This document provides an overview of computer networks. It defines what a computer network is and discusses how computers connect and share resources over a network. It also covers different types of networks like LAN, MAN, and WAN. Additionally, it describes common network devices like hubs, switches, routers, and gateways. The document also discusses network topologies, transmission media, and addressing in TCP/IP networks. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive introduction to fundamental computer networking concepts.
The document provides an overview of the 7-layer OSI model that is used to connect computers over a network. It describes each layer in order from the application layer down to the physical layer. The application layer allows user communication programs like web browsers, email clients, and file transfer protocols to operate. Lower layers deal with networking functions like packetizing data, routing, error checking, and physical connections between devices. The physical layer transmits the raw bit data over various transmission mediums like wires or fiber optics.
This document summarizes a lecture on data communications and networking. It discusses categories of networks including LANs, MANs, and WANs. It also covers internetworks, the history of the Internet, communication tasks such as transmission, interfacing, synchronization, and protocols. Characteristics of protocols are described as direct/indirect, structured/monolithic, symmetric/asymmetric, and standard/non-standard. Suggested additional readings on these topics are provided.
This document provides an overview of computer networking concepts and terminology. It introduces the key components of a computer including the processor, memory, and input/output devices. It also covers communication devices and how they can be synchronous or asynchronous. The document discusses how networks are connected including different types of buses and hierarchies. It provides an overview of different operating systems from various developers. It also covers network structure, topologies, media, reliability, flow control, congestion, and the layered protocol architecture of the OSI model.
This document provides an overview of the OSI model and focuses on the physical and data link layers. It discusses that the OSI model defines a 7-layer framework for network communication and each layer has distinct functions. The physical layer deals with physical transmission and encoding of data, while the data link layer establishes reliable transmission between directly connected nodes through framing, addressing, error control and access control. The document explains the responsibilities and key concepts of both the physical and data link layers in the OSI model.
The document discusses various networking concepts including:
- Common network topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh and the characteristics of each.
- Twisted pair cabling types like UTP, STP, and fiber optic.
- Network devices like hubs, switches, routers, and the differences between LANs, WANs, intranets, and the internet.
- The OSI model which defines 7 layers of networking with specific functions at each layer to prepare data for transmission.
The document defines computer networks and distributed networks. It explains that computer networks allow devices to exchange data through connections. The main goals of computer networks are resource sharing and increasing reliability and performance. Some key applications of networks include accessing remote programs and databases, file sharing, streaming media, and information sharing over the internet. The document also defines data communication and its components. It explains that data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and receiver. The major components are the message, sender, receiver, medium, and protocols. Finally, the document discusses common network topologies like bus, star, ring, mesh and tree; and explains their advantages and disadvantages.
1) A computer network connects computers together to share resources like printers, files, and internet connections. Networks can be local-area networks within a building or wide-area networks spanning cities.
2) Common network topologies include star, bus, ring, tree and mesh. Star networks connect devices to a central hub while bus networks use a common backbone cable. Ring networks transmit messages in one direction around a closed loop.
3) Computer networks allow for resource sharing, improved communication and availability of information, though they also present security risks and require maintenance of hardware and software.
Data Communication
Networks & Internet
Protocols & Standards
Layered Tasks
Internet Model
OSI Model
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
Multiplexing
Transmission Media
Circuit switching and Telephone Network
Signals
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
Multiplexing
Transmission Media
The document provides an overview of the 7-layer OSI model that is used to connect computers over a network. It describes each layer in order from the application layer down to the physical layer. The application layer allows user communication programs like web browsers, email clients, and file transfer protocols to operate. Lower layers deal with networking functions like packetizing data, routing, error checking, and physical connections between devices. The physical layer transmits the raw bit data over various transmission mediums like wires or fiber optics.
This document summarizes a lecture on data communications and networking. It discusses categories of networks including LANs, MANs, and WANs. It also covers internetworks, the history of the Internet, communication tasks such as transmission, interfacing, synchronization, and protocols. Characteristics of protocols are described as direct/indirect, structured/monolithic, symmetric/asymmetric, and standard/non-standard. Suggested additional readings on these topics are provided.
This document provides an overview of computer networking concepts and terminology. It introduces the key components of a computer including the processor, memory, and input/output devices. It also covers communication devices and how they can be synchronous or asynchronous. The document discusses how networks are connected including different types of buses and hierarchies. It provides an overview of different operating systems from various developers. It also covers network structure, topologies, media, reliability, flow control, congestion, and the layered protocol architecture of the OSI model.
This document provides an overview of the OSI model and focuses on the physical and data link layers. It discusses that the OSI model defines a 7-layer framework for network communication and each layer has distinct functions. The physical layer deals with physical transmission and encoding of data, while the data link layer establishes reliable transmission between directly connected nodes through framing, addressing, error control and access control. The document explains the responsibilities and key concepts of both the physical and data link layers in the OSI model.
The document discusses various networking concepts including:
- Common network topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh and the characteristics of each.
- Twisted pair cabling types like UTP, STP, and fiber optic.
- Network devices like hubs, switches, routers, and the differences between LANs, WANs, intranets, and the internet.
- The OSI model which defines 7 layers of networking with specific functions at each layer to prepare data for transmission.
The document defines computer networks and distributed networks. It explains that computer networks allow devices to exchange data through connections. The main goals of computer networks are resource sharing and increasing reliability and performance. Some key applications of networks include accessing remote programs and databases, file sharing, streaming media, and information sharing over the internet. The document also defines data communication and its components. It explains that data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and receiver. The major components are the message, sender, receiver, medium, and protocols. Finally, the document discusses common network topologies like bus, star, ring, mesh and tree; and explains their advantages and disadvantages.
1) A computer network connects computers together to share resources like printers, files, and internet connections. Networks can be local-area networks within a building or wide-area networks spanning cities.
2) Common network topologies include star, bus, ring, tree and mesh. Star networks connect devices to a central hub while bus networks use a common backbone cable. Ring networks transmit messages in one direction around a closed loop.
3) Computer networks allow for resource sharing, improved communication and availability of information, though they also present security risks and require maintenance of hardware and software.
Data Communication
Networks & Internet
Protocols & Standards
Layered Tasks
Internet Model
OSI Model
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
Multiplexing
Transmission Media
Circuit switching and Telephone Network
Signals
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
Multiplexing
Transmission Media
This document provides an introduction to computer networks. It defines what a network is and discusses the purpose of sharing resources between connected computers. It describes different network topologies including bus, star, ring and mesh and explains common network hardware like switches, routers, hubs and network interface cards. The document also distinguishes between local, wide and metropolitan area networks.
The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts including:
- The evolution of networking from ARPANET in the 1960s to the modern Internet.
- Common network topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh configurations.
- Different transmission media and network devices.
- Key networking services and the need for resource sharing between connected devices.
- Important terminology related to data communication standards and switching techniques.
Data flow refers to how data frames propagate through network devices at layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. Data must be encapsulated with addressing at both the network layer with IP addresses and the data-link layer with MAC addresses to travel between devices. Layer 1 devices simply forward all frames, layer 2 devices filter and forward frames based on MAC addresses between collision domains, and layer 3 devices filter and forward packets based on IP addresses between broadcast domains.
This document provides an overview of data communications and computer networks. It discusses the need for computer communication over distances, defines data communication, and describes the key components and characteristics of data communication systems. It also covers various data representation methods, transmission media, network topologies, categories of networks including LANs, MANs and WANs, and the importance of protocols and standards in networking.
h!
This an assignment about
Data_Communications_and_networking
OS I model
university of Sri Jayawardenepura (Dept.of.IT)
2nd year 2nd semester
Thank you,
This document provides an overview of computer networking concepts. It begins by defining a computer network and describing the key benefits of communication and resource sharing. It then covers different types of networks like LAN, WAN, WLAN, MAN, and SAN. Physical network topologies like bus, star, ring and mesh are explained. Common network hardware such as cables, connectors, switches and routers are outlined. The document also discusses network devices, protocols, IP addressing and network topologies implemented at the School of Information Communications and Technology.
The document introduces computer networking concepts including definitions, advantages, disadvantages, classifications and topologies. It defines a network as connecting computers to share resources. Local area networks connect computers in a small area like a building, while wide area networks connect LANs across cities/countries. Key networking hardware includes network interface cards, repeaters, hubs, bridges, routers and switches.
What is a network?
Need for networking
Components of Network
Types of Network
Evolution of Networking
Communication media
Data Communication Terminologies
Switching Techniques
Digital and Analog Transmission
Network Topology
Network Devices
Communication Protocols
Wireless/Mobile Computing
This document discusses different networking devices and their functions. It covers repeaters, hubs, bridges, and routers. Repeaters and hubs operate at the physical layer and extend network reach but do not filter traffic. Bridges operate at the data link layer and segment networks to reduce collisions. Routers operate at the network layer, intelligently route traffic between networks based on IP addresses, and filter broadcast traffic.
The document discusses basics of computer networks. It defines data communication and its key characteristics like delivery, accuracy and timeliness. The basic components of a communication model are identified as the message, protocol, sender, receiver and transmission medium. Different data types like text, numbers, images, audio and video are represented as bit patterns for transmission. Types of networks like personal area network, local area network, wide area network, campus area network and metropolitan area network are classified based on their geographical span, interconnectivity, administration and architecture.
This document is a project report submitted by Deepak Kumar Pandey, a 4th semester BSc Computer Science student at Shri Jayanti Lal Hirachand Sanghvi Gujrati Samaj Innovative Collage of Commerce and Science Indore, to his project guide Prof. Deepshikha Shah. The report discusses key issues to consider when designing a computer network, including the nature of nodes, topology, interconnection type, reliability, channel capacity allocation, routing techniques, applicable models, channel capacities, and access methods.
A network connects computers and allows sharing of resources and communication between users. It can be a LAN spanning a single building, a MAN connecting LANs in a city, or a global WAN like the Internet. Networks transmit data over various media like twisted pair cable, fiber, and wireless signals. Proper use of media and protocols allows networks to function according to the OSI model.
COMPUTER NETWORKING SUCH AS- DATA TRANSMISSION,
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER NETWORKING,
TYPES OF NETWORK & TOPOLOGIES &
PACKET TRANSMISSION
INTERNET & INTRANET INCLUDED-
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW OF INTERNET
ARCHITECTURE & FUNCTIONING OF INTERNET
WEB PAGE, HTML
BASIC SERVICES OVER INTERNET
An internetwork connects individual networks together so they function as a single large network. It addresses the challenges of connecting different networks that may use varying technologies and speeds. The OSI reference model describes how information passes through seven layers as it moves between software applications on different computer systems. Each layer adds control information in the form of headers and trailers to communicate with its peer layer on other systems. This allows information to be reliably exchanged between networked devices.
The document discusses key concepts of networking including the three basic elements required: network hardware, software, and protocols. It describes common network types like LAN, WAN, and MAN and compares peer-to-peer and server-based networks. The OSI reference model and TCP/IP model are explained along with common network devices, cabling, and IP addressing schemes.
This Presentation consists of various Network Devices
Hub, Router, Repeater, Bridge, Brouter, Gateway, NIC etc. It is very helpful for B.tech, BCA, MCA, M.Tech students and for those who is interested in networking.
The document describes the seven layers of the OSI model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has a specific function, such as the Physical layer being responsible for transmission of bits across a network and the Transport layer ensuring reliable delivery of data between endpoints. The OSI model provides a standardized framework for network communication.
The document provides information about computer networks and networking concepts. It discusses what a network is and examples like the Internet. It then covers topics such as the uses of networks for communication, accessing resources, centralizing data, transferring files, and more. The document also discusses different types of networks categorized by size, connectivity, and design. Additionally, it covers networking protocols, data transmission methods, network architectures, and models like OSI and TCP/IP.
This document provides an introduction to computer networks. It defines what a network is and discusses the purpose of sharing resources between connected computers. It describes different network topologies including bus, star, ring and mesh and explains common network hardware like switches, routers, hubs and network interface cards. The document also distinguishes between local, wide and metropolitan area networks.
The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts including:
- The evolution of networking from ARPANET in the 1960s to the modern Internet.
- Common network topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh configurations.
- Different transmission media and network devices.
- Key networking services and the need for resource sharing between connected devices.
- Important terminology related to data communication standards and switching techniques.
Data flow refers to how data frames propagate through network devices at layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. Data must be encapsulated with addressing at both the network layer with IP addresses and the data-link layer with MAC addresses to travel between devices. Layer 1 devices simply forward all frames, layer 2 devices filter and forward frames based on MAC addresses between collision domains, and layer 3 devices filter and forward packets based on IP addresses between broadcast domains.
This document provides an overview of data communications and computer networks. It discusses the need for computer communication over distances, defines data communication, and describes the key components and characteristics of data communication systems. It also covers various data representation methods, transmission media, network topologies, categories of networks including LANs, MANs and WANs, and the importance of protocols and standards in networking.
h!
This an assignment about
Data_Communications_and_networking
OS I model
university of Sri Jayawardenepura (Dept.of.IT)
2nd year 2nd semester
Thank you,
This document provides an overview of computer networking concepts. It begins by defining a computer network and describing the key benefits of communication and resource sharing. It then covers different types of networks like LAN, WAN, WLAN, MAN, and SAN. Physical network topologies like bus, star, ring and mesh are explained. Common network hardware such as cables, connectors, switches and routers are outlined. The document also discusses network devices, protocols, IP addressing and network topologies implemented at the School of Information Communications and Technology.
The document introduces computer networking concepts including definitions, advantages, disadvantages, classifications and topologies. It defines a network as connecting computers to share resources. Local area networks connect computers in a small area like a building, while wide area networks connect LANs across cities/countries. Key networking hardware includes network interface cards, repeaters, hubs, bridges, routers and switches.
What is a network?
Need for networking
Components of Network
Types of Network
Evolution of Networking
Communication media
Data Communication Terminologies
Switching Techniques
Digital and Analog Transmission
Network Topology
Network Devices
Communication Protocols
Wireless/Mobile Computing
This document discusses different networking devices and their functions. It covers repeaters, hubs, bridges, and routers. Repeaters and hubs operate at the physical layer and extend network reach but do not filter traffic. Bridges operate at the data link layer and segment networks to reduce collisions. Routers operate at the network layer, intelligently route traffic between networks based on IP addresses, and filter broadcast traffic.
The document discusses basics of computer networks. It defines data communication and its key characteristics like delivery, accuracy and timeliness. The basic components of a communication model are identified as the message, protocol, sender, receiver and transmission medium. Different data types like text, numbers, images, audio and video are represented as bit patterns for transmission. Types of networks like personal area network, local area network, wide area network, campus area network and metropolitan area network are classified based on their geographical span, interconnectivity, administration and architecture.
This document is a project report submitted by Deepak Kumar Pandey, a 4th semester BSc Computer Science student at Shri Jayanti Lal Hirachand Sanghvi Gujrati Samaj Innovative Collage of Commerce and Science Indore, to his project guide Prof. Deepshikha Shah. The report discusses key issues to consider when designing a computer network, including the nature of nodes, topology, interconnection type, reliability, channel capacity allocation, routing techniques, applicable models, channel capacities, and access methods.
A network connects computers and allows sharing of resources and communication between users. It can be a LAN spanning a single building, a MAN connecting LANs in a city, or a global WAN like the Internet. Networks transmit data over various media like twisted pair cable, fiber, and wireless signals. Proper use of media and protocols allows networks to function according to the OSI model.
COMPUTER NETWORKING SUCH AS- DATA TRANSMISSION,
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER NETWORKING,
TYPES OF NETWORK & TOPOLOGIES &
PACKET TRANSMISSION
INTERNET & INTRANET INCLUDED-
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW OF INTERNET
ARCHITECTURE & FUNCTIONING OF INTERNET
WEB PAGE, HTML
BASIC SERVICES OVER INTERNET
An internetwork connects individual networks together so they function as a single large network. It addresses the challenges of connecting different networks that may use varying technologies and speeds. The OSI reference model describes how information passes through seven layers as it moves between software applications on different computer systems. Each layer adds control information in the form of headers and trailers to communicate with its peer layer on other systems. This allows information to be reliably exchanged between networked devices.
The document discusses key concepts of networking including the three basic elements required: network hardware, software, and protocols. It describes common network types like LAN, WAN, and MAN and compares peer-to-peer and server-based networks. The OSI reference model and TCP/IP model are explained along with common network devices, cabling, and IP addressing schemes.
This Presentation consists of various Network Devices
Hub, Router, Repeater, Bridge, Brouter, Gateway, NIC etc. It is very helpful for B.tech, BCA, MCA, M.Tech students and for those who is interested in networking.
The document describes the seven layers of the OSI model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has a specific function, such as the Physical layer being responsible for transmission of bits across a network and the Transport layer ensuring reliable delivery of data between endpoints. The OSI model provides a standardized framework for network communication.
The document provides information about computer networks and networking concepts. It discusses what a network is and examples like the Internet. It then covers topics such as the uses of networks for communication, accessing resources, centralizing data, transferring files, and more. The document also discusses different types of networks categorized by size, connectivity, and design. Additionally, it covers networking protocols, data transmission methods, network architectures, and models like OSI and TCP/IP.
Here are the number of broadcast and collision domains for each case:
1. A single switch with 10 connected devices:
- Broadcast domain: 1
- Collision domain: 10 (each switch port is its own collision domain)
2. Two switches connected by a single trunk link with 10 devices on each switch:
- Broadcast domain: 2 (each switch is its own broadcast domain)
- Collision domain: 20 (each switch port is its own collision domain)
3. A router connecting two switches, each with 10 devices:
- Broadcast domain: 3 (each physical network segment is its own broadcast domain)
- Collision domain: 20 (each switch port is its own collision domain)
Here are the number of broadcast and collision domains for each case:
1. A single switch with 10 connected devices:
- Broadcast domain: 1
- Collision domain: 10 (each switch port is its own collision domain)
2. Two switches connected by a single trunk link with 10 devices on each switch:
- Broadcast domain: 2
- Collision domain: 20 (each switch port is its own collision domain)
3. A router connected to two switches, with 10 devices on each switch:
- Broadcast domain: 3
- Collision domain: 20 (each switch port is its own collision domain)
The document describes the OSI reference model, which defines seven layers of network communication from the physical layer to the application layer. Each layer provides services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below. The physical layer transmits raw bits of data and the application layer supports user applications. Between these layers are the data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer, and presentation layer, each of which performs specific functions to prepare data for transmission across a network. Protocols like TCP and IP operate at different layers to ensure reliable and ordered delivery of data packets from one device to another.
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.
The document discusses network models and protocol layering. It describes the OSI model which divides network communication tasks into 7 layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application layer. It also describes the TCP/IP protocol suite which has 5 layers - physical, data link, internet, transport, and application layer. The layers define standardized services and protocols to enable communication between systems and applications.
The document discusses various topics related to computer networks including metropolitan area networks, wide area networks, wireless networks, home network categories, network software, protocol hierarchies, connection-oriented and connectionless services, service primitives, and reference models such as OSI and TCP/IP. It provides details on the seven layers of the OSI model including the functions and services provided by each layer.
The document discusses the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which defines seven layers of network architecture - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application. It describes the key functions of each layer, such as the physical layer dealing with physical connections and bits, the data link layer handling framing and addressing, and the application layer providing services to end users. The purpose of the OSI model is to facilitate communication between different computer systems by dividing the network communication process into standardized layers.
The document discusses the OSI 7 layer model and TCP/IP 4 layer model. It provides details on the functions of each layer in both models. The key points covered are:
- The OSI model has 7 layers - physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layer. Each layer has distinct functions for communication.
- The TCP/IP model has 4 layers - host-to-network, internet, transport and application. The internet layer uses IP to route packets independently to their destination.
- Popular application layer protocols like FTP, SSH and Telnet are described in detail regarding their functions and how they establish secure connections to transmit data over networks.
The document discusses computer networks and networking concepts. It defines a computer network as an interconnection of two or more computers that allows users to share information and resources. The document describes two common network models - the peer-to-peer and client/server models. It also explains the seven layer OSI reference model and compares it to the four layer TCP/IP model. Finally, it categorizes different types of networks including LANs, MANs, WANs, PANs, wireless networks, and home networks.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It divides network communication into seven layers. ... Layers 5-7, called the the upper layers, contain application-level data
#imannjeet #mannjeet mn
This document provides an overview of different types of computer networks. It discusses local area networks (LANs) that connect computers within a confined geographic area like a building. It also discusses wide area networks (WANs) that combine multiple LANs across greater distances using technologies like phone lines. The document outlines two main categories of networks: peer-to-peer and server-based. It also provides a detailed explanation of the seven-layer OSI model and the functions of each layer, including the physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layers.
This document provides an overview of computer networking and the OSI model. It discusses how the OSI model was developed to facilitate worldwide data communication through its 7-layer architecture. It then describes each layer of the OSI model in detail, including the physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and application layers. It also discusses Ethernet standards, topologies like bus, star and tree, and elements of an Ethernet network such as DTE, DCE, and the functions of the Ethernet MAC layer.
This document provides an overview of computer networks. It begins by defining a computer network as interconnecting two or more computer systems or peripheral devices to enable communication and sharing of resources. The key components of a network are identified as computers, cables, network interface cards, connecting devices, networking operating systems, and protocol suites. Advantages of networking include sharing hardware and software, increasing productivity through file sharing, backups, cost effectiveness, and saving time. Disadvantages include high installation costs, required administration time, single point of failure risk, cable faults interrupting connectivity, and security risks from hackers that require firewalls and antivirus software. The document discusses peer-to-peer and client-server network architectures and covers switching techniques like circuit
The document describes the seven layers of the OSI model from physical to application layer. It provides details on the functions and responsibilities of each layer. The physical layer is responsible for the physical connection and conversion of signals to bits. The data link layer handles node to node delivery and error checking. The network layer routes packets between different networks. The transport layer provides end to end delivery and error checking. Above this, the session, presentation and application layers deal with establishing connections, formatting data and providing network applications respectively.
The document discusses the history and development of the Internet. It began in 1969 as the ARPANET, a network created by the US government to connect universities and research labs. No single organization owns the Internet, which uses TCP/IP protocols and packet switching to connect networks worldwide. Local area networks (LANs) connect computers within the same building, while wide area networks (WANs) connect LANs across greater distances. The document also covers network topologies, types, layers of the OSI model, and common Internet services like email and search engines.
Rajat Kumar Singh completed a one-month internship focused on networking and IP addressing and subnetting. He independently developed various addressing schemes for IPv4 and subnetting. The internship supervisor certified that Singh worked punctually and completed the project successfully. In his report, Singh provides background on computer networks and networking components. He describes the OSI model and network layer, focusing on IPv4 addressing and subnetting for the network portion of his project.
The International Standard Organization was developed a well-defined model for Communication Systems known as Open System Interconnection, or the OSI Model in the late 1970s. This layered model is a conceptualized view of how one system should communicate with the other, using various protocols defined in each layer. Further, each layer is designated to a well-defined part of communication system. For example, the Physical layer defines all the components of physical nature, i.e. wires, frequencies, pulse codes, voltage transmission etc. of a communication system.
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or the internet. These protocols offer simple naming and addressing schemes.
This document discusses graphics hardware components. It describes various graphics input devices like the mouse, joystick, light pen etc. and how they are either analog or digital. It then covers common graphics output devices such as CRT displays, plasma displays, LCDs and 3D viewing systems. It provides details on the internal components and working of CRT displays. It also discusses graphics storage formats and the architecture of raster and random graphics systems.
The document describes different algorithms for filling polygon and area shapes, including scanline fill, boundary fill, and flood fill algorithms. The scanline fill algorithm works by determining intersections of boundaries with scanlines and filling color between intersections. Boundary fill works by starting from an interior point and recursively "painting" neighboring points until the boundary is reached. Flood fill replaces a specified interior color. Both can be 4-connected or 8-connected. The document also discusses problems that can occur and more efficient span-based approaches.
This document discusses techniques for filling 2D shapes and regions in raster graphics. It covers seed fill algorithms that start with an interior seed point and grow outward, filling neighboring pixels. Boundary fill and flood fill are described as variations. The document also discusses raster-based filling that processes shapes one scanline at a time. Methods for filling polygons are presented, including using the even-odd rule or winding number rule to determine if a point is inside the polygon boundary.
The document derives Bresenham's line algorithm for drawing lines on a discrete grid. It starts with the line equation and defines variables for the slope and intercept. It then calculates the distance d1 and d2 from the line to two possible pixel locations and expresses their difference in terms of the slope and intercept. By multiplying this difference by the change in x, it removes the floating point slope value, resulting in an integer comparison expression. This is defined recursively to draw each subsequent pixel, using pre-computed constants. The initial p0 value is also derived from the line endpoint coordinates.
The document discusses algorithms for drawing lines and circles on a discrete pixel display. It begins by describing what characteristics an "ideal line" would have on such a display. It then introduces several algorithms for drawing lines, including the simple line algorithm, digital differential analyzer (DDA) algorithm, and Bresenham's line algorithm. The Bresenham algorithm is described in detail, as it uses only integer calculations. Next, a simple potential circle drawing algorithm is presented and its shortcomings discussed. Finally, the more accurate and efficient mid-point circle algorithm is described. This algorithm exploits the eight-way symmetry of circles and uses incremental calculations to determine the next pixel point.
The document provides an introduction to XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations), including:
1) It discusses XSLT basics like using templates to extract values from XML and output them, using for-each loops to process multiple elements, and if/choose for decisions.
2) It covers XPath for addressing parts of an XML document, and functions like contains() and position().
3) The document gives examples of transforming sample XML data using XSLT templates, value-of, and apply-templates.
XML documents can be represented and stored in memory as tree structures using models like DOM and XDM. XPath is an expression language used to navigate and select parts of an XML tree. It allows traversing elements and their attributes, filtering nodes by properties or position, and evaluating paths relative to a context node. While XPath expressions cannot modify the document, they are commonly used with languages like XSLT and XQuery which can transform or extract data from XML trees.
This document provides an overview of XML programming and XML documents. It discusses the physical and logical views of an XML document, document structure including the root element, and how XML documents are commonly stored as text files. It also summarizes how an XML parser reads and validates an XML document by checking its syntax and structure. The document then covers various XML components in more detail, such as elements, attributes, character encoding, entities, processing instructions, well-formedness, validation via DTDs, and document modeling.
XML Schema provides a way to formally define and validate the structure and content of XML documents. It allows defining elements, attributes, and data types, as well as restrictions like length, pattern, and value ranges. DTD is more limited and cannot validate data types. XML Schema is written in XML syntax, uses XML namespaces, and provides stronger typing capabilities compared to DTD. It allows defining simple and complex element types, attributes, and restrictions to precisely describe the expected structure and values within XML documents.
This document discusses style sheet languages like CSS that are used to control the presentation of XML documents. CSS allows one to specify things like fonts, colors, spacing etc. for different elements in an XML file. A single XML file can then be formatted in multiple ways just by changing the associated CSS stylesheet without modifying the XML content. The document provides examples of using CSS selectors, rules and properties to style elements in an XML file and controlling presentation aspects like layout of elements on a page. It also discusses how to link the CSS stylesheet to an XML file using processing instructions.
An attribute declaration specifies attributes for elements in a DTD. It defines the attribute name, data type or permissible values, and required behavior. For example, an attribute may have a default value if not provided, be optional, or require a value. Notations can label non-XML data types and unparsed entities can import binary files. Together DTDs and entities provide a schema to describe document structure and relationships.
This document discusses XML web services and their components. It defines XML web services as software services exposed on the web through the SOAP protocol and described with WSDL and registered in UDDI. It describes how SOAP is used for communication, WSDL describes service interfaces, and UDDI allows for service discovery. Examples of web services are provided. The architecture of web services is shown involving clients, services, and standards. Finally, it discusses how XML data can be transformed to HTML for display in web pages using XSLT transformation rules.
This document provides an introduction and overview of XML. It explains that XML stands for Extensible Markup Language and is used for data transportation and storage in a platform and language neutral way. XML plays an important role in data exchange on the web. The document discusses the history of XML and how it was developed as an improvement over SGML and HTML by allowing users to define their own tags to structure data for storage and interchange. It also provides details on the pros and cons of XML compared to other markup languages.
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2. Definition
• CN is a collection of two or more
computers, which are connected to
share information and resources.
• Computers in a network are
interconnected by telephone lines,
coaxial cables, satellite links, radio
or some other communication
technique.
• The computers can be
geographically located anywhere.
3. Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast -prerecorded message to people
Remote computing
- Access thru network
Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
-Combination of several computers to process large
amount of data.
4. Types / categories:
1. Local Area Network (LAN) -Network in
small geographical Area (Room,
Building or a Campus) is called LAN
(Local Area Network)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) -
Network in a City is call MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) -Network
spread geographically (Country or
across Globe) is called WAN (Wide
Area Network)
5. Network Topology
The network topology defines the way in which
computers, printers, and other devices are
connected. A network topology describes the
layout of the wire and devices as well as the
paths used by data transmissions.
7. Star & Tree Topology
Star topology resembles spokes
in a bicycle wheel.
Larger networks use the
extended star topology also
called tree topology. When used
with network devices that filter
frames or packets, like bridges,
switches, and routers, this
topology significantly reduces
the traffic on the wires by
sending packets only to the
wires of the destination host.
8. Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds the
data as well as the destination
address to the frame.
The frame then continues around
the ring until it finds the
destination node, which takes the
data out of the frame.
Single ring – All the devices on the
network share a single cable
Dual ring – The dual ring topology
allows data to be sent in both
directions.
9. Mesh Topology
The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other
for redundancy and
fault tolerance.
It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and
for mission critical
networks like those
used by banks and
financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive
and difficult.
10. OSI Model Overview
The Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI)
reference model is an
industry standard
framework that is used to
divide the functions of
networking into seven
distinct layers.
Each layer provides specific
services to the layers above
and below it in order for the
network to work effectively.
11. Functions of the Layers
1. Physical
• transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
2. Data-Link
• Organizes bits into logical units called frames.
• Node-to-node delivery
3. Network
• Source-to-destination delivery of a packet.
4. Transport
• Source-to-destination delivery of the entire message.
5. Session
• Establishes, maintains, and synchronizes
the dialog between communicating systems.
6. Presentation
• Deals with the fact that different systems use
different coding methods.
7. Application
• Enables the user to access the network.
12. Physical Layer
It defines the physical and electrical characteristics
of the N/W.
This layer also defines what kind of network
interface card must be installed in each computer
and what kinds of hubs to be used.
In other words the physical layer is a conduit
(connection) between the computers networking
hardware and its networking software.
This layer communicates with the data link layer and
regulates the transmission of a stream of bits over a
physical medium.
This layer also defines which transmission technique
is used to send data over the cable.
13. Data Link Layer
The function of data link layer is to transform the
data into a line that is free of transmission errors
and is responsible for node-to-node delivery
On the sender side the data link layer divides the
layer divides the stream of bits fro the N/W layer
into a manageable form known as frames.
These data frames are then transmitted
sequentially to the receiver.
On the receiver end the data link layer detects and
corrects any errors in the transmitted data which
it gets from the physical layer.
14. Network Layer
The network layer provides the physical routing of
the data that is it determines the path between
the sender and receiver.
The outbound data is passed down from the
transport layer is encapsulated in the networks
layers protocol and then sent to the data link layer
for segmentation and transmission.
This layer organizes frames from data link layer
into packets and is passed to the transport layer
Network layer provides uniform addressing
mechanism so that more than one networks can be
interconnected.
15. Transport Layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to
handle error recognition and recovery of the data
packets.
The T L establishes, maintains, and terminates
communication between the sender and the
receiver.
At the receiving end transport layer rebuilds
packets into the original message, and to ensure
that the packets arrived correctly, the receiving
transport layer sends receipt acknowledgments.
16. Session Layer
The session layer organizes and synchronizes the
exchange of data between the sending and
receiving applications.
The session layer lets each application at one end
know the status of the other at the other end.
An error in the sending application is handled by
the session layer in such a manner so that the
receiving application may know that the error has
occurred.
The SL can resynchronize applications that are
currently connected to each other.
This may be necessary when communications are
temporarily interrupted or when an error has
occurred that results in loss of data.
17. Presentation Layer
The basic function of the presentation layer is to
ensure that information sent from the application
layer of one system would be readable by the
application layer of another system.
This is where application data is packed or
unpacked ready for use by the running application.
This layer also manages security issues by
providing services such as data encryption and
compresses data so that fewer bits need to be
transferred on the N/W .
18. Application Layer
The A L is the entrance point that programs use to
access OSI model and utilize network resources.
This layer represents the services that directly
support applications.
This OSI layer is closest to the end user.
Application layer includes network software that
directly serves the user , providing such things as
the user interface and application featurs such as
electronic Mail.
19. NETWORK STRUCTURE
The subnet interconnects hosts.
Subnet
◦ Carries messages from host to host. It is made
up of telecommunication lines (i.e. circuits,
channels, trunks) and switching elements (i.e.
Interface Message Processor’s, routers).
Hosts
◦ End user machines or computers.
20. Services
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
◦ Connection-Oriented – before data is sent, the
service from the sending computer must
establish a connection with the receiving
computer.
◦ Connectionless – data can be sent at any time by
the service from the sending computer.
21. Service Primitives
Request – entity wants the service to do some work
Indicate – entity is to be informed about an event
Response – entity responds to an event
Confirm – entity is to be informed about its request
Sending Computer Receiving Computer
4 Transport 4 Transport
1. request 4. confirm 2. indicate 3. response
3 Network 3 Network
24. Introduction to Computer Networks
Networking Devices
HUB, Switches, Routers,
Wireless Access Points,
Modems etc.
25. Network Devices
• These devices interconnect individual computers
and ensure that they communicate efficiently.
• Some network devices are as below
1. Network Interface Card
2. Hub
3. Repeater
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
26. Network Devices
Network Interface Card
• Interface between the machine and the N/W.
• It connects the clients, servers and peripherals
to the network via a port.
• Most network interfaces come as small circuit
board that can be inserted onto one of the
computers motherboard slots.
• Each network interface is associated with a
unique address called its media access control
(MAC) address.
• The MAC address helps in sending information to
its intended destination.
27. Network Devices
Hub
• Is a small box that connects individual devices on
a network so that they can communicate with one
another.
• The hub operates by gathering the signals from
individual network devices, optionally amplifying
the signals and then sending them onto all other
connected devices.
• Amplification of the signal ensures that devices
on the network receive reliable information.
• Also known as concentrator, a hub works on
physical layer of the OSI model.
28. Network Devices
Repeater
• Is an electronic device that operates on the
physical layer of the OSI model.
• Signals that carry information within a network
can travel a fixed distance.
• A repeater installed on the link receives signal ,
regenerates it and sends the refreshed copy back
to the link.
• Nowadays the terms repeater and hub are used
synonymously, but they are actually not the same
• Although at its very basic level, a hub can be
thought of as a multiport repeater.
29. Network Devices
Switch
• Like a hub a switch too connects individual
devices on a network so that they can
communicate with one another.
• Switches work on the data link layer of OSI
model.
• Allows reducing overall network traffic
30. Network Devices
Bridge
• A bridge filters data traffic at a network
boundry.
• It reduces the amount of traffic on a LAN by
dividing it into two segments.
• Bridges operate at the data link layer of the OSI
model.
• It inspects each incoming traffic and decides
whether to forward or discard it .
• When a frame enters a bridge the bridge not
only regenerates the signals but also checks the
address of the destination and forwards the new
copy only to the segment to which the address
belongs
31. Network Devices
Router
• A router is an essential network device for
interconnecting two or more networks.
• Routers aim is to trace the best route for information to
travel .
• As network traffic changes during the day routers can
redirect information to take less congested routes.
• A router creates or maintains a table called a routing
table that stores the best route to certain destinations.
• They can permit or deny network communications with a
particular network.
32. Network Devices
Gateway
• Is internetworking device which joins two different
network protocols together.
• It works on all seven layers of the OSI model
• A gateway accepts the packet formatted for one protocol
and converts the formatted packet into another protocol.
33. Introduction to Computer Networks
Networking Media
Networking media can be
defined simply as the
means by which signals
(data) are sent from one
computer to another
(either by cable or
wireless means).
34. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce the effect of
crosstalk noise.
Baseband Coaxial Cable
A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission.
Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such as Cable
TV.
35. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Fiber Optic Cables
Two general types are multimode and single mode.
In multimode, light is reflected internally. Light source is an
LED.
In single mode, the light propagates in a straight line. Light
source come from expensive laser diodes. Faster and longer
distances as compared to multimode.
* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
36. Twisted Pair
Two insulated copper wires in a spiral
Number of pairs are bundled together
Twisting decreases crosstalk
Most common form for analog and digital
Used in telephone system
Subscriber loops
From a person’s home to the local office of the phone
company
LANS
10Mbps with newer at 100Mbps
37. Long Distance
4 Mbps
ISDN –Integrated Services Digital Network
Digital
Repeaters required every 2 –3 kilometers
Analog
Amplifiers required every 5-6 kilometers
Bandwidth of 250KHz, carry a few voice channels
Susceptible to noise, shielded and unshielded
Compared to optical and coax twisted pair is
limited in bandwidth, distance, and data rate
38. Coaxial Cable
• Hollow outer cylindrical conductor
surrounding a single view
• Most versatile of mediums, used for TV,
long distance telephone, and LAN’S
39. Optical fiber
• Thin, flexible light passing material made from glass or
plastic
• Grouped into cables
• Better than coaxial cable or twisted pair
• Data rates of 2Gbps over 10’s of Km
• Light weight –good for buildings
• Lower attenuation than coax or twisted
40. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must “see” each other, such as a
terrestrial microwave system.
Communication Satellites
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is broadcasted, and
can be “pirated.”
Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as FM, UHF,
and VHF television.
41. • Wireless
• Broadcast Radio
Radio -3kHz to 300Ghz
Broadcast radio –30MHz to 1GHz
• Satellite Microwave 1 –10 GHz
• Infrared
42. Features & Working of the Internet
• Connected by many small networks in the world
using TCP/IP protocol stack
• No specific path between any two hosts that are
communicating
• Path is determined dynamically by Router, that
relays the data from the source host to the
destination host
• Data may need to go thru many routers before they
reach the destination
• When data from different sources need to go thru a
particular router, it will become busy and may delay
or even lost the data
• Hence Internet is NOT a reliable network
43. Performance: Latency and
Bandwidth
• Latency
–How long minimum communication takes in seconds (s)
–Round trip vs. single trip
–More difficult to overcome than bandwidth
• Bandwidth
–Number of bits per time unit usually seconds (bps)
44.
45. Addressing in TCP/IP
• Each TCP/IP address includes:
– Internet Address
– Protocol (TCP)
– Port Number
46. What is an IP Address?
• Internet identifier including information about how to reach
a network location (via the Internet routing system)
• IPv4: 32-bit* number. Written in Dotted Decimal Notation
205.150.58.7
• 4 billion different host addresses
• IPv6: 128-bit* number. Written in Hex Decimal Notation
2001:0503:0C27:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000
• 16 billion billion network addresses
• Each Network I.D. on the Internet needs to be registered to
the Internet Assigned number Authority (IANA)
47. Address
• Way to identify people / computers
• On the Internet, the term “address” is used loosely
• –Can mean many different things from an email address to
a URL (Uniform resource locator)
• More specifically, 2 types:
• –Internet protocol (IP) address(or network address): 4-part
numeric address
• e.g. 158.132.148.28
• –Domain name system (DNS) address
• e.g. LMS
48. The four formats of IP Addresses
Class
A 0 NetID HostID
B 10 NetID HostID
C 110 NetID HostID
D 1110 Multicast Address
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
49. Hardware vs. Software Firewalls
• Hardware Firewalls
–Protect an entire network
–Implemented on the router level
–Usually more expensive, harder to configure
• Software Firewalls
–Protect a single computer
–Usually less expensive, easier to configure
50. Firewall Rules
• Allow –traffic that flows automatically
because it has been deemed as “safe” (Ex.
Meeting Maker, Eudora, etc.)
• Block –traffic that is blocked because it has
been deemed dangerous to your computer
• Ask –asks the user whether or not the traffic
is allowed to pass through
53. • SCADA refers to a system that collects data from
various sensors at a factory, plant or in other
remote locations and then sends this data to a
central computer which then manages and controls
the data.
• Data acquisition is the process of retrieving
control information from the equipment which is
out of order or may lead to some problem or when
decisions are need to be taken according to the
situation in the equipment. So this acquisition is
done by continuous monitoring of the equipment
to which it is employed. The data accessed are
then forwarded onto a telemetry system ready for
transfer to the different sites.
54. • Components of SCADA System
1. Field Instrumentation 2. Remote Stations 3.
Communications Network 4. Central
Monitoring Station
55. BENEFITS OF SCADA
• Long distance monitoring
• Long distance training
• Protection against terrorism/vandalism-
alarm
• Data management (engineering and
operations)
• Automated operations with real time control
56. What is Internet & Web?
Internet is a world wide, noncommercial, freely
accessible Network of Computer Networks.
World Wide Web (WWW) is a vast, ever-
expanding collection of online documents and
information formatted in HTML and
distributed over the Internet.
57. Working of the Web
• Web documents live on Computers that run
HTTP servers.
• HTTP servers can be hosted on UNIX ,
Macintosh or PC’s.
• Browser requests the Web page from the Web
server.
• Server sends the HTML pages over the
Internet to your computer.
• Browser interprets the data and displays it on
your screen.
59. Web Page & Home Page
• Web Page : Document written in Web
formatting language, HTML
• Home Page : This is the first page or the
opening page of any web document.
60. Elements of Web Page
• Text : This is simple 7-bit ASCII , which can be
easily represented by using the keys available on a
standard keyboard.
• Graphics : Graphics add life to the web pages and
makes them interesting to browse.
• Links and URL’s : Links are transporters of the
Web. Links contain addresses of the Web files that
they are referencing.
Web address / site address is also known as URL
(Uniform Resource Locator)