products over reactants at equilibrium. For heterogeneous reactions involving different phases, the equilibrium constant is expressed in terms of partial pressures.
3) According to Le Chatelier's principle, if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to minimize the effect of the stress. Changes in concentration, pressure, or temperature cause the equilibrium to shift left or right to counteract the applied change.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to chemical equilibrium. It defines reversible reactions and explains that chemical equilibrium is reached when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, resulting in no further change in reactant and product concentrations over time. The document also discusses homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibrium, factors that affect equilibrium such as temperature, pressure, and concentration, Le Chatelier's principle, and examples of industrial processes that utilize chemical equilibrium concepts.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium. It begins by defining chemical equilibrium as a dynamic state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, such that there is no net change in concentrations. It then discusses concepts such as the equilibrium constant K, reaction quotient Q, Le Chatelier's principle, and factors that affect equilibrium like concentration, pressure, temperature, and catalysts. In summary, (1) chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state with equal forward and reverse reaction rates, (2) the equilibrium constant K relates concentrations at equilibrium, and (3) systems at equilibrium will shift in response to changes to reduce stress and reestablish equilibrium.
This document discusses chemical equilibriums, including:
1) Equilibriums can be physical (phase changes) or chemical (reactions). At equilibrium, the forward and reverse rates are equal and concentrations/properties remain constant.
2) Equilibrium constants (K) describe the position of equilibrium. Factors like concentration, temperature, and catalysts affect the equilibrium position according to Le Chatelier's principle.
3) Acid-base equilibriums involve acid/base ionization constants (Ka/Kb). Strong acids fully ionize in water while weak acids only partially ionize. The strength of an acid/base depends on how easily it donates/accepts protons.
This document contains information about chemical equilibrium from Ranada Prasad Shaha University student Swarup Saha. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where forward and reverse reactions occur simultaneously at the same rate. It describes characteristics of chemical equilibrium such as stability with constant conditions, attainment through catalysis, and dynamic rather than static nature. The document also covers the law of mass action and Le Châtelier's principle.
Chemical equilibrium is about reversible reaction, how equilibrium set up n physical and chemical processes,equilibrium constant, its application and Le Chatlier's principle and factors altering the composition of equilibrium
AQA A-Level Chemistry New Spec: EquilibriaJonti Cole
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on Equilibria. Designed for the new Exam Series of June, but relevant for all series and exam boards. Topics covered: Industrial equilibria, factors affecting equilibria, le chatelier's principle, changing conditions of an equilibrium and the effect of a catalyst.
1. The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including the concept that at equilibrium the forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate, and the amounts of reactants and products remain constant.
2. It introduces the equilibrium constant expression and explains how to write the expression for different chemical equations.
3. Le Châtelier's principle is discussed, that systems at equilibrium will shift in response to changes in conditions to counteract the effect of changes in temperature, pressure, or concentration.
1) Chemical equilibrium occurs when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. The law of mass action states that the rate of a reaction depends on the concentrations of reactants.
2) The equilibrium constant, K, is defined as the ratio of products over reactants at equilibrium. For heterogeneous reactions involving different phases, the equilibrium constant is expressed in terms of partial pressures.
3) According to Le Chatelier's principle, if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to minimize the effect of the stress. Changes in concentration, pressure, or temperature cause the equilibrium to shift left or right to counteract the applied change.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to chemical equilibrium. It defines reversible reactions and explains that chemical equilibrium is reached when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, resulting in no further change in reactant and product concentrations over time. The document also discusses homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibrium, factors that affect equilibrium such as temperature, pressure, and concentration, Le Chatelier's principle, and examples of industrial processes that utilize chemical equilibrium concepts.
The document discusses factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions, including concentration, temperature, surface area, and catalysts. It explains collision theory and activation energy. Exothermic reactions release heat while endothermic reactions absorb heat. Le Chatelier's principle states that chemical equilibriums shift to counteract changes in concentration, temperature, pressure or addition of reactants/products.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including:
- When equilibrium is reached, concentrations of reactants and products remain constant, with the forward and reverse reaction rates being equal.
- Le Chatelier's principle states that applying stress (changing temperature, concentration, volume, or pressure) causes a system at equilibrium to shift in a way that reduces the stress.
- For example, increasing temperature shifts exothermic reactions toward reactants and endothermic reactions toward products.
This document discusses the key concepts of chemical equilibrium. It defines reversible reactions as those that can proceed in both the forward and backward directions simultaneously. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. Several examples of reversible reactions are provided. Characteristics of chemical equilibrium include the constancy of concentrations at equilibrium and the independence of the equilibrium constant from the initial concentrations. Le Chatelier's principle is introduced, which states that if a system at equilibrium experiences a change, it will shift its position to counteract that change. The effects of changing concentration, pressure, temperature, and adding a catalyst are described based on this principle. Industrial processes for maximizing yields of important chemicals
Chemical equilirium
Equilibrium constant
Statement of Le Chatelier's Principle
Factors affecting equilibrium
Concentration change
Pressure changes
Temperature changes
Addition of a noble gass
Addition of a catalyst
Applications of LeChatelier's Principle
Chapter 18.1 : The Nature of Chemical EquilibriumChris Foltz
This document provides information about chemical equilibrium, including definitions, concepts, and examples. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. The equilibrium constant, K, is introduced as a ratio of product concentrations over reactant concentrations raised to their stoichiometric coefficients. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to write equilibrium expressions and calculate K values or concentrations at equilibrium.
My notes for A2 Chemistry Unit 4, typed by me and compiled from various sources. I cannot trace back where everything came from but again shall any intellectual property rights be violated, please comment /contact me and I will try my best to rectify them as soon as possible.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction in a closed system. It defines the equilibrium constant (Kc) and explains that a high Kc value means a high product yield, while a low Kc means a low product yield. It also describes Le Chatelier's Principle, which states that applying stress to a system in equilibrium will cause the equilibrium to shift to reduce the effect of the stress, and discusses how temperature, concentration, and pressure influence the position and value of equilibrium constants.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, such that the concentrations of reactants and products no longer change over time. It describes how equilibrium can be altered according to Le Chatelier's principle - if a stress such as a change in concentration, temperature, or pressure is applied to a system at equilibrium, the position of equilibrium will shift to counteract the applied change and re-establish equilibrium. Specific examples are provided of how changing concentration, temperature, and pressure can shift equilibrium in reversible reactions.
1. The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including the concepts of equilibrium, depicting equilibrium reactions with equations, the equilibrium constant K, and how the value of K relates to whether a reaction favors reactants or products.
2. It also covers heterogeneous equilibria involving solids or liquids, how the concentrations of solids and liquids do not appear in equilibrium expressions, and examples of heterogeneous equilibrium reactions like the decomposition of calcium carbonate.
3. The key aspects covered are the definition of chemical equilibrium as when forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate, the use of concentration ratios and partial pressures to define equilibrium constants Kc and Kp, and how heterogeneous reactions involve gases in equilibrium with solids or liquids.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction proceed at the same rate. At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. The equilibrium constant, K, is a ratio of products over reactants that characterizes the position of equilibrium. A large K value indicates the reaction favors products, while a small K value indicates the reaction favors reactants.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium X: Le Chatelier's Principle and Temperature Cha...Lumen Learning
This document discusses how temperature changes act as a stress on chemical equilibriums according to Le Chatelier's principle. It explains that increasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction shifts the equilibrium toward reactants, while decreasing the temperature shifts it toward products. For exothermic reactions, increasing the temperature shifts the equilibrium toward products, while decreasing the temperature shifts it toward reactants. This is because temperature changes are adding or removing heat, which acts as a reactant in endothermic reactions and a product in exothermic reactions.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium VII: The Reaction Quotient Q for Non-equilbrium...Lumen Learning
This document discusses the reaction quotient Q and how it can be used to determine if a chemical reaction is at equilibrium or not. It explains that Q is calculated the same way as the equilibrium constant K, but Q can be calculated for any reaction conditions, while K only applies at equilibrium. If Q equals K, the reaction is at equilibrium. If Q is greater than K, there are too many products and the reaction will shift towards the reactants. If Q is less than K, there are too many reactants and the reaction will shift towards the products. An example problem demonstrates calculating Q and comparing it to K to determine the direction a reaction needs to shift.
1) Equilibria occur in closed systems when the properties of the system no longer change with time, such as when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.
2) According to Le Châtelier's principle, if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift in a way that reduces the effect of the stress.
3) The equilibrium constant Kc is the ratio of products over reactants concentrations or partial pressures at equilibrium. If Kc is greater than 1, more products form, and if less than 1, more reactants form.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium, including:
- Reactions reach equilibrium when concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time.
- The equilibrium constant, K, quantifies the position of equilibrium and can be used to calculate concentrations at equilibrium.
- Equilibrium expressions can involve gas concentrations or pressures, and heterogeneous equilibria only include gases and dissolved substances in expressions.
- Knowing K allows prediction of whether a reaction will occur and the direction a system will shift to reach equilibrium.
Le Châtelier's Principle states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will adjust to partially counteract the stress and reach a new equilibrium position. Changes in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature can act as stresses. For example, increasing the concentration of reactants will shift the equilibrium to the product side. A catalyst will speed the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions but will not change the equilibrium position or constant.
Law of mass action, criteria of chemical equilibrium, application of law of mass action to homogenous and heterogeneous equilibrium, factors affecting equilibrium, Gibb’s free energy change for chemical equilibria, Le-Chatelier principle and its industrial application.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium V: ICE Tables and Equilibrium CalculationsLumen Learning
This document discusses using ICE tables and the equilibrium constant expression to calculate equilibrium concentrations or partial pressures for a chemical reaction. It provides an example problem working through setting up an ICE table, filling in values, solving the equilibrium constant expression as a quadratic equation to find the change value x, and substituting x back into the ICE table and expression to determine the equilibrium partial pressures. The key steps are setting up the ICE table with initial, change, and equilibrium lines; using the equilibrium constant expression to set up an equation in terms of x; solving for x; and checking that substituting the calculated values back into the expression gives the known value of K.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium IV: The Properties of the Equilibrium Constant ...Lumen Learning
This document discusses three properties of equilibrium constants:
1) If a reaction is reversed, the new equilibrium constant K is the inverse of the original value.
2) If two reactions are added together, the new equilibrium constant K is the product of the individual constants.
3) If reaction coefficients are multiplied by a factor, the new K is the original K raised to the power of that factor.
Examples are provided to illustrate applying these properties to calculate new equilibrium constants based on original values and how reactions are modified.
English chapter we are going to discuss about the reduction in the oxidation their heat evolution changes occurrence and about their reducing agent and oxidization
(1) The document discusses various types of equilibriums including physical and chemical equilibriums. It explains concepts such as homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibriums, law of chemical equilibrium, and factors that affect equilibrium.
(2) Key aspects of acids and bases are also summarized such as Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories of acids and bases. Ionization of acids and bases is explained through ionization constants.
(3) Relationships between ionization constants Ka and Kb and calculations of pH for weak acids and bases are also covered in the document.
General Chemistry 2- Chemical EquilibirumNickoRodolfo2
This document discusses chemical equilibrium. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction are proceeding at the same rate, such that the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. It introduces key concepts such as the equilibrium constant expression, how equilibrium can be approached from both directions, and Le Châtelier's principle which states that systems at equilibrium will shift in response to changes in conditions to counteract the effect of those changes. Examples of equilibrium calculations and how equilibrium is impacted by changes in conditions such as concentration, pressure and temperature are provided.
The document discusses factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions, including concentration, temperature, surface area, and catalysts. It explains collision theory and activation energy. Exothermic reactions release heat while endothermic reactions absorb heat. Le Chatelier's principle states that chemical equilibriums shift to counteract changes in concentration, temperature, pressure or addition of reactants/products.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including:
- When equilibrium is reached, concentrations of reactants and products remain constant, with the forward and reverse reaction rates being equal.
- Le Chatelier's principle states that applying stress (changing temperature, concentration, volume, or pressure) causes a system at equilibrium to shift in a way that reduces the stress.
- For example, increasing temperature shifts exothermic reactions toward reactants and endothermic reactions toward products.
This document discusses the key concepts of chemical equilibrium. It defines reversible reactions as those that can proceed in both the forward and backward directions simultaneously. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. Several examples of reversible reactions are provided. Characteristics of chemical equilibrium include the constancy of concentrations at equilibrium and the independence of the equilibrium constant from the initial concentrations. Le Chatelier's principle is introduced, which states that if a system at equilibrium experiences a change, it will shift its position to counteract that change. The effects of changing concentration, pressure, temperature, and adding a catalyst are described based on this principle. Industrial processes for maximizing yields of important chemicals
Chemical equilirium
Equilibrium constant
Statement of Le Chatelier's Principle
Factors affecting equilibrium
Concentration change
Pressure changes
Temperature changes
Addition of a noble gass
Addition of a catalyst
Applications of LeChatelier's Principle
Chapter 18.1 : The Nature of Chemical EquilibriumChris Foltz
This document provides information about chemical equilibrium, including definitions, concepts, and examples. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. The equilibrium constant, K, is introduced as a ratio of product concentrations over reactant concentrations raised to their stoichiometric coefficients. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to write equilibrium expressions and calculate K values or concentrations at equilibrium.
My notes for A2 Chemistry Unit 4, typed by me and compiled from various sources. I cannot trace back where everything came from but again shall any intellectual property rights be violated, please comment /contact me and I will try my best to rectify them as soon as possible.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction in a closed system. It defines the equilibrium constant (Kc) and explains that a high Kc value means a high product yield, while a low Kc means a low product yield. It also describes Le Chatelier's Principle, which states that applying stress to a system in equilibrium will cause the equilibrium to shift to reduce the effect of the stress, and discusses how temperature, concentration, and pressure influence the position and value of equilibrium constants.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, such that the concentrations of reactants and products no longer change over time. It describes how equilibrium can be altered according to Le Chatelier's principle - if a stress such as a change in concentration, temperature, or pressure is applied to a system at equilibrium, the position of equilibrium will shift to counteract the applied change and re-establish equilibrium. Specific examples are provided of how changing concentration, temperature, and pressure can shift equilibrium in reversible reactions.
1. The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including the concepts of equilibrium, depicting equilibrium reactions with equations, the equilibrium constant K, and how the value of K relates to whether a reaction favors reactants or products.
2. It also covers heterogeneous equilibria involving solids or liquids, how the concentrations of solids and liquids do not appear in equilibrium expressions, and examples of heterogeneous equilibrium reactions like the decomposition of calcium carbonate.
3. The key aspects covered are the definition of chemical equilibrium as when forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate, the use of concentration ratios and partial pressures to define equilibrium constants Kc and Kp, and how heterogeneous reactions involve gases in equilibrium with solids or liquids.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction proceed at the same rate. At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. The equilibrium constant, K, is a ratio of products over reactants that characterizes the position of equilibrium. A large K value indicates the reaction favors products, while a small K value indicates the reaction favors reactants.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium X: Le Chatelier's Principle and Temperature Cha...Lumen Learning
This document discusses how temperature changes act as a stress on chemical equilibriums according to Le Chatelier's principle. It explains that increasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction shifts the equilibrium toward reactants, while decreasing the temperature shifts it toward products. For exothermic reactions, increasing the temperature shifts the equilibrium toward products, while decreasing the temperature shifts it toward reactants. This is because temperature changes are adding or removing heat, which acts as a reactant in endothermic reactions and a product in exothermic reactions.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium VII: The Reaction Quotient Q for Non-equilbrium...Lumen Learning
This document discusses the reaction quotient Q and how it can be used to determine if a chemical reaction is at equilibrium or not. It explains that Q is calculated the same way as the equilibrium constant K, but Q can be calculated for any reaction conditions, while K only applies at equilibrium. If Q equals K, the reaction is at equilibrium. If Q is greater than K, there are too many products and the reaction will shift towards the reactants. If Q is less than K, there are too many reactants and the reaction will shift towards the products. An example problem demonstrates calculating Q and comparing it to K to determine the direction a reaction needs to shift.
1) Equilibria occur in closed systems when the properties of the system no longer change with time, such as when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.
2) According to Le Châtelier's principle, if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift in a way that reduces the effect of the stress.
3) The equilibrium constant Kc is the ratio of products over reactants concentrations or partial pressures at equilibrium. If Kc is greater than 1, more products form, and if less than 1, more reactants form.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium, including:
- Reactions reach equilibrium when concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time.
- The equilibrium constant, K, quantifies the position of equilibrium and can be used to calculate concentrations at equilibrium.
- Equilibrium expressions can involve gas concentrations or pressures, and heterogeneous equilibria only include gases and dissolved substances in expressions.
- Knowing K allows prediction of whether a reaction will occur and the direction a system will shift to reach equilibrium.
Le Châtelier's Principle states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will adjust to partially counteract the stress and reach a new equilibrium position. Changes in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature can act as stresses. For example, increasing the concentration of reactants will shift the equilibrium to the product side. A catalyst will speed the rate of both the forward and reverse reactions but will not change the equilibrium position or constant.
Law of mass action, criteria of chemical equilibrium, application of law of mass action to homogenous and heterogeneous equilibrium, factors affecting equilibrium, Gibb’s free energy change for chemical equilibria, Le-Chatelier principle and its industrial application.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium V: ICE Tables and Equilibrium CalculationsLumen Learning
This document discusses using ICE tables and the equilibrium constant expression to calculate equilibrium concentrations or partial pressures for a chemical reaction. It provides an example problem working through setting up an ICE table, filling in values, solving the equilibrium constant expression as a quadratic equation to find the change value x, and substituting x back into the ICE table and expression to determine the equilibrium partial pressures. The key steps are setting up the ICE table with initial, change, and equilibrium lines; using the equilibrium constant expression to set up an equation in terms of x; solving for x; and checking that substituting the calculated values back into the expression gives the known value of K.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium IV: The Properties of the Equilibrium Constant ...Lumen Learning
This document discusses three properties of equilibrium constants:
1) If a reaction is reversed, the new equilibrium constant K is the inverse of the original value.
2) If two reactions are added together, the new equilibrium constant K is the product of the individual constants.
3) If reaction coefficients are multiplied by a factor, the new K is the original K raised to the power of that factor.
Examples are provided to illustrate applying these properties to calculate new equilibrium constants based on original values and how reactions are modified.
English chapter we are going to discuss about the reduction in the oxidation their heat evolution changes occurrence and about their reducing agent and oxidization
(1) The document discusses various types of equilibriums including physical and chemical equilibriums. It explains concepts such as homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibriums, law of chemical equilibrium, and factors that affect equilibrium.
(2) Key aspects of acids and bases are also summarized such as Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories of acids and bases. Ionization of acids and bases is explained through ionization constants.
(3) Relationships between ionization constants Ka and Kb and calculations of pH for weak acids and bases are also covered in the document.
General Chemistry 2- Chemical EquilibirumNickoRodolfo2
This document discusses chemical equilibrium. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction are proceeding at the same rate, such that the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. It introduces key concepts such as the equilibrium constant expression, how equilibrium can be approached from both directions, and Le Châtelier's principle which states that systems at equilibrium will shift in response to changes in conditions to counteract the effect of those changes. Examples of equilibrium calculations and how equilibrium is impacted by changes in conditions such as concentration, pressure and temperature are provided.
This document discusses aqueous chemistry and chemical equilibrium. It introduces key concepts like the equilibrium constant K, reaction quotient Q, and Le Châtelier’s principle. K is a ratio that quantifies concentrations at equilibrium. Q is similar but used to predict the direction of reactions not yet at equilibrium. Le Châtelier's principle states that if a system at equilibrium experiences a change, it will shift to counteract the change.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including:
- Equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.
- At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
- The equilibrium constant, K, can be expressed as a ratio involving concentrations or pressures at equilibrium.
- Le Châtelier's principle states that if a system at equilibrium experiences a change, it will shift its position to counteract the change.
Equilibrium is a state in which there are no observable changes over time in a chemical system. At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. An equilibrium constant (K) can be defined based on the concentrations or pressures of reactants and products at equilibrium. The value of K is independent of initial concentrations and depends only on temperature. A change in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature will shift the equilibrium in the direction that counteracts the applied stress according to Le Chatelier's principle.
This document provides an overview of chemical equilibrium. It defines chemical equilibrium as a state where the rates of the forward and reverse chemical reactions are equal. The document discusses several key aspects of chemical equilibrium, including: equilibrium constants and how they relate to the direction and extent of reactions; factors that can shift equilibrium like concentration, temperature, and pressure changes; and characteristics of different types of equilibria like homogeneous, heterogeneous, and ionic equilibria.
The document discusses reversible reactions and chemical equilibrium. It defines reversible reactions as those that can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions simultaneously. It explains that a reversible reaction reaches equilibrium when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. It introduces Le Chatelier's principle, which states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will respond in a way to counteract the stress and re-establish a new equilibrium state. The document also discusses how temperature, concentration, pressure, and catalysts can affect the position of equilibrium by altering reaction rates based on Le Chatelier's principle. Finally, it introduces equilibrium expressions and the equilibrium constant (Keq), explaining how these relate the concentrations of
Chemistry zimsec chapter 8 chemical equilibriaalproelearning
(1) This document discusses chemical equilibria, including reversible reactions, factors that affect equilibrium, and acid-base theories.
(2) It describes how reversible reactions reach equilibrium when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. Le Chatelier's principle states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, it will shift in a way to counteract the stress.
(3) Equilibrium constants Kc and Kp are introduced, which do not depend on concentration or pressure changes. The Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, including:
1) Equilibrium is achieved when the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction proceed at the same rate.
2) At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
3) The equilibrium constant, K, provides a quantitative measure of the position of equilibrium.
4) Le Châtelier's principle states that if a system at equilibrium experiences a change in conditions, it will shift its position to counteract the effects of that change.
This document is an assignment on physical chemistry that discusses chemical equilibrium. It covers topics like the characteristics of chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constant Kc, relationships between Kc and Kp for gaseous reactions, and applications of the equilibrium constant. It also discusses Le Chatelier's principle and how changing concentration, pressure, and temperature can shift the equilibrium position. Finally, it provides examples of some industrially important chemical equilibria like the contact process for sulfuric acid production.
This document summarizes key concepts about chemical equilibrium:
1) Chemical equilibrium is the state where concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time, though it is a dynamic process as reactions proceed in both directions at equal rates.
2) The equilibrium constant, K, quantifies the position of equilibrium and is defined by the concentrations or pressures of products over reactants. K remains constant regardless of initial amounts and multiple equilibrium positions are possible.
3) Le Chatelier's principle states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to reduce that stress, such as by adding or removing reactants/products, changing pressure or volume, or altering temperature for exothermic/endother
The document summarizes key concepts about chemical equilibrium including:
1) Chemical equilibrium occurs when the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction proceed at the same rate.
2) At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
3) The equilibrium constant, K, provides a measure of how far a reaction proceeds towards products or reactants.
4) Changing conditions like concentration, temperature, or pressure will shift equilibrium to counteract the change according to Le Châtelier's principle.
This document provides an overview of chemical equilibrium including:
- The law of mass action and how equilibrium is reached through forward and reverse reactions.
- Factors that affect equilibrium position including concentration, pressure, temperature, and catalyst addition based on Le Chatelier's principle.
- Applications of the equilibrium constant including predicting reaction direction and extent.
- Industrial uses of equilibrium concepts such as the Haber process for ammonia synthesis which applies pressure, temperature and product removal.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when opposing chemical processes proceed at equal rates, such that the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time. It provides examples of physical equilibria like liquid-vapor and solid-liquid, and chemical equilibria like reversible reactions. The document also explains concepts like Le Chatelier's principle, the law of mass action, equilibrium constants, and how concentration, temperature, and pressure can affect chemical equilibrium.
The document discusses chemical equilibrium. It defines equilibrium as a state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical process are equal, resulting in no net change in the concentrations or properties of the system. It provides examples of physical and chemical equilibrium processes. It describes key characteristics of equilibrium like dynamic nature, constant concentrations and temperatures, and the relationship between reaction rates and equilibrium constants.
This document provides an introduction to chemical equilibrium, including:
- Chemical equilibrium is a state where concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time, with reactions proceeding in both directions at equal rates.
- The equilibrium constant, K, provides a quantitative measure of the position of equilibrium and can be used to determine the direction a system will shift to reach equilibrium.
- Equilibrium expressions can be written in terms of concentrations or pressures and the relationship between Kc and Kp depends on the stoichiometry of the reaction.
- Heterogeneous equilibria involve multiple phases and equilibrium expressions do not include pure solids or liquids.
- Applications of equilibrium constants allow prediction of reaction tendencies and the direction systems will shift
1. Chemical equilibrium occurs when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions of a reversible reaction become equal, resulting in constant concentrations of reactants and products.
2. The chemical equilibrium constant (Kc) represents the state of equilibrium and is calculated using the concentrations of products and reactants.
3. Perturbing a system at equilibrium, such as by changing concentrations, pressure, or temperature, will cause the equilibrium to shift in order to oppose the applied stress according to Le Chatelier's principle.
Similar to New chm-152-unit-2-power-points-sp13-140227172047-phpapp01 (19)
This document discusses suffixes and terminology used in medicine. It begins by listing common combining forms used to build medical terms and their meanings. It then defines several noun, adjective, and shorter suffixes and provides their meanings. Examples are given of medical terms built using combining forms and suffixes. The document also examines specific medical concepts in more depth, such as hernias, blood cells, acromegaly, splenomegaly, and laparoscopy.
The document is a chapter from a medical textbook that discusses anatomical terminology pertaining to the body as a whole. It defines the structural organization of the body from cells to tissues to organs to systems. It also describes the body cavities and identifies the major organs contained within each cavity, as well as anatomical divisions of the abdomen and back.
This document is from a textbook on medical terminology. It discusses the basic structure of medical words and how they are built from prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms. Some key points:
- Medical terms are made up of elements including roots, suffixes, prefixes, and combining vowels. Understanding these elements is important for analyzing terms.
- Common prefixes include hypo-, epi-, and cis-. Common suffixes include -itis, -algia, and -ectomy.
- Dozens of combining forms are provided, such as gastro- meaning stomach, cardi- meaning heart, and aden- meaning gland.
- Rules are provided for analyzing terms, such as reading from the suffix backward and dropping combining vowels before suffixes starting with vowels
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 25 on Cancer from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by a team that includes Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 24 on Immunology from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
Nerve cells, also known as neurons, are highly specialized cells that process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. This chapter discusses the structure and function of neurons, how they communicate with each other via synapses, and how signals are propagated along neurons through changes in their membrane potentials. Neurons play a vital role in the nervous system by allowing organisms to process information and coordinate their responses.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 22 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "The Molecular Cell Biology of Development" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 21 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cell Birth, Lineage, and Death" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 20 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Regulating the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 19 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Integrating Cells into Tissues" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses microtubules and intermediate filaments, which are types of cytoskeletal filaments that help organize and move cellular components. Microtubules are involved in processes like cell division and intracellular transport, while intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and help integrate the nucleus with the cytoplasm. Together, these filaments play important structural and functional roles in eukaryotic cells.
This chapter discusses microfilaments, which are one of the three main types of cytoskeletal filaments found in eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are composed of actin filaments and play important roles in cell motility, structure, and intracellular transport. They allow cells to change shape and to move by contracting or extending parts of the cell surface.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 16 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Signaling Pathways that Control Gene Activity" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 15 of the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira. It provides the chapter title "Cell Signaling I: Signal Transduction and Short-Term Cellular Responses" and notes the copyright is held by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 14 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Vesicular Traffic, Secretion, and Endocytosis" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses how proteins are transported into membranes and organelles within cells. Proteins destined for membranes or organelles have targeting signals that are recognized by transport systems. The transport systems then direct the proteins to their proper destinations, such as inserting membrane proteins into membranes or delivering soluble proteins into organelles.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 12 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cellular Energetics" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses the transmembrane transport of ions and small molecules across cell membranes. It covers topics such as passive transport through membrane channels and pumps, as well as active transport using ATP. The chapter is from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology and is copyrighted by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 10, titled "Biomembrane Structure", from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was written by a team of authors including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 9 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Visualizing, Fractionating, and Culturing Cells" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
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2. Goals & Objectives
See the following Learning
Objectives on page 773.
Understand These Concepts:
17.1-7, 9, 11-16.
Master These Skills:
17.1-4, 6-17
3. The Equilibrium State
All reactions are reversible and under suitable conditions will reach a
state of equilibrium.
At equilibrium, the concentrations of products and reactants no longer
change because the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal.
At equilibrium: rateforward = ratereverse
Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state because reactions continue to
occur, but because they occur at the same rate, no net change is
observed on the macroscopic level.
4. Basic Concepts
Most chemical reactions do not go
to completion.
Reversible reactions do not go to
completion and can occur in either
direction.
5. Basic Concepts
Reversible reactions may be
represented in general terms as the
following:
aA(g) + bB(g) = cC(g) + dD(g)
Chemical equilibrium exists when
the forward and reverse reactions
are occuring at exactly the same
rate and therefore there is no net
change in the concentration of
reactants and products.
6. Basic Concepts
For the generalized reaction
A(g) + B(g) = C(g) + D(g)
the reaction may be represented
graphically
8. Basic Concepts
It makes no difference if we start
with the “reactants” or the
“products” of a reversible reaction,
because equilibrium can be
established from either direction.
Once established, the equilibrium is
“dynamic”--it continues with no net
change.
9. The Equilibrium Constant
The general form for the equilibrium
constant for the reaction
aA(g) + bB(g) = cC(g) + dD(g)
Kc = [C]c[D]d
[A]a[B]b
10. The Equilibrium Constant
Write equilibrium constant
expressions for the following
reactions at 500oC.
1. PCl5(g) = PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
2. H2(g) + I2(g) = 2HI(g)
3. 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) = 4NO(g)
+ 6H2O(g)
11.
12. The Equilibrium Constant
The thermodynamic definition of the
equilibrium constant involves activities
rather than concentrations.
For pure liquids and solids, the activity is
taken to be 1.
For components of ideal solutions, the
activity of each component is taken to be
its molar concentration.
For mixtures of ideal gases, the activity of
each component is taken to be its partial
pressure in atmospheres.
14. Exercises
One liter of the following reaction
system at a high temperature was
found to contain 0.172 moles of
phosporous trichloride, 0.086 moles
of chlorine and 0.028 moles of
phosporous pentachloride at
equilibrium. Determine the value of
Kc for the reaction.
PCl5 (g) = PCl3 (g) + Cl2(g)
15.
16. Exercises
The decomposition of PCl5 was
studied at another temperature.
One mole of PCl5 was introduced
into an evacuated 1.00L container
at the new temperature. At
equilibrium, 0.60 moles of PCl3 were
present in the container. Calculate
the equilibrium constant at this
temperature.
PCl5 (g) = PCl3 (g) + Cl2(g)
17.
18. Exercises
At a given temperature, 0.80 moles
of N2 and 0.90 moles of H2 were
placed in an evacuated 1.00L
container. At equilibrium, 0.20
moles of NH3 were present.
Determine the value for Kc for the
reaction.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) = 2NH3(g)
19.
20. The Reaction Quotient, Q
The reaction quotient, Q, has the
same form as the equilibrium
constant, Kc, except the
concentrations are not necessarily
equilibrium concentrations.
Comparison of Q with Kc enables
the prediction of the direction the
reaction will occur to the greater
extent when a system is not at
equilibrium.
21. The Reaction Quotient, Q
The relationship between Q and Kc
When
Q = Kc the system is at equilibrium
Q > Kc reaction occurs to the left to
the greater extent
Q < Kc reaction occurs to the right to
the greater extent
22. Determining the Direction of
Reaction
The value of Q indicates the direction in which a reaction must
proceed to reach equilibrium.
If Q < K, the reactants must increase and the products decrease;
reactants → products until equilibrium is reached.
If Q > K, the reactants must decrease and the products increase;
products → reactants until equilibrium is reached.
If Q = K, the system is at equilibrium and no further net change
takes place.
23. Figure 17.5 Reaction direction and the relative sizes of Q and
K.
Q < K
Q > K
Q = K
24. Solving Equilibrium Problems
If equilibrium quantities are given, we simply substitute these into
the expression for Kc to calculate its value.
If only some equilibrium quantities are given, we use a reaction table
to calculate them and find Kc.
A reaction table shows
• the balanced equation,
• the initial quantities of reactants and products,
• the changes in these quantities during the reaction, and
• the equilibrium quantities.
25. Figure 17.6 Steps in solving equilibrium problems.
PRELIMINARY SETTING UP
1. Write the balanced
equation.
2. Write the reaction quotient,
Q.
3. Convert all amounts into
the correct units (M or atm).
WORKING ON THE REACTION
TABLE
4. When reaction direction is not
known, compare Q with K.
5. Construct a reaction table.
Check the sign of x, the
change in the concentration
(or pressure).
26. Figure 17.6 continued
SOLVING FOR x AND EQUILIBRIUM
QUANTITIES
6. Substitute the quantities into Q.
7. To simplify the math, assume that x
is negligible:
([A]init – x = [A]eq ≈ [A]init)
8. Solve for x.
9. Find the equilibrium quantities.
Check to see that calculated
values give the known K.
Check that assumption is
justified (<5% error). If not,
solve quadratic equation for x.
27. Exercises
The equilibrium constant for the
following reaction is 49 at 450oC. If
0.22 moles of I2, 0.22 moles of H2
and 0.66 moles of HI were placed in
an evacuated 1.00L container,
determine if the system is at
equilibrium. If not, in which
direction will the reaction occur to
the greater extent to achieve
equlibrium.
31. Uses of the Equilibrium Constant
The equilibrium constant, Kc, is 3.00
for the following reaction at a given
temperature. If 1.00 moles of SO2
and 1.00 moles of NO2 are put into
an evacuated 2.00L container and
allowed to reach equilibrium,
determine the concentration of each
compound at equilibrium.
32. Uses of the Equilibrium
Constant(cont.)
SO2(g) + NO2(g) = SO3(g) + NO(g)
33.
34. Uses of the Equilibrium
Constant(cont.)
The equilibrium constant is 49 for
the following reaction at 450oC. If
1.00 mole of HI is placed in an
evacuated 1.00L container and
allowed to reach equilibrium,
determine the equilibrium
concentration of all species.
H2(g) + I2(g) = 2HI(g)
35. Le Châtelier’s Principle
When a chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed, it reattains
equilibrium by undergoing a net reaction that reduces the effect of
the disturbance.
A system is disturbed when a change in conditions forces it
temporarily out of equilibrium.
A shift to the left is a net reaction from product to reactant.
The system responds to a disturbance by a shift in the equilibrium
position.
A shift to the right is a net reaction from reactant to product.
36. Le Châtelier’s Principle
When a chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed, it reattains
equilibrium by undergoing a net reaction that reduces the effect of
the disturbance.
A system is disturbed when a change in conditions forces it
temporarily out of equilibrium.
A shift to the left is a net reaction from product to reactant.
The system responds to a disturbance by a shift in the equilibrium
position.
A shift to the right is a net reaction from reactant to product.
37. Factors That Affect Equilibrium
LeChatelier’s Principle
If a change of conditions(stress) is
applied to a system in equilibrium, the
system responds in the way that best
tends to reduce the stress by reaching
a new state of equilibrium.
Changes in concentrations,
pressure, and temperature are
considered stresses to the system.
39. 1. Changes in concentration
Consider the following reaction at
equilibrium
H2(g) + I2(g) = 2HI(g)
Determine the equilibrium shift if
H2 is added
H2 is removed
HI is removed
I2 is added
40. 2. Changes in volume
If the volume of the container is
decreased for a system at
equilibrium, the concentrations of
all gases(but not liquids or solids)
will increase. If the balanced
equation has more moles of gas on
the reactant side than on the
product side, the forward reaction is
favored. An increase in volume has
the opposite effect.
41. 2. Changes in volume
Consider the following reaction at
equilibrium at a constant
temperature:
2 NO2(g) = N2O4(g)
Determine the equilibrium shift if
the volume is decreased(pressure
increased)
the volume is increased(pressure
decreased)
the pressure is increased at constant
volume by the addition of an inert gas
42. The Effect of a Change in Temperature
To determine the effect of a change in temperature on equilibrium,
heat is considered a component of the system.
Heat is a product in an exothermic reaction (DH°rxn < 0).
Heat is a reactant in an endothermic reaction (DH°rxn > 0).
An increase in temperature adds heat, which favors the endothermic
reaction.
A decrease in temperature removes heat, which favors the
exothermic reaction.
43. 3. Changes in temperature
Increasing the temperature always
favors the reaction that consumes
heat, and vice-versa.
Consider the following reaction at
equilibrium at a given temperature
2SO2(g) + O2(g) = 2SO3(g) + 198kJ
Determine the equilibrium shift if
T is increased
T is decreased
44. 4. Introduction of a catalyst
Addition of a catalyst increases the
rate at which equilibrium is
achieved but has no effect on the
final equilibrium. The same
equilibrium is achieved but in a
shorter time.
45. Changes in the Value of Kc
Changes in concentration, volume,
and the addition of a catalyst do not
change the value of Kc.
Changes in temperature do effect
the value of Kc.
Kc will increase if the forward
reaction is endothermic and
decrease if the forward reaction
is exothermic. See table 17.4.
47. Exercises
Given the following reaction at
equilibrium in a closed container at
500oC. Indicate the direction the
equilibrium would shift(left, right,
no shift) and the effect on the value
of Kc(increase, decrease, no
change) for each of the following
changes.
48. Exercises(cont.)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) =2NH3(g) DH=-92kJ
Position Kc
Increase T
Decrease V
Add N2
Remove NH3
Add a catalyst
49. Exercises
Given the following reaction at
equilibrium in a closed container at
500oC. Indicate the direction the
equilibrium would shift(left, right,
no shift) and the effect on the value
of Kc(increase, decrease, no
change) for each of the following
changes.
50. Exercises
H2(g) + I2(g) = 2HI (g) DH= +25kJ
Position Kc
Increase T
Increase V
Add HI
Remove H2
Add a catalyst
51.
52. K and Q for hetereogeneous equilibrium
A hetereogeneous equilibrium involves reactants and/or
products in different phases.
A pure solid or liquid always has the same “concentration”, i.e., the
same number of moles per liter of solid or liquid.
The expressions for Q and K include only species whose
concentrations change as the reaction approaches equilbrium.
Pure solids and liquids are omitted from the expression for
Q or K..
For the above reaction, Q = [CO2]
53. Heterogeneous Equilibria
involve two or more phases or states
of matter. The activities of solids and
liquids are unity.
Write Kc expressions for each of the
lowing equilibria.
CaCO3(s) = CaO(s) + CO2(g)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) = H2SO3(aq)
CaF2(s) = Ca2+(aq) + 2F-1(aq)