1) The document examines connections between childhood experiences in nature and adult environmentalism. It analyzes survey responses from over 2,000 adults about their childhood nature activities and current environmental attitudes and behaviors.
2) The study uses structural equation modeling to test pathways from childhood participation in wild and domesticated nature to adult environmentalism, while controlling for demographic factors. It finds that experiences like hiking, camping, and gardening as a child correlate with stronger environmental attitudes and behaviors as an adult.
3) Prior research also links childhood time outdoors to later environmental preferences, knowledge, and occupations. However, this study considers long-term influences on a representative population, not just environmental professionals.
Growing Physical, Social and Cognitive Capacity: Engaging with Natural Environments
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
The Powerful Link Between Conserving Land and Preserving Health
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Role of Educational Books and Materials in Gaining Geographical Concepts in E...inventionjournals
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of educational books and materials of helping children learn geographical terms in the early childhood period. This study was conducted as a pretest-posttest control group, experimental model. The participants were a total number of 141 children (78 girls and 63 boys). In order to achieve the objectives, program goals of preschool, primary 1th and 2nd grades‟ education have been identified primarily. Then 51 items, concepts consisting of physical and human geography such as the Solar System and the Earth, Turkey and other countries, landforms, climate, population and settlement, energy sources were prepared in order to measure the achievements. „Geographical Concepts Test‟ (GCT), was applied to a number of 293 children who passed the primary 1 th and 2nd grades. The reliability coefficient of the test results (KR 20) was found to be 0.71 for preschool, 0.85 for 1st grade and 0.73 for 2nd grade. The finding indicated a valid and reliable instrument of the developed test to measure levels of children‟s geographical knowledge. After having ready the geographical conceptual tools an training program was prepared which attempted to utilise educational books and materials. Before carrying out the program, it was found that the experimental and control groups‟ pretest average scores did not differ (p>. 05). After carrying out the training program, it was found that all grades‟ experimental and control groups‟ posttest average scores about physical geography differed (p>. 05). The preschool and primary 2nd grade children‟s experimental and control groups‟ posttest average scores about human geography also differed (p<.>. 05). As a result, these differences showed that the training program worked by using educational books, toys, replicas of tools and equipment. Hence this research model is to be tested in other groups and environments.
Growing Physical, Social and Cognitive Capacity: Engaging with Natural Environments
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
The Powerful Link Between Conserving Land and Preserving Health
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Role of Educational Books and Materials in Gaining Geographical Concepts in E...inventionjournals
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of educational books and materials of helping children learn geographical terms in the early childhood period. This study was conducted as a pretest-posttest control group, experimental model. The participants were a total number of 141 children (78 girls and 63 boys). In order to achieve the objectives, program goals of preschool, primary 1th and 2nd grades‟ education have been identified primarily. Then 51 items, concepts consisting of physical and human geography such as the Solar System and the Earth, Turkey and other countries, landforms, climate, population and settlement, energy sources were prepared in order to measure the achievements. „Geographical Concepts Test‟ (GCT), was applied to a number of 293 children who passed the primary 1 th and 2nd grades. The reliability coefficient of the test results (KR 20) was found to be 0.71 for preschool, 0.85 for 1st grade and 0.73 for 2nd grade. The finding indicated a valid and reliable instrument of the developed test to measure levels of children‟s geographical knowledge. After having ready the geographical conceptual tools an training program was prepared which attempted to utilise educational books and materials. Before carrying out the program, it was found that the experimental and control groups‟ pretest average scores did not differ (p>. 05). After carrying out the training program, it was found that all grades‟ experimental and control groups‟ posttest average scores about physical geography differed (p>. 05). The preschool and primary 2nd grade children‟s experimental and control groups‟ posttest average scores about human geography also differed (p<.>. 05). As a result, these differences showed that the training program worked by using educational books, toys, replicas of tools and equipment. Hence this research model is to be tested in other groups and environments.
Attitudes towards spanking vary widely. Prior research indicates there are consistent ethnic, gender, and religious differences in attitudes towards spanking. African Americans, Asians, men, and religious people tend to have more positive attitudes towards spanking than Caucasians, women, and nonreligious people. We wanted to see if undergraduate students in an area with favorable attitudes towards spanking differed in their attitudes towards spanking by three key demographics: ethnicity, gender, religion, or their interaction (and if they indeed had favorable attitudes towards spanking). To accomplish this task, we developed a brief, 6-item Spanking Scale for use in future research and surveyed an online incidental sample of 115 college students from a small west Texas university. Reliability, validity, and factor analyses conducted in SPSS support the internal consistency reliability, factor structure, and validity (face, concurrent criterion-related, content, and construct) of the Spanking Scale. A three-way (3 x 2 x 2) factorial ANOVA found no significant ethnic or gender differences in spanking attitudes and no significant interaction effects but marginally significant religious differences, with Christians having more favorable attitudes towards spanking, and people in the current sample had slightly positive attitudes towards spanking. Through answering only four questions about spanking (plus an optional demographic question about spanking frequently and an optional qualitative question about spanking attitudes), people’s attitudes towards spanking can be quickly assessed in less than five minutes using a brief measure of spanking that is reliable, valid, and useful. We discuss implications for policy on spanking and corporal punishment.
Keywords: spanking; corporal punishment; attitudes; religion; ethnicity; gender
Adolescents’ Sense of Community and Involvement in Playground Activities: Pan...Agboola Paul
This current study fills the gap by examining the adolescents’ sense of community through a quantitative survey via appraisal of the quality of community playground, emotional connection, and effects of their participation in playground activities on ameliorating the delinquents’ behavior and social vices
An overview of how my PhD has developed so far. Using a transdisciplinary approach to examine the knowledge UK farmers’ practice when assessing soil quality
Public Awareness in Management of Pro-Environmental and Sustainable Tourism AreaAJSERJournal
Attitudes and behaviours of caring for the environment are the willingness arising from internal
encouragement to express actions to care about the environment, to improve or maintain the quality of the
environment. The purpose of this research is to see the dominant factor that influences the attitudes and behaviours of
caring for the environment in the community who live in the tourist area. Research is in the Bili-Bili Dam Tourism Area,
South Sulawesi Province. The number of samples in this study was 100 respondents. The survey method in this study
conducted by in-depth interviews and through questionnaires to respondents. The sampling technique used is to use
purposive sampling. Processing questionnaires obtained from respondents then proceed with data analysis with
confirmatory analysis or often referred to as Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with IBM AMOS Program. The results
showed that attitudes and behaviours in environmental care would increase if there is direct involvement of the
community in tourism management in the region. The existence of a sense of belonging will lead to attitudes and
behaviours to guard the tourist area. Factors that are encouraging attitudes and behaviours to care for the
environment by the surrounding community will have a direct impact on the sustainability of the region and the
environment.
Attitudes towards spanking vary widely. Prior research indicates there are consistent ethnic, gender, and religious differences in attitudes towards spanking. African Americans, Asians, men, and religious people tend to have more positive attitudes towards spanking than Caucasians, women, and nonreligious people. We wanted to see if undergraduate students in an area with favorable attitudes towards spanking differed in their attitudes towards spanking by three key demographics: ethnicity, gender, religion, or their interaction (and if they indeed had favorable attitudes towards spanking). To accomplish this task, we developed a brief, 6-item Spanking Scale for use in future research and surveyed an online incidental sample of 115 college students from a small west Texas university. Reliability, validity, and factor analyses conducted in SPSS support the internal consistency reliability, factor structure, and validity (face, concurrent criterion-related, content, and construct) of the Spanking Scale. A three-way (3 x 2 x 2) factorial ANOVA found no significant ethnic or gender differences in spanking attitudes and no significant interaction effects but marginally significant religious differences, with Christians having more favorable attitudes towards spanking, and people in the current sample had slightly positive attitudes towards spanking. Through answering only four questions about spanking (plus an optional demographic question about spanking frequently and an optional qualitative question about spanking attitudes), people’s attitudes towards spanking can be quickly assessed in less than five minutes using a brief measure of spanking that is reliable, valid, and useful. We discuss implications for policy on spanking and corporal punishment.
Keywords: spanking; corporal punishment; attitudes; religion; ethnicity; gender
Adolescents’ Sense of Community and Involvement in Playground Activities: Pan...Agboola Paul
This current study fills the gap by examining the adolescents’ sense of community through a quantitative survey via appraisal of the quality of community playground, emotional connection, and effects of their participation in playground activities on ameliorating the delinquents’ behavior and social vices
An overview of how my PhD has developed so far. Using a transdisciplinary approach to examine the knowledge UK farmers’ practice when assessing soil quality
Public Awareness in Management of Pro-Environmental and Sustainable Tourism AreaAJSERJournal
Attitudes and behaviours of caring for the environment are the willingness arising from internal
encouragement to express actions to care about the environment, to improve or maintain the quality of the
environment. The purpose of this research is to see the dominant factor that influences the attitudes and behaviours of
caring for the environment in the community who live in the tourist area. Research is in the Bili-Bili Dam Tourism Area,
South Sulawesi Province. The number of samples in this study was 100 respondents. The survey method in this study
conducted by in-depth interviews and through questionnaires to respondents. The sampling technique used is to use
purposive sampling. Processing questionnaires obtained from respondents then proceed with data analysis with
confirmatory analysis or often referred to as Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with IBM AMOS Program. The results
showed that attitudes and behaviours in environmental care would increase if there is direct involvement of the
community in tourism management in the region. The existence of a sense of belonging will lead to attitudes and
behaviours to guard the tourist area. Factors that are encouraging attitudes and behaviours to care for the
environment by the surrounding community will have a direct impact on the sustainability of the region and the
environment.
Ecopsychology in Relationship between School Students and the Natural Worldijcnes
Ecopsychology studies the relationship between human beings and the natural world through ecological and psychological principles. The field seeks to develop and understand ways of expanding the emotional connection between individuals and the natural world, thereby assisting individuals with developing sustainable lifestyles and remedying alienation from nature. We describe specific examples using a pedagogical framework for helping School students to engage, explore, explain, and elaborate the psychology behind nature. This approach should better prepare students with an understanding that ecological knowledge must be integrated with solutions that address psychological barriers if efforts to alter behavior related to nature world are to succeed.
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look.docxLynellBull52
· In the methodology you should not say that you are going to look for the data, but only identify them, name them and establish how you are going to use them and why.
· In the methodology there is a lack of explanation about what method is going to be used for the research and development (objective 2, hip n°1 and 3).
· Furthermore you don ‘t explain how you are going to study and analyze the economic growth and its relation with the ethanol and which data are going to be used for the research .
· If you mention an interview, you need to insert a copy of the list of question that will be ask and how you will use them in you investigation.
38 ADOPTION & FOSTERING VOLUME 31 NUMBER 4 2007
The Hope Connection A therapeutic summer day
camp for adopted and at-risk children with special
socio-emotional needs
Large numbers of North American and Western
European families are adopting children with serious
socio-emotional needs. Other children experience
similar deficits as a result of neglect and abuse by
carers. Often these children are diagnosed with
psychopathology and receive drug treatments that
can be ineffective and even detrimental. Karyn B
Purvis, David R Cross, Ron Federici, Dana
Johnson and L Brooks McKenzie report on The
Hope Connection, a project designed to meet the
needs of these at-risk children and their families. The
core of this project is a theoretically integrated
summer day camp offering activities that are attach-
ment rich, sensory stimulating and behaviourally
structured. Pre-test and post-test data indicate that
summer camp had a significant impact on the
children’s behaviour (n = 19), as indicated by parent-
report measures of child behaviour problems and
attachment. These findings are discussed with
regard to possible future directions of programme
implementation and evaluation.
Introduction
The purpose of this article is to explore a
camp structure that was developed to
address the enduring effects of early
deprivation upon the development of
adopted and other at-risk children.
Originally, internationally adopted child-
ren with histories of severe deprivation
and commensurate behavioural diff icul-
ties were the target population for this
intervention. However, a small number of
domestically adopted children were
included due to the urgent needs of these
families and the background similarities
of deprivation (Purvis, Cross and
Sunshine, 2007).
Although most adopted children do
not present serious problems in these
areas, many children from deprived
backgrounds do, and there is an undeter-
mined number of families who need
support addressing them. As noted in two
recent meta-analyses by Juffer and van
IJzendoorn (2005) and Meese (2005),
there is a scarcity of research on interven-
tions in these areas.
Specifically, three areas of psycholo-
gical development are likely to be
affected when inadequate care is pro-
vided: attachment, pro-social behaviour
and sensory processing. By integrating
these three as.
1 Organized Activities as Developmental Contexts for C.docxkarisariddell
1
Organized Activities as
Developmental Contexts for Children
and Adolescents
Joseph L.Mahoney
Yale University
Reed W.Larson
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Jacquelynne S.Eccles
University of Michigan
Heather Lord
Yale University
School-age children in the United States and other Western nations spend almost half of their
waking hours in leisure activities (Larson & verma, 1999). How young persons can best use this
discretionary time has been a source of controversy. For some, out-of-school time is perceived as
inconsequential or even counterproductive to the health and well-being of young persons.
Consistent with this view, the past 100 years of scientific research has tended either to ignore this
time or to focus selectively on the risks present during the out-of-school hours (Kleiber &
Powell, chap.2, this volume). More recently, however, there is increased interest in viewing out-
of-school time as an opportunity for young persons to learn and develop competencies that are
largely neglected by schools. Researchers are beginning to recognize that along with family,
peers, and school, the organized activities in which some youth participate during these hours are
important contexts of emotional, social, and civic development. At the same time, communities
http://e.pub/9781135628123.vbk/OEBPS/Epub_9781135628123_7.html
and the federal government in the United States are now channeling considerable resources into
creating organized activities for young people’s out-of-school time (Pittman et al., chap.17, this
volume). The primary aim of this volume is to bring scientific research to bear on how this time
can be used constructively.
In this chapter, we overview central issues in the field of research on organized activities to
provide a background and framework for the chapters that follow. Four main areas are addressed.
First, we discuss definitional issues in the field and clarify what is meant by organized activities
within this volume. Second, we outline the available research indicating that participation in
these activities affects shortand long-term development. Third, we consider the features of
organized activities thought to account for their developmental impact and, lastly, we review
evidence on factors that Influence participation in these activities and whether youth benefit from
their developmental potential.
WHAT ARE ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES?
This volume focuses principally on formal activities for children 6 to 18 years of age that are not
part of the school curriculum. By “organized,” we refer to activities that are characterized by
structure, adult-supervision, and an emphasis on skill-building (e.g., Eccles & gootman, 2002;
Larson, 2000; Roth & Brooks-gunn, 2003). These activities are generally voluntary, have regular
and scheduled meetings, maintain developmentally based expectations and rules for participants
in the activity s.
Environmental Interventions for Healthy Development of Young Children in the Outdoors
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Carryover effects of joint attention to repeated events in chimpanzees and yo...Francys Subiaul
Gaze following is a fundamental component of triadic social interaction which includes events and an object shared with other
individuals and is found in both human and nonhuman primates. Most previous work has focused only on the immediate reaction
after following another’s gaze. In contrast, this study investigated whether gaze following is retained after the observation of the
other’s gaze shift, whether this retainment differs between species and age groups, and whether the retainment depends on the nature of the preceding events. In the social condition, subjects (1- and 2-year-old human children and chimpanzees) witnessed an experimenter who looked and pointed in the direction of a target lamp. In the physical condition, the target lamp blinked but the experimenter did not provide any cues. After a brief delay, we presented the same stimulus again without any cues. All subjects looked again to the target location after experiencing the social condition and thus showed a carryover effect. However, only 2-year-olds showed a carryover effect in the physical condition; 1-year-olds and chimpanzees did not. Additionally, only human children showed spontaneous interactive actions such as pointing. Our results suggest that the difference between the two age groups and chimpanzees is conceptual and not only quantitative.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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Hot Selling Organic intermediates
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
2. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 2
Introduction
When I was in fifth and sixth grade my family owned a small log cabin
on a lake in the mountains of Colorado…. I spent a lot of time by
myself in the woods, building cabins, making up stories, and feeding
birds and squirrels. I would sit for hours waiting for animals to
approach and eat from my hands. This… made me an animal
advocate.
- respondent, Corcoran 1999, p. 211
The Life Course Perspective
The life course perspective examines individual lives as sets of interwoven
pathways or trajectories that together tell a life story (Bronfenbrenner 1995;
Bronfenbrenner and Morris 1998; Elder 1995; Moen, Elder and Lüscher 1995;
Wheaton and Gotlib 1997). Each individual has a career or work trajectory, a
family trajectory, a health trajectory, as well as various other trajectories or life
paths. Early experiences can set a person on a particular trajectory toward an
outcome, which will persist unless a turning point occurs, resulting in a shift to a
different trajectory. For example, with respect to the health trajectory, evidence
from life course research indicates that 80 percent of children who grow up in low
socioeconomic status (SES) households are set on a trajectory toward an adulthood
of being overweight or obese with the associated health risks—compared with 40
percent of those raised in higher SES homes (Olson, Bove and Miller 2005). While
the life course perspective has been employed to examine issues associated with
poverty (Rank and Hirschl 2005), health (Wethington 2005), housing tenure
(Kendig 1990), career (Kim and Moen 2001; Wethington 2002), and family life
(Moen and Erickson 1995), the life course approach has not been applied to
examine pathways to environmental attitudes and behaviors.
How might childhood interaction with the natural environment begin to shape a life
course trajectory with respect to environmental concerns and ecological actions?
What specific activities or events in one’s youth are likely to put a person on a
trajectory toward later life commitment to environmentally-conscious behaviors and
attitudes? While a variety of studies have explored children’s relationships to the
natural environment and some researchers have specifically examined the influence
of significant life events among dedicated environmentalists, little research
attention has targeted the issues posed here. These questions have compelling
implications in terms of the formation of future generations’ ecological values,
protection and preservation of the environment, and the long-term viability of
environmentally sustainable cultures. This research begins to shed light on these
issues by using structural equation modeling to examine long-term linkages
between childhood nature experiences and adult environmentalism among a large,
representative sample of adults from the general population. This paper builds on
three areas of prior research: 1) studies examining the effects of outdoor play and
access to nature; 2) research examining the efficacy of environmental education
programs, and 3) significant life experiences research that focuses on the influential
role of early nature experiences among environmental professionals.
3. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 3
Childhood Exposure to the Natural Environment
Outdoor Play and Access to Nature
With the increasing concern about environmental degradation (Starke 2005;
Oskamp 2000) and concurrent cautions regarding children’s diminishing affiliation
with and time spent in nature (Louv 2005), an exploration of linkages between
childhood connection with the natural environment and adult environmentalism is
indeed timely. While a number of studies have documented that exposure to
nature has beneficial effects on children’s psychological or cognitive well-being in
the relatively short term (Faber Taylor et al. 1998; Faber Taylor, Kuo and Sullivan
2001; Faber Taylor, Kuo and Sullivan 2002; Wells 2000; Wells and Evans 2003),
and others describe children’s affinity for the natural environment (Chawla 1988;
Korpela 2002; Moore 1986; Sobel 1993; Sebba 1995), relatively little research has
examined the long-term influence of childhood contact with nature, particularly in
terms of environmentalism outcomes over the life course.
The few studies that do examine longer-term associations between childhood time
in nature and later outcomes related to environmentalism include a wide range of
dependent variables. Several of these studies examine outcomes in adolescence or
early adulthood. For example, Bixler, Floyd and Hammitt (2002) examined the
relation between play environments prior to age ten and adolescents’
environmental preferences within the domains of education, recreation and work.
Results support the idea that childhood play location influences later interest in
wildlands, environmental preferences, outdoor recreation, and occupations in
outdoor environments. Adolescents who, as children, had more often played in
wilderness areas were more likely to prefer a wildland walking path than those who
had mostly played in the yard before the age of ten. Those who played in
wilderness areas also had greater tolerance for living without modern comforts
when presented with a hypothetical scenario and had the greatest preference for
outdoor occupations. Chipeniuk’s (1995) research examined associations between
childhood foraging and later environmental knowledge. People who reported
having foraged the greatest breadth of things—from acorns, arrowheads, and
cattails, to fireflies, fish, and turtles—in childhood had, as teenagers, better
knowledge of biodiversity. Ewert, Place and Sibthorp (2005) examined the relation
between early-life outdoor experiences and environmental attitudes in early
adulthood. Data collected by surveying undergraduate students indicated that
appreciative outdoor activities (e.g., time outdoors enjoying nature), consumptive
outdoor activities (e.g., hunting and fishing), media exposure (e.g., books and
television), and witnessing negative environmental events (e.g., seeing a special
outdoor area be developed) during one’s youth were predictive of later life eco-
centric versus anthropocentric beliefs.
Two prior studies examine connections between childhood exposure to nature and
adult attitudes about nature or plants. Based on a questionnaire administered to
German adults (including both members of the general population and members of
environmental protection organizations), Kals, Schumacher and Montada (1999)
reported a modest but significant correlation between time spent in nature from
age 7 to 12 and adulthood “indignation about insufficient nature protection.”
4. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 4
Indignation about protecting nature, in turn, is predictive of willingness to engage
in nature-protective behaviors. Lohr and Pearson-Mims (2005) examined the
relation between childhood contact with nature and adult attitudes toward plants.
Results indicated that childhood activities such as picking vegetables, planting
trees, and taking care of plants as well as having grown up living next to a garden
or flower bed were among the most significant predictors of adulthood beliefs that
“trees are calming” and “trees have personal meaning,” as well as having taken a
gardening class in the prior year. Other predictors included having spent time
outdoors with trees or in parks during childhood. Together, these studies suggest
that children’s playtime in the natural environment as well as other experiences
impact later life attitudes, knowledge, or behaviors regarding the environment.
Other research examines the effects of more structured activities such as
environmental education programs.
Environmental Education
Numerous studies have assessed the efficacy of environmental education programs
(for review see Rickinson 2001). This research tends to focus on whether
environmental education programs bring about change in knowledge and attitudes.
Typically, these assessments compare participants to non-participants or examine
pre-intervention versus post-intervention environmental knowledge, attitudes, or
sensitivity scores within a fairly short time frame (e.g., Armstrong and Impara
1991; Pooley and O’Connor 2000; Ramsey and Hungerford 1989). For example,
Jaus (1982) examined the effectiveness of a ten-week environmental education
program addressed to fifth graders. He found significant differences in
environmental attitude scores of the participants compared to a control group of
students who did not take part in the program. When the control group
subsequently received the same instruction, they also showed significantly more
positive environmental attitudes, in comparison with the pre-test. Cross-sectional
data from Kellert (1985) indicates that children who primarily learned about
animals in the context of school or at the zoo were generally less appreciative, less
knowledgeable, and less concerned about animals than were children who engaged
in bird watching, hunting, or belonged to animal-related clubs. While many
environmental education studies focus on knowledge and/or attitudes, some
examine environmental behaviors as well. Ramsey and Hungerford (1989) found
that an “issue investigation and action training” (IIAT) program among seventh
graders yielded significant changes in overt environmental behaviors as well as in
outcomes related to knowledge and sensitivity. One aspect notably lacking from
the environmental education literature is examinations of long-term efficacy of
programs beyond days, weeks, or months. A greater understanding of how
environmental education programs might influence individuals’ environmental
attitudes and behaviors over years, decades and lifetimes would indeed be
valuable.
Significant Life Experiences
Significant life experiences research is an area within the field of environmental
education that has attempted to explore connections between childhood
experiences with nature and adult environmental commitment by employing
autobiographical reminiscence. This work bears some resemblance to a life course
5. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 5
approach, although the studies typically employ qualitative methods only and focus
exclusively on environmental professionals or activists. These studies do suggest
that childhood experience with nature plays a critical role in setting such individuals
on a trajectory toward environmentalism.
In the first study of its kind, Tanner (1980) asked 45 dedicated conservationists to
describe formative influences in their lives. Hunting, fishing and bird watching
during childhood or adolescence were activities most often mentioned by individuals
who specified the influence of outdoor activities. Tanner (1980, 23) states that
“youthful experience of outdoors and relatively pristine environments emerges as a
dominant influence in these lives.” Several subsequent studies have provided
support for Tanner’s findings. Peterson and Hungerford (1981) and Corcoran
(1999) posed similar questions to environmental educators in the United States;
Palmer (1993) studied environmental educators in the United Kingdom; Chawla
(1999) conducted open-ended structured interviews with established
environmentalists in the U.S. and Norway; and Sward (1999) studied El Salvadoran
environmental professionals. The single most important influence on individuals
that emerged from these studies was many hours spent outdoors in natural
habitats during childhood or adolescence—alone or with others. Other important
childhood experiences included the example of parents, teachers, or other adults
who fostered an interest in nature; scouting and camping; hunting and fishing;
witnessing the destruction or alteration of landscapes or habitats; and media or
books.
The significant life experiences literature provides further evidence that childhood
nature experiences may impact later life environmentalism. However, the exclusive
focus on individuals engaged in environmental careers or activism limits the
generalizability of these findings. There is need for further research examining the
long-term effects of childhood experiences with nature among the general
population.
Modeling Environmentalism across the Life Course
Taken together, prior research evidence suggests that childhood experiences with
nature are associated with adulthood environmentalism. Time spent outdoors in
childhood (Chawla 1999; Ewert, Place and Sibthorp 2005; Kals, Schumacher and
Montada 1999; Peterson and Hungerford 1981)—whether playing (Bixler, Floyd and
Hammitt 2002), foraging (Chipeniuk 1995), bird watching, hunting, or camping
(Ewert, Place and Sibthorp 2005; Kellert 1985; Tanner 1980), or being with another
person (Peterson and Hungerford 1981; Sward 1999)—seems to be associated with
various adult outcomes related to environmentalism. Moreover, participation in
environmental education programs or classes (Jaus 1982; Palmer 1993) and scouts
(Chawla 1999) appear to be salient influences. The current study attempts to
further our understanding of pathways to environmentalism by employing a long-
term, life course perspective rather than focusing on short-term outcomes; using a
large representative sample of urban-dwelling adults rather than a select group of
environmentalists; and utilizing structural equation modeling to allow an
examination of interrelated influences including engagement with both wild and
domesticated nature in childhood, participation in environmental education in one’s
6. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 6
youth, and nature experiences shared with other people during childhood. Figure 1
is a conceptual representation of the model to be tested. We hypothesize that
adults who, as children, participated more in nature-related activities will report
stronger pro-environment attitudes and more frequent engagement in
environmentally-friendly behaviors. We examine these relationships while
controlling for demographic and socioeconomic variables (including age, race,
gender, income, and education).
Figure 1. Conceptual Model: Childhood Participation with Nature and
Adult Environmental Attitudes and Behaviors
Research Method
Childhood Participation in Nature:
Participation with Wild Nature
Participation with Domesticated Nature
Environmental Education
Time in Nature w/ Others
Pro-Environment Behavior
in Adulthood
Control Variables:
Age, Race, Gender
Income, Education
Environmental
Attitudes in Adulthood
Research Method
Participants
The data used for this study were obtained from a larger study of childhood
environmental experiences and adult sensitivities to urban and community forests1
(Lohr et al. 1999). The survey included 108 closed-ended questions, averaged 23
minutes in length, and was administered by telephone in Fall 1998. The sampling
frame consisted of adults living in the 112 most populated areas of the United
States, including at least one metropolitan area in each state except Alaska and
Hawaii. Individuals were selected through a combination of random-digit dialing
and listed numbers, and those at the listed numbers received a prior notification
letter describing the purpose of the study. The final sample included 2,004
individuals, representing a response rate of 51.8 percent. Similar studies have
yielded a response rate between 40 percent and 62 percent (Lohr et al. 1999, 6-7).
The demographics of the sample were compared to known characteristics of
residents within each metropolitan area in order to evaluate the possible existence
of sampling bias. Data were similar, indicating that the sample provides a
representative sample of the population (Lohr and Pearson-Mims 2005, 473).
7. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 7
The respondents ranged in age from 18 to 90, with a mean age of 45 (SD= 15.98).
Fifty-six percent were female and 44 percent were male. The majority (57 percent)
of participants were white (non-Hispanic). Approximately 40 percent had attained
a college degree or higher. Income levels varied considerably, with the largest
proportion (28 percent) in the $30,000-$50,000 category. Approximately 9 percent
earned less than $10,000 per year and 7.5 percent earned over $100,000.
Constructs and Measures
Questions posed to participants included items about the frequency of nature-
related experiences during childhood, their current (adulthood) attitudes and
behaviors, and their socio-demographic background. Responses were either on a
four-point scale or of a dichotomous nature (typically “yes or no”). An exploratory
factor analysis using Principal Components procedures with Varimax rotation was
conducted on a number of items regarding childhood experiences and
environmental attitudes. The independent and dependent variables for this model
are described below. Appendix A presents additional details on all measures.
Independent Variables: Childhood Participation with Nature
The model includes several latent and continuous variables. The independent
variables were: participation with nature in childhood, participation in
environmental education in childhood, and childhood experiences in nature with
other people.
Childhood participation with nature
Participants were asked how often they participated in nature-related activities
before the age of 11, and responses were scored on a four-point scale ranging from
“never” to “often.” Items with factor loadings above 0.40 were identified and
placed into two factors, Participation with “Wild Nature” and Participation with
“Domesticated Nature.” Experiences with Wild Nature consisted of hiking, walking,
or playing in the woods or natural areas; camping; and hunting or fishing
(Cronbach alpha= .58). Experiences with “Domesticated Nature” consisted of
picking flowers, fruits, or vegetables from a garden; planting trees, seeds, or
plants; and taking care of indoor or outdoor plants (Cronbach alpha= .78).
Participation in environmental education
For this scale, respondents were asked if they had participated in any of several
organized activities before the age of 11: nature or environmental education in
elementary school; nature or environmental education outside of school, such as
through Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, or summer camp; and programs aimed at
improving the local environment. Due to the dichotomous nature of these
responses (no= 0, yes= 1), a composite score was computed, resulting in a scale
ranging from 0-3. Because this scale is comprised of dichotomous items, internal
consistency is calculated using Kuder-Richardson 21 (KR-21) rather than Cronbach
alpha. The KR-21 value was .51.
Nature experiences with other people
Participants were asked with whom they spent time outdoors prior to the age of 11.
The questions inquired whether they spent time with a parent or other significant
8. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 8
adult, a teacher or school group, with a sibling, or with a friend. The responses to
these were also dichotomous (no= 0, yes= 1) and a composite score ranging from
0-4 was computed. The KR-21 internal consistency score was .36.
Dependent Variables: Adult Environmentalism
Two dependent variables were included in the model. Environmental attitudes in
adulthood, which operated as a mediator between childhood nature experiences
and adulthood environmental behaviors, was a latent variable. Environmental
behaviors in adulthood was included as a continuous variable.
Environmental attitudes
This scale consisted of three items reflecting attitudes toward various aspects of the
environment. Participants were asked to what extent they agreed or disagreed with
the following statements: “You consider trees to be important to your quality of
life,” “Natural areas that are untouched by humans should exist,” and “Humans
have a responsibility to protect nature and the environment.” Responses were
scored on a four-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly
agree.” The Cronbach alpha was .47. This variable was treated as a mediating
variable, as it was hypothesized to function as both a dependent variable—affected
by childhood nature participation—and as an influence on environmental behaviors.
Environmental behavior
This (0-4 point) scale was computed from the dichotomous responses to four
questions: “Have you ever voted for or against a candidate for public office based
mainly on their views about the environment?” (no= 0, yes= 1); “During the past
year, how often have you recycled materials, such as newspapers, glass, or
aluminum cans, in your home?” (not at all= 0, somewhat or very often= 1);
“During the past year, have you participated in any activity or program to enhance
the environment, such as a clean-up on Earth Day?” (no= 0, yes= 1); and, “When
you have free time, do you usually prefer to be indoors or outdoors?” (indoors= 0,
outdoors= 1). The KR-21 was .30.
Control Variables
The model controlled for five socio-demographic variables. These consisted of age,
gender, race (white/nonwhite), highest level of educational attainment (less than
college/college degree), and income (seven categories ranging from $10,000 or less
to $100,000 and over).
Statistical Method
Structural equation modeling (SEM) (Byrne 1994; Kline 1998) was used to test the
hypothesized model and to determine the degree to which it fit the sample data.
SEM was chosen as it allows for the inclusion of latent and observed variables, as
well as multiple dependent variables. In addition, SEM incorporates measurement
error, which is of particular relevance because some of the scales used
demonstrated only moderate levels of internal consistency. Furthermore, the
procedure provides an opportunity to find the parsimonious model with the best fit.
Typically, the structural equation modeling process includes the specification of a
particular model and subsequent testing, modification, and further evaluation. The
9. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 9
ultimate goal is to find the best-fitting model that yields parameters having
practical significance and substantive meaning (Kline 1998; Hoyle 1995;
Schumacker and Lomax 2004).
As the first step, the total sample of 2,004 was randomly divided in half to allow for
separate model testing and cross-verification. Cross-validation with a random half
of the sample is a rigorous and recommended analytic approach to assess whether
idiosyncrasies of a sample led to a specific model (Crowley and Fan 1997). Amos
5.0 was used to compute the parameter estimates and fit indices using Maximum
Likelihood procedures on one of the two subsamples (n1= 1,002). A series of
nested model comparisons (Bollen 1989) was then examined using the chi-square
difference test to determine the best-fitting model. Compared were the baseline
null model (M0
), revised model (M1
), fully recursive model (M2
), and parsimonious
model (M3
).
The null model (M0
) or “uncorrelated factor model” served as a baseline model
(Bentler and Bonett 1980). In this model, there were no paths included between
the independent and dependent variables, or between the two dependent variables.
The null model included only the factor analysis aspects of the model. The revised
model (M1
) included indirect paths from the control variables through the four
childhood nature experience independent variables—participation with wild nature,
participation with domesticated nature, experiences with environmental education,
and shared outdoor experiences—to the dependent variables. Indirect paths were
included from the four independent variables through environmental attitudes to
environmental behaviors. The fully recursive model (M2
) expanded upon the
revised model by adding direct paths from the independent variables to
environmental behavior. In the fully recursive model, all independent and
dependent variables were linked.
A parsimonious model (M3
) was developed by deleting paths one by one from the
fully recursive model, starting with those with the least significant estimates, until a
model was found that represented an optimal fit with the fewest necessary paths.
As the final step, this parsimonious model was cross-validated using the second
subsample to ensure that any idiosyncrasies from the data were not influencing the
research results (Crowley and Fan 1997).
Model fit was assessed using the conventional chi-square test, but because the size
of the sample (n1= 1,002) would undoubtedly lead to a significant chi-square value
(Hu and Bentler 1995), two additional fit indices were used. The root mean square
error of approximation (RMSEA) is insensitive to sample size; an RMSEA of < .10 is
considered good and <.05 is very good (Loehlin 1998). The Comparative Fit Index
(CFI) has been recommended for large samples; a CFI over .90 is considered to be
a good fit (Hu and Bentler 1995).
10. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 10
Results
Model Testing and Evaluation
Null and revised models
As shown in Table 1, the chi-square statistic for the null model (M0
) was 825.46
(120, N= 1002), p < .001 with a CFI of .727 and RMSEA of .077. Fit indices for the
revised model (M1
) indicated a better model fit, χ
2
(94, N= 1,002) = 435.35,
p <.001, with a CFI of .868 and RMSEA of .060. Comparisons between the null
(M0
) and revised model (M1
) indicated that the revised model was a significant
improvement over the null model, ∆χ
2
(390.11, 26 df, N= 1,002), p < .001.
Table 1. Structural model comparisons, N= 1,002 (Group 1)
Model df Χ
2
∆Χ
2
CFI ∆ df RMSEA p value
M0 Null 120 825.46 .727 .077 .000
M1 Revised 94 435.35 390.11 .868 26 .068 .000
M2 Fully Recursive 90 411.45 23.90 .876 4 .060 .001
M3
Parsimonious 100 417.53 17.82 a
.877 6 .056 .03
6.08 b
.881 10 .058 .87
a
M1 - M3
b
M2 - M3
Fully recursive model
For the fully recursive model (M2
), the chi-square statistic was 411.45 (90, N=
1,002), p <.001, with a CFI of .876 and RMSEA of .060. Model comparisons with
the revised model (M1
) indicated a change in χ
2
of 23.90, (4, N= 1,002), p < .001.
This indicated a significantly better fit for the fully recursive model (M2
) than the
revised (M1
) (see Table 1).
Best-fitting parsimonious model
The results of the previous models were then used to develop a parsimonious
model (M3
). Paths between variables were deleted from the fully recursive model,
beginning with those that had the smallest coefficients which were not statistically
significant. For each path removed, a chi-square difference test was used to
determine if this model was significantly better than the revised model (M1
) without
being significantly worse than the fully recursive model (M2
). Paths continued to be
deleted until significant findings for the nested model comparisons were obtained.
The chi-square for the resulting model was 417.53 (100, N= 1,002), p < .001) with
a CFI of .877 and RMSEA of .056. Comparison with the revised model (M1
)
indicated that the parsimonious model was a significantly better fit than the revised
model χ2
(6, N= 1,002) = 17.82, p < .03. Comparison with the fully recursive
model (M2
) indicated that the parsimonious model was not significantly worse than
the full model, χ
2
, (10, N= 1,002) = 6.08, p < .87 (see Table 1). The parsimonious
11. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 11
model (M3
) resulting from the model-testing and evaluation process with the first
half of the sample included paths from experiences with wild nature, experiences
with domesticated nature, and time in nature with other people during childhood to
both adulthood environmental attitudes and adulthood environmental behaviors. In
addition, there was a path from environmental education to environmental attitudes
and from attitudes to behaviors.
Cross-Validation: Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects
To cross-validate the findings, the parsimonious model was re-run using the second
sample subgroup (n2= 1,002). Results were similar to the first group, χ
2
(100, N=
1,002) = 405.37, p <.001, with a CFI of .868 and RMSEA of .055, suggesting that
the initial results were not biased by idiosyncrasies of the first sample. R
2
values
were .13 for environmental attitudes and .13 for environmental behavior.
Standardized coefficients, direct, indirect, and total effects are presented in Figure 2
and in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. Standardized Direct Effects for Environmental Attitudes, N= 1,002
(Group 2)
Variable Direct
Wild Nature .21 **
Domesticated Nature .16 **
Environmental Education --
Nature with People -.08 *
Notes: Dashes represent non-significant paths.
** p < .05
* p < .10
Table 3. Standardized Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects for Environmental
Behavior, N= 1,002 (Group 2)
Variable Direct Indirect Total
Wild Nature .26 *** .02 .28
Domesticated Nature .07 * .02 .09
Environmental Education --- .00 .00
Nature with People --- .01 .01
Environmental Attitudes .10 ** --- .10
Note: Significance tests are only reported for direct effects. Dashes represent non-significant paths.
*** p<.001 ** p < .05 * p < .10
12. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 12
Figure 2. The influence of childhood participation with nature on
adulthood environmental attitudes and behaviors—the final
parsimonious model with standardized estimates, N= 1,002
(Group 2)
quality
untouch
Environmental
Attitudes in Adulthood
hiking hunting
Active Participation with
Nature in Childhood
Participation with Wild
Nature in Childhood
camping
flowers plantsplanting
.70
.49
Childhood Participation in
Environmental Education
Childhood Time in Nature with
other People
Pro-Environment Behaviors
in Adulthood
Participation with
Domesticated Nature in
Childhood
.21 **
.16 **
.10 **
-.08 *
.26 **
.07 *
.59
.63
.80 .68
.58
.59
.29
Control Variables:
Age, Race, Gender
Income, Education
protect
Notes: Model fit statistics: X
2
= 405.37, df = 100; CFI = .868; RMSEA = .055.
** p < .05 * p < .10
Dashed pathways indicate non-significance when cross-validated with Group 2.
Effects of Childhood Participation with Nature on Adult Environmentalism
Effects on adult environmental attitudes
Consistent with the hypotheses, childhood “wild nature” participation and
“domesticated nature” participation in childhood both had significant direct effects
on adult environmental attitudes. The coefficients were .21 and .16 respectively,
and were both significant at the p <.05 level. Childhood experiences in nature with
other people also had a marginally significant (p <.10) negative effect on adult
environmental attitudes (-.08). However, the effect of environmental education on
adult environmental attitudes was non-significant.
13. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 13
Effects on adult environmental behaviors
In the model, the latent variable, adult environmental attitudes, was expected to
predict adult environmental behavior. Consistent with the hypothesis,
environmental attitudes did operate as a mediator. Specifically, environmental
attitudes are both influenced by various forms of childhood participation with the
environment and have a positive influence (.10) on environmental behaviors.
Moreover, as hypothesized, childhood participation with wild nature had a
significant direct effect on environmental behaviors, as well as an indirect effect
through environmental attitudes. As shown in Table 3 and in Figure 2, the direct
effect was .26, and the indirect effect was .02, yielding a total effect of .28.
Participation with domesticated nature in childhood also was positively associated
with environmental behaviors—with a marginally significant (p <.10) direct effect of
.07 and an indirect effect of .02. Neither childhood participation in environmental
education nor childhood experiences in nature with other people had significant
effects on adult environmental behaviors.
Discussion
The results of this study indicate that participation with “wild nature” in childhood
such as walking, playing or hiking in natural areas; camping; or hunting or fishing
has a significant, positive association with both adult environmental attitudes and
behaviors. People who engaged in these kinds of activities before the age of 11
were more likely as adults to express pro-environment attitudes and to indicate
that they engaged in pro-environment behaviors. In addition, participation with
“domesticated” nature during childhood such as harvesting flowers or vegetables,
planting trees or seeds, and caring for indoor or outdoor plants, is also positively
associated with environmental attitudes, although only marginally associated with
environmental behaviors. Also, as predicted, adult environmental attitudes partially
mediates the relationship between childhood participation with nature and adult
environmental behaviors.
In general, the result linking childhood nature experiences with later life outcomes
is consistent with research findings connecting childhood participation with nature
and various adolescence or adulthood outcomes including attitudes about plants
and trees (Lohr and Pearson-Mims 2005), knowledge of biodiversity (Chipeniuk
1995), indignation about natural protection (Kals, Schumacher and Montada 1999),
occupational and recreational preferences (Bixler, Floyd and Hammitt 2002), and
ecocentric versus anthropocentric beliefs (Ewert, Place and Sibthorp 2005). The
current work also builds on previous findings within the realm of significant life
experiences literature that has documented a relation between childhood
experiences and adult attitudes among environmental professionals (Chawla 1999;
Corcoran 1999; Palmer 1993; Peterson and Hungerford 1981; Sward 1999; Tanner
1980).
The results of the current study suggest that while involvement with “wild” and
“domesticated” natural environments both play a role, participation with “wild”
nature before age 11 is a particularly potent pathway toward shaping both
environmental attitudes and behaviors in adulthood. When children become truly
14. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 14
engaged with the natural world at a young age, the experience is likely to stay with
them in a powerful way—shaping their subsequent environmental path. Our
findings regarding participation with “wild” and “domesticated” nature are
particularly related to those of Ewert and his colleagues (2005), who found
“consumptive” outdoor activities during childhood (e.g., hunting or fishing) and
“appreciative” outdoor activities during childhood (i.e., time alone in the outdoors
enjoying nature) to be predictive of eco-centric versus anthropocentric beliefs
among university undergraduate students. Although Ewert and associates provide
relatively little detail concerning the measurement of the independent variable
constructs, their constructs and findings seem to parallel those of the present
study. By including participants from ages 18 to 90, the current study examines
longer-term influences of childhood nature participation, thereby extending the
work of Ewert, Place and Sibthorp (2005).
Some additional context for interpreting the findings of the current study is
provided by Kellert (2002), who argues that it is particularly critical
developmentally for children to spontaneously engage with healthy, diverse natural
environments. The childhood nature experiences that we, in this study, have
characterized as participation with “wild nature” (i.e., hiking, camping or hunting)
may be the most likely to provide the kind natural environment engagement that
Kellert (2002) describes. Conversely, harvesting flowers or vegetables, planting
trees or seeds, and caring for plants may be more structured or programmed,
thereby not allowing for extensive, spontaneous engagement with nature. Kellert
suggests that “It may be tentatively concluded that … children’s [orchestrated or
restricted] contact with nature in modern society does not exert major or long-term
developmental impacts on most young people” (Kellert 2002, 145). This may, in
part, shed light on our finding that childhood participation with “domesticated”
nature had less influence than participation with “wild” nature on adult
environmental attitudes and only a marginal effect on environmental behaviors.
Some findings were contrary to our hypotheses and inconsistent with prior
research. First, participation in environmental education programs (in school, in
scouts, at camp, or in community environmental improvement programs) was not a
significant predictor of either environmental attitudes or behaviors. This result may
reflect the limitations of our operationalization of childhood participation in
environmental education. Perhaps we have tapped into relatively structured modes
of environmental education, rather than more engaging, hands-on versions that
may be more likely to have long-term impacts. In other words, this finding ought
not be interpreted as an indictment of environmental education, but rather viewed
within the context of the specific and somewhat narrow way that we operationalized
environmental education. The items used here may not be an adequate
representation of environmental education programs and also may not be easily
recollected by adults. Moreover, as Rickinson (2001) notes in his review, lack of
specific detail about the kind of environmental education people experienced makes
it difficult to predict positive outcomes.
A second contradictory finding is that time spent in nature with other people during
childhood was marginally negatively associated with adult environmental attitudes,
15. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 15
and not associated with adult environmental behaviors. This finding indicates that
the more people spent time in nature with others (i.e., parents, teachers, siblings,
friends) during childhood, the less pro-environmental attitudes they are likely to
have as adults. This is contrary to the results of Peterson and Hungerford (1981)
who found that time in nature with others during childhood was among the
influences cited by environmental educators as being influential in their own
environmental path. One interpretation of our finding is that the way this item was
constructed in this study may have tapped into nature-related activities that were
mandatory or in some way unpleasant, rather than providing insight regarding
positive nature experiences with other significant individuals. Moreover, perhaps
solitary play in nature, without the demands or distractions posed by other
individuals, may be particularly critical in influencing long-term environmentalism.
Contributions
This study makes several contributions. First, it extends the life course perspective
to the exploration of human-natural environment relations with a large sample from
the general population. Identifying connections between children’s engagement
with nature and their later life environmentalism is an important empirical and
practical concern. Evidence provided here indicates that early experiences with the
natural environment may indeed set a child on a trajectory toward
environmentalism. While the significant life experiences literature (e.g., Corcoran
1999; Chawla 1989; 1999; 2001; Kellert 1985; Peterson and Hungerford 1981;
Sward 1999; Tanner 1980) has attempted to examine linkages between childhood
nature experiences and adulthood, the focus has been explicitly on a select group of
individuals—environmental educators and activists—not on the population more
broadly. The current study suggests that connections between childhood
engagement with the natural environment and later life environmentalism are not
limited to individuals who work as environmental educators or activists. In
addition, by using structural equation modeling, this study provides a holistic
representation of the overall network of influences on the development of
environmentalism. In particular, this approach provides insight concerning both
direct and indirect (i.e., mediated) pathways to environmentalism.
Limitations
It is important to articulate the limitations of this study so that they might be
improved upon in future research. First, due to the use of secondary data, this
study did not employ scales with established reliability and validity regarding the
various types of childhood participation with nature, adult environmental attitudes
or adult environmental behaviors. Issues related to scale reliability are particularly
evident in some low internal consistency scores (see Appendix A). One might argue
however, that this is not a significant weakness due to the nature of what is being
measured. In particular, for the environmental behavior scale (KR-21= .30), it may
be reasonable not to expect high inter-item correlations. Each item may reflect a
different level of commitment to the environment, such that a person with modest
environmental commitment might recycle but not engage in any of the other pro-
environment behaviors. Future efforts in scale development might employ the
Rasch method. The Rasch approach (Bond and Fox 2001) adopts a probabilistic
measurement approach that reflects the variable difficulty of doing various
16. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 16
behaviors (e.g., taking a bath rather than a shower, versus giving up one’s car),
and the fact that there are various influences and constraints affecting people’s
ecological behaviors (e.g., whether one’s town has public transportation) (Kaiser
1998). A valuable next step in future studies would be to improve the construct
validity by using standardized measures. These scales might include Kaiser’s
(1998) general measure of ecological behavior (using the Rasch method), or the
New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) Scale (Dunlap et al. 2000), for example.
Another related limitation of this study was its reliance on retrospective self-report.
This methodology compromises the internal validity of the study because causal
directionality is ambiguous. In other words, individuals who perceive themselves to
be environmentalists as adults might mis-recollect the type or frequency of
interaction with the natural environment that occurred during their childhood. In
fact, there has been considerable debate regarding the value of significant life
experiences literature (Chawla 1998; Chawla 2001; Dillon, Kelsey and Duque-
Aristizabal 1999; A. Gough 1999; S. Gough 1999; N. Gough 1999; Payne 1999),
focused partly on the validity and reliability of autobiographical reminiscence. The
current study included participants ranging in age from 18 to 90, the time span of
the retrospective recollection ranges widely—from eight years to eight decades.
This may also affect the validity and reliability of the self-report measure.
Future Research
Ideally, future research ought to employ prospective, longitudinal data—objectively
recording the children’s participation with the natural environment and then
tracking these individuals over 20 years, or more, into adulthood. There would be
multiple advantages to such an approach. First, issues of causal directionality
would be virtually eliminated due to both temporal order and better construct
validity. Measures of participation would have greater validity and reliability than
those relying on retrospective self-report. We would, therefore, have more
confidence that childhood nature experiences do indeed impact adult
environmentalism and not the opposite—that adulthood attitudes color or distort
recollection of what one did during childhood. Second, a prospective longitudinal
approach would allow a more thorough application of the life course perspective.
With multiple data points from childhood to adulthood, trajectories and turning
points could be more clearly identified and traced over time. For example, one
theme in the literature, but not included in this study, concerns experiences of
having a special childhood natural area destroyed by development (Corcoran 1999;
Chawla 1999; Ewert, Place and Sibthorp 2005). A prospective study would allow a
greater understanding of whether such an experience might constitute a turning
point—shifting a person from a pathway of environmental indifference toward one
of environmental advocacy or commitment.
Even in future cross-sectional or retrospective studies, efforts could be made to
improve the validity of the measurement of childhood participation with nature by
moving away from self-report. If a prospective study were not possible, another
approach might be to ask a parent or sibling to retrospectively report the
individual’s childhood engagement with nature. This would be another strategy to
move the research beyond the mono-method bias threat to internal validity due to
17. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 17
the potentially spurious relationship between childhood nature participation and
adult environmentalism.
An additional area for future study concerns gaining an understanding of how
different people might follow different pathways from childhood experiences to
adulthood environmentalism. The current study suggests that types of nature
experiences people have as children partially explain differences in adult
environmentalism. Yet, these paths may differ from one person or group to
another. In fact, different types of engagement with nature in childhood may
mediate associations between socio-demographic characteristics—such as gender,
race, and socioeconomic status—and environmentalism. Future research might
examine whether boys versus girls, white versus black, or wealthy versus poor
children are more likely to engage with nature in specific ways and how that
participation in turn may influence environmental attitudes and behaviors. Further
exploration of the varied pathways to environmentalism would contribute to the
development of environmental programs and targeting of specific outdoor
opportunities toward particular youth populations.
On another level, research might look more closely at explanatory or mediating
mechanisms concerning how or why childhood nature experiences bolster
environmental attitudes and behaviors. What is (are) the underlying
mechanism(s)? For example, by spending time in nature, do people develop a
sense of connection to the environment, build a greater knowledge structure
regarding plants and animals, or gain a sense of responsibility or stewardship for
nature which ultimately leads to environmental commitment? Ewert and colleagues
(2005) speculate how early childhood outdoor experiences may influence
subsequent environmentalism. They suggest three ways that childhood
participation in nature may affect the development of individual’s values. First,
involvement with nature may “precondition” a child toward pro-environment beliefs
and attitudes. Second, the social context within which a youngster participates in
natural environment activities may exert pro-environment social influences. Third,
early nature experiences may lead a child to first feel attached to a specific natural
place and later to generalize those feelings to the natural environment more
broadly. Chipeniuk (1995), who documents a relationship between childhood
foraging for natural objects and adolescent knowledge of biodiversity, provides
additional insight. It may be that by foraging or perhaps otherwise engaging with
or informally cataloging one’s local environment, children build a framework for
understanding the world around them. Chipenuik (1995, 507-508) suggests:
If in fact children do much of their learning about biodiversity and about the
effects people have on biodiversity by making use of natural resources, then
societies pursuing the goal of sustainability might do better to encourage
childhood foraging.
Gaining a clearer understanding of the specific cognitive, affective, social or other
mechanisms that underlie the pathways from childhood nature experiences to adult
environmentalism is not only of theoretical interest, but can also help us to identify
18. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 18
leverage points that might be targeted in the development of effective, engaging
natural environment opportunities for youth.
Conclusions and Implications
I like to play indoors better ‘cause that’s where all the electrical outlets are
- fourth grader (Louv 2005)
Children living in the United States today reportedly spend, on average, 30 minutes
of unstructured time outdoors each week (Hofferth and Sandberg 2000).
Increasingly, children spend time indoors—watching television, playing video
games, and using computers. In fact, while children age 3 to 12 spend 1 percent of
their time outdoors, they spend 27 percent of their time watching television
(Hofferth and Sandberg 2000). In addition to its likely contributions to epidemics of
childhood inactivity and obesity (Luepker 1999; Sturm 2005) and possibly to rates
of Attention Deficit Disorder (Kuo and Faber Taylor 2004), youth spending so little
time outside may also lead to a dwindling knowledge about biodiversity (Chipeniuk
1995) and, as this study suggests, less pro-environmental attitudes and reduced
participation in environmentally friendly behaviors as adults. Encouraging children
to become engaged with the natural world, preserving habitats where they can do
so, and creating programs and opportunities for this to occur may be critical to the
future of healthy children, healthy adults, and a healthy planet.
Endnote
1. This project was supported by the Bronfenbrenner Life Course Center, the College of
Human Ecology, and Hatch grant 327-416 at Cornell University. Raw data were
provided by the U.S. Forest Service project WAUF-97-02, funded by the National Urban
and Community Forestry Advisory Council, and Washington State University. Thanks to
Virginia I. Lohr, Caroline Pearson-Mims, John Tarnai, and Don Dillman for sharing these
data. Thanks to Françoise Vermeylen and Karen Grace-Martin, both at Cornell
University, for statistical consultation.
Nancy M. Wells is an Assistant Professor in Design and Environmental Analysis and
the Bronfenbrenner Life Course Center within the College of Human Ecology at
Cornell University. As an environmental psychologist, Dr. Wells is interested in the
impact of built and natural aspects of the residential environment on human health
and well-being through the life course. Her work concerns the influence of nearby
nature on cognitive functioning and psychological well-being, the study of housing
transitions among impoverished urban families, and the effects of neighborhood
design on physical activity.
Kristi S. Lekies is a Research Associate in the Department of Human Development
and Associate Director of the Cornell Early Childhood Program. Her interests focus
on initiatives to improve the quality of early care and education, children’s
participation in society, garden-based learning, and children’s engagement in
community life, particularly for very young children. She is also interested in the
19. Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences… 19
study of childhood from a cross-cultural perspective, looking at the diversity of
children’s experiences in the United States and abroad.
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25. Appendix A. Items comprising Independent and Dependent Variables
(N=2004)
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
Internal
Consistency1
ITEMS
(With X¯ (sd) for continuous items and percent Yes and No for
dichotomous items)
Wild Nature
Participation♦
X¯ = 2.75 (.78)
α = .58
(3 items)
Hiking, walking, or playing in the woods or natural areas
X¯ =3.45 (.81)
Camping X¯ = 2.42 (1.14)
Hunting or fishing X¯ = 2.39 (1.19)
Domesticated Nature
Participation♦
X¯ = 2.81 (.89)
α = .78
(3 items)
Picking flowers, fruits, or vegetables from a garden
X¯ =3.02 (1.03)
Planting trees, seeds, or plants X¯ =2.64 (1.07)
Taking care of indoor or outdoor plants X¯ =2.75 (1.10)
Environmental Education*
X¯ = 1.18 (1.0)
KR-21=.51
(3 items)
Participation in activities before the age of 11:
Nature or environmental education (EE) in elementary school
31% Y, 69% N
Nature or EE outside of school, such as through Boy Scouts,
Girl Scouts, or summer camp 60% Y, 40% N
Programs to improve the local environment 27% Y, 72% N
Time in Nature with Others♠
X¯ = 2.66 (1.02))
KR-21=.36
(4 items)
With whom did you spend time outdoors prior to the age of 11:
Parent or other significant adult 63% Y, 37% N
Teacher or school group 39% Y, 61% N
Sibling 76% Y, 34% N
Friend 88% Y, 12% N
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Environmental Attitudes in
Adulthood♦
X¯ = 3.80 (.33)
α = .47
(3 items)
You consider trees to be important to your quality of life.
X¯ =3.80 (.50)
Natural areas that are untouched by humans should exist.
X¯ =3.74 (.61)
Humans have a responsibility to protect nature and the
environment. X¯ =3.90 (.34)
Pro-Environment Behavior
in Adulthood♠
X¯ = 2.11 (.92)
KR-21=.30
(4 items)
When you have free time, do you usually prefer to be indoors
or outdoors? 76% Y, 24% N
Have you ever voted for or against a candidate for public
office based mainly on their views about the environment? 25%
Y, 75% N
During the past year, how often have you recycled materials,
such as newspapers, glass, or aluminum cans, in your home?
(0=not at all, 1=somewhat or very often). 89% Y, 11% N
During the past year, have you participated in any activity or
program to enhance the environment, such as clean-up on Earth
Day? 25% Y, 75% N
Dichotomous (no=0, yes=1); composite score 0-4 was computed by
summing.
1. For scales consisting of items measured on a continuous scale, Cronbach alpha was
calculated. For scales employing dichotomous items, Kuder-Richardson 21 (KR21) was
calculated.
♦
1-4 score based on mean of 3 items (strongly agree to strongly disagree).
♠
0-4 score, computed by summing 4 dichotomous items.
∗ 0-3 score, computed by summing 3 dichotomous items.