The document summarizes strategies for ensuring access to safe drinking water globally. It discusses four approaches: seeking new sources like desalination, saving and redistributing existing supplies by reducing leakage, reducing demand through more efficient agricultural and industrial practices, and recycling wastewater. Case studies from different countries demonstrate successful implementation of these strategies, in particular harvesting rainwater and adopting innovative irrigation techniques. An action plan is needed to share these solutions and empower local communities to address their water needs.
Increasing Access to Safe Drinking Water - by SummerAmalia Giebitz
This document discusses the target of reducing by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. It identifies the main causes of unsafe drinking water and lack of sanitation as climate change, pollution from agriculture and industry, population growth, and irrigation usage. The effects are increased poverty, disease, and water disputes. It also profiles the organization Global Water and their work providing water and sanitation in developing countries.
This document discusses safe drinking water and sanitation issues globally and in Pakistan. It notes that over 2 billion people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water and over 4.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. In Pakistan, approximately 38.5 million people do not have access to safe drinking water and 50.7 million lack adequate sanitation as of 2005. Water sources in Pakistan are often contaminated by untreated domestic and industrial waste, threatening public health. Common chemical contaminants like nitrates, arsenic, and fluoride found in drinking water can cause health issues if levels are elevated, including various cancers and birth defects. Ensuring access to safe drinking water and sanitation requires planning, infrastructure development and maintenance, capacity building, and promoting
This document discusses issues related to water and sanitation in India. It notes that about 70% of the population lacks basic sanitation and access to safe drinking water, which costs India about 6.4% of its GDP annually. Several solutions are proposed, including seeking new water sources, reducing demand, recycling water, and improving sanitation through community-led programs. However, challenges remain in changing behaviors, ensuring access for all, and proper treatment of wastewater. Overall implementation will require increased infrastructure, education, community management, and addressing open defecation and lack of toilet use.
1) The document discusses providing safe drinking water and sanitation facilities to all people globally. It notes that more than 3.4 million people die each year from water, sanitation, and hygiene-related causes, with nearly 99% occurring in developing countries.
2) Some of the key causes outlined include lack of education and awareness, non-accessibility of proper resources and facilities, and lack of proper monitoring mechanisms. Poor sanitation and hygiene also lead to around 1.5 million deaths each year from diarrhea, with children under 5 most severely impacted.
3) Potential solutions discussed include rainwater harvesting, sewage treatment, expanding public toilets, increasing education and awareness campaigns, strengthening non-
Safe drinking water is essential for public health but access remains limited globally. Over 2 billion people lack access to improved sanitation and 1.1 billion lack access to safe drinking water according to WHO. Providing safe drinking water is challenging, especially for growing urban populations, but is critical because contaminated water leads to health hazards. International initiatives aim to improve access, but continued efforts are needed to reduce disparities and meet targets. For developing countries in particular, safe water infrastructure is a high priority for public health and development in the 21st century.
This document provides a summary of a presentation on providing clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities in India. It outlines several key problems including that less than 50% of people have access to drinking water, 30% of rural populations lack access, water quality issues are widespread, and most cities do not treat wastewater before disposal. It also discusses gender and caste issues related to water collection. Diarrhea is a major cause of child death. The presentation proposes solutions like improving multiple water sources, rainwater harvesting, affordable toilets, and special technologies for diverse areas. It emphasizes the need for a holistic, networked approach involving various stakeholders.
This document discusses water and sanitation challenges in India. It notes that water is essential for life but is often contaminated, and many people in India lack access to safe drinking water. Inadequate sanitation is also widespread and a major cause of disease. Some solutions proposed include seeking new water sources through desalination, reducing water demand in agriculture and industry, recycling water, and improving sanitation facilities and wastewater treatment. Proper sanitation is important for public health by preventing the spread of diseases.
SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES IN WATER SUPPLY & SANITATIONRAMSIDDARTHAN .
1. The document discusses sustainable strategies for water supply and sanitation. It covers various topics including the importance of water, different water sources, the hydrological cycle, water distribution on Earth, portable water, domestic water uses, water pollution, and improving water quality.
2. It also discusses sustainability, factors affecting water source sustainability, elements of sustainability, ground and surface water harvesting systems, and a support model for selecting sustainable structures.
3. The document provides information on sanitation challenges in India, definitions of sanitation, steps to solve sanitation problems, available sanitation technologies, criteria for selecting technologies, and strategies for successful sanitation projects in developing countries.
Increasing Access to Safe Drinking Water - by SummerAmalia Giebitz
This document discusses the target of reducing by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. It identifies the main causes of unsafe drinking water and lack of sanitation as climate change, pollution from agriculture and industry, population growth, and irrigation usage. The effects are increased poverty, disease, and water disputes. It also profiles the organization Global Water and their work providing water and sanitation in developing countries.
This document discusses safe drinking water and sanitation issues globally and in Pakistan. It notes that over 2 billion people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water and over 4.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. In Pakistan, approximately 38.5 million people do not have access to safe drinking water and 50.7 million lack adequate sanitation as of 2005. Water sources in Pakistan are often contaminated by untreated domestic and industrial waste, threatening public health. Common chemical contaminants like nitrates, arsenic, and fluoride found in drinking water can cause health issues if levels are elevated, including various cancers and birth defects. Ensuring access to safe drinking water and sanitation requires planning, infrastructure development and maintenance, capacity building, and promoting
This document discusses issues related to water and sanitation in India. It notes that about 70% of the population lacks basic sanitation and access to safe drinking water, which costs India about 6.4% of its GDP annually. Several solutions are proposed, including seeking new water sources, reducing demand, recycling water, and improving sanitation through community-led programs. However, challenges remain in changing behaviors, ensuring access for all, and proper treatment of wastewater. Overall implementation will require increased infrastructure, education, community management, and addressing open defecation and lack of toilet use.
1) The document discusses providing safe drinking water and sanitation facilities to all people globally. It notes that more than 3.4 million people die each year from water, sanitation, and hygiene-related causes, with nearly 99% occurring in developing countries.
2) Some of the key causes outlined include lack of education and awareness, non-accessibility of proper resources and facilities, and lack of proper monitoring mechanisms. Poor sanitation and hygiene also lead to around 1.5 million deaths each year from diarrhea, with children under 5 most severely impacted.
3) Potential solutions discussed include rainwater harvesting, sewage treatment, expanding public toilets, increasing education and awareness campaigns, strengthening non-
Safe drinking water is essential for public health but access remains limited globally. Over 2 billion people lack access to improved sanitation and 1.1 billion lack access to safe drinking water according to WHO. Providing safe drinking water is challenging, especially for growing urban populations, but is critical because contaminated water leads to health hazards. International initiatives aim to improve access, but continued efforts are needed to reduce disparities and meet targets. For developing countries in particular, safe water infrastructure is a high priority for public health and development in the 21st century.
This document provides a summary of a presentation on providing clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities in India. It outlines several key problems including that less than 50% of people have access to drinking water, 30% of rural populations lack access, water quality issues are widespread, and most cities do not treat wastewater before disposal. It also discusses gender and caste issues related to water collection. Diarrhea is a major cause of child death. The presentation proposes solutions like improving multiple water sources, rainwater harvesting, affordable toilets, and special technologies for diverse areas. It emphasizes the need for a holistic, networked approach involving various stakeholders.
This document discusses water and sanitation challenges in India. It notes that water is essential for life but is often contaminated, and many people in India lack access to safe drinking water. Inadequate sanitation is also widespread and a major cause of disease. Some solutions proposed include seeking new water sources through desalination, reducing water demand in agriculture and industry, recycling water, and improving sanitation facilities and wastewater treatment. Proper sanitation is important for public health by preventing the spread of diseases.
SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES IN WATER SUPPLY & SANITATIONRAMSIDDARTHAN .
1. The document discusses sustainable strategies for water supply and sanitation. It covers various topics including the importance of water, different water sources, the hydrological cycle, water distribution on Earth, portable water, domestic water uses, water pollution, and improving water quality.
2. It also discusses sustainability, factors affecting water source sustainability, elements of sustainability, ground and surface water harvesting systems, and a support model for selecting sustainable structures.
3. The document provides information on sanitation challenges in India, definitions of sanitation, steps to solve sanitation problems, available sanitation technologies, criteria for selecting technologies, and strategies for successful sanitation projects in developing countries.
Poor water and sanitation are responsible for a huge global burden of disease, with contaminated water alone contributing to about 2.4 million preventable deaths per year, mainly in children. While progress has been made in increasing access to safe water and improved sanitation, current rates of progress will not meet the Millennium Development Goal targets. Water and sanitation remain a low priority on international development agendas despite their importance for health and achieving the MDGs. Coordinated efforts are still needed to address this critical issue.
This document discusses factors that influence domestic and urban water requirements. It divides water needs into 5 categories: domestic, civic/public, industrial, business, and loss/waste. For domestic use, it estimates consumption of 135 liters per capita daily for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, sanitation, animals, and gardening. Civic use includes 5 liters daily for road washing, 2-3 liters for sanitation, and 1 liter for fire demands. Industrial and business water needs vary greatly depending on the type and size of facilities. Loss and waste are estimated at 30-40% of total consumption. Climate, cost, infrastructure, habits, and presence of industries all impact total water demand.
The document discusses issues related to drinking water and sanitation in India. It notes that about 70% of the population lacks basic sanitation and 226 million people lack access to safe drinking water. Some of the proposed solutions discussed include seeking new water sources, reducing demand from agriculture/industry, recycling grey water, and implementing low-cost sanitation systems with community involvement. The solutions could help provide access to clean drinking water and sanitation for many but also face challenges like social acceptance and proper treatment of wastewater. Mitigation strategies and continued education efforts are needed.
Water quality is a major issue for rural populations in India. While access to drinking water has improved, the quality is often poor, resulting in health problems. Over 700 million rural Indians get their water from over 1.4 million sources, but arsenic, fluoride, and other contaminants affect many habitations. Providing safe drinking water presents enormous challenges given India's diversity and development gaps. Community involvement is key to maintaining water quality through monitoring, hygiene practices, and simple remedial measures.
This document discusses the challenges of sustainable water quality management in rural India. It notes that rural India, which makes up 70% of the population, often lacks interventions to monitor and ensure water quality that are present in major cities. The groundwater that rural India relies on as its main source of drinking water is often contaminated with problems like fluoride, arsenic, iron and salts. Effective water quality management requires redesigning data management systems, upgrading district-level laboratories, and addressing technical, legal and institutional issues. Decentralizing health monitoring at the village level through capacity building is also needed.
The document discusses factors that affect water quality and cause deterioration. It notes that water quality is influenced by both natural factors like geology and hydrology as well as human interferences. The major threats to water quality are scarcity, pathogenic pollution, oxygen depletion, salinity, and toxicity. The main causes of water quality degradation are point sources of pollution like domestic and industrial wastewater, and non-point sources like agricultural and storm runoff. Untreated sewage is a significant pollutant as India has a large gap between sewage generation and treatment. Other problems discussed are high levels of biochemical oxygen demand, coliform bacteria, heavy metals, and chemicals. Both river and groundwater quality are adversely impacted.
The document discusses various issues related to water scarcity and pollution in India. It provides statistics showing that India has 16% of the world's population but only 4% of its fresh water resources. It also notes that over-extraction of groundwater is depleting water tables, and both surface and groundwater sources are becoming polluted. Several challenges are discussed, including inadequate water infrastructure, lack of integrated management, pollution from industries and agriculture, and climate change impacts. Solutions proposed include improved conservation efforts, water recycling technologies, afforestation, and inter-linking of rivers.
This document presents information about rural water access and management. It discusses human rights to water, global water statistics showing rural populations have less access, and water sources. Facts are given about the MENA region where most countries have low water resources. The document also outlines water conditions in Lebanon, noting water scarcity and pollution issues especially impacting rural areas. Sustainable management of water resources is discussed as important for ensuring adequate, safe water access.
The document discusses water resource management and presents insights from an IBM Watson analytics model. The model examines the impact of precipitation, temperature, and per capita water usage on optimal water conservation techniques. It finds that water treatment plants are often the best solution for areas with extreme temperatures and low precipitation. Underground water harvesting is commonly recommended, as it is an affordable option for countries with medium to high precipitation and temperatures. The model can help countries select efficient techniques by considering their unique climatic conditions.
This document outlines Ethiopia's water resource management policy. It discusses the potential for water scarcity given Ethiopia's water endowment and inefficient allocation systems. The policy promotes integrated and comprehensive management of water resources across sectors. It emphasizes efficient pricing based on willingness to pay, conservation, and equitable access. Constraints to efficient water utilization include preventions on highest uses, low prices, and bureaucracy. The policy aims to address these through pricing reforms, private sector involvement, and improved information systems.
The document discusses global and India's freshwater situation. Globally, freshwater reserves are depleting rapidly due to population growth, inefficient use, and climate change. By 2025, many countries including India, China, and parts of Europe and Africa will face water scarcity. In India, traditional water reserves are under strain from increasing population, urbanization, and economic development. Improved national water management strategies are needed to integrate regional initiatives and ensure long-term sustainable water usage across sectors.
2013 my lect -wwd hotel palash-“international year of water cooperation-bra...SG PHADKE
International year of WaterCooperation-Brain stormingissues today”
The document discusses water issues in India on World Water Day, which is observed annually on March 22nd. It summarizes the status of water and wastewater in India, including pollution issues affecting surface and groundwater sources. Key problems outlined are inadequate infrastructure, population growth, and depletion of resources. Water conflicts, diseases caused by contaminated water sources, and lack of proper sanitation are also addressed. The document advocates for improved management and cooperation to tackle India's water challenges.
Water management is a global issue and it is the prime duty of all the people to save and conserve water so that it can be passed on safely to the future generation. Viewers please watch the ppt and leave your likes and comments.
The document discusses water issues in India. It provides details about Team Go Green which has 5 members and is coordinated by Sandeep Kapalawai. It then discusses that access to drinking water and sanitation in India is still inadequate despite efforts. While coverage has increased from 1% rural sanitation in 1980 to 21% in 2008, many Indians still lack access. Future conflicts may occur due to water scarcity issues as demand rises and availability declines.
This document summarizes the key issues around water supply and sanitation in India. It notes that a team led by Mr. Ajay Kumar Keshari prepared the report. The main problems are identified as lack of access to water and sanitation in both rural and urban areas, poor water quality due to contamination, low cultural prioritization of hygiene, lack of education on sanitation, and poverty exacerbating all other issues. Coverage of water supply and sanitation remains inadequate in both rural and urban regions of India.
This document is a case study examining accessibility to water supply and waste disposal facilities in Oworonshoki slum area of Lagos, Nigeria. It finds that private individuals provide 64% of daily water while public provision is only 36%. The slum area faces serious problems with sanitation and hygiene due to lack of facilities and open defecation. The study evaluates accessibility and usefulness of water and waste services for improved living standards through surveys and analysis of the local population. Key issues identified include water scarcity, overflowing drains, infrequent waste collection contributing to unhygienic conditions and health risks for residents.
This document discusses water quality and management. It defines safe and adequate water supplies according to the WHO. It then discusses issues with water quality in places like Africa, Asia, and Latin America where disinfected water is often contaminated. The document outlines various water quality variables and management recommendations. It emphasizes adopting water demand management approaches like reducing unaccounted water, leakage detection, and public awareness campaigns to more sustainably manage limited water resources.
The document discusses the issues of clean drinking water and sanitation in India. It notes that 36% of the world's population lacks improved sanitation and 768 million people use unsafe drinking water. It outlines causes such as water pollution and lack of awareness. Solutions proposed include installing solar-powered water pumps and raising awareness. Challenges include high costs, changing policies, and lack of technical skills, but mitigation efforts like private sector investment, training, and laws can help address these challenges.
The Norwegian Pension Fund Global states that responsible water management is a focus area in their responsible management strategy, still they invest heavily in companies, such as The Coca-Cola Company and Nestle, which have several documented cases of illegal overuse of water and irresponsible water management.
This document discusses the importance of water and its various uses. It outlines different sources of water including rain, surface water sources like reservoirs and rivers, groundwater sources like wells and springs. It notes the criteria for determining a safe water source is that it must be sufficient in quantity and meet quality standards. The document also briefly discusses water pollution and efforts to control it through laws and policies.
Safe Drinking Water Act How Safe is My Drinking WaterMichael Klein
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. This presentation provides an overview of the SDWA.
Poor water and sanitation are responsible for a huge global burden of disease, with contaminated water alone contributing to about 2.4 million preventable deaths per year, mainly in children. While progress has been made in increasing access to safe water and improved sanitation, current rates of progress will not meet the Millennium Development Goal targets. Water and sanitation remain a low priority on international development agendas despite their importance for health and achieving the MDGs. Coordinated efforts are still needed to address this critical issue.
This document discusses factors that influence domestic and urban water requirements. It divides water needs into 5 categories: domestic, civic/public, industrial, business, and loss/waste. For domestic use, it estimates consumption of 135 liters per capita daily for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, sanitation, animals, and gardening. Civic use includes 5 liters daily for road washing, 2-3 liters for sanitation, and 1 liter for fire demands. Industrial and business water needs vary greatly depending on the type and size of facilities. Loss and waste are estimated at 30-40% of total consumption. Climate, cost, infrastructure, habits, and presence of industries all impact total water demand.
The document discusses issues related to drinking water and sanitation in India. It notes that about 70% of the population lacks basic sanitation and 226 million people lack access to safe drinking water. Some of the proposed solutions discussed include seeking new water sources, reducing demand from agriculture/industry, recycling grey water, and implementing low-cost sanitation systems with community involvement. The solutions could help provide access to clean drinking water and sanitation for many but also face challenges like social acceptance and proper treatment of wastewater. Mitigation strategies and continued education efforts are needed.
Water quality is a major issue for rural populations in India. While access to drinking water has improved, the quality is often poor, resulting in health problems. Over 700 million rural Indians get their water from over 1.4 million sources, but arsenic, fluoride, and other contaminants affect many habitations. Providing safe drinking water presents enormous challenges given India's diversity and development gaps. Community involvement is key to maintaining water quality through monitoring, hygiene practices, and simple remedial measures.
This document discusses the challenges of sustainable water quality management in rural India. It notes that rural India, which makes up 70% of the population, often lacks interventions to monitor and ensure water quality that are present in major cities. The groundwater that rural India relies on as its main source of drinking water is often contaminated with problems like fluoride, arsenic, iron and salts. Effective water quality management requires redesigning data management systems, upgrading district-level laboratories, and addressing technical, legal and institutional issues. Decentralizing health monitoring at the village level through capacity building is also needed.
The document discusses factors that affect water quality and cause deterioration. It notes that water quality is influenced by both natural factors like geology and hydrology as well as human interferences. The major threats to water quality are scarcity, pathogenic pollution, oxygen depletion, salinity, and toxicity. The main causes of water quality degradation are point sources of pollution like domestic and industrial wastewater, and non-point sources like agricultural and storm runoff. Untreated sewage is a significant pollutant as India has a large gap between sewage generation and treatment. Other problems discussed are high levels of biochemical oxygen demand, coliform bacteria, heavy metals, and chemicals. Both river and groundwater quality are adversely impacted.
The document discusses various issues related to water scarcity and pollution in India. It provides statistics showing that India has 16% of the world's population but only 4% of its fresh water resources. It also notes that over-extraction of groundwater is depleting water tables, and both surface and groundwater sources are becoming polluted. Several challenges are discussed, including inadequate water infrastructure, lack of integrated management, pollution from industries and agriculture, and climate change impacts. Solutions proposed include improved conservation efforts, water recycling technologies, afforestation, and inter-linking of rivers.
This document presents information about rural water access and management. It discusses human rights to water, global water statistics showing rural populations have less access, and water sources. Facts are given about the MENA region where most countries have low water resources. The document also outlines water conditions in Lebanon, noting water scarcity and pollution issues especially impacting rural areas. Sustainable management of water resources is discussed as important for ensuring adequate, safe water access.
The document discusses water resource management and presents insights from an IBM Watson analytics model. The model examines the impact of precipitation, temperature, and per capita water usage on optimal water conservation techniques. It finds that water treatment plants are often the best solution for areas with extreme temperatures and low precipitation. Underground water harvesting is commonly recommended, as it is an affordable option for countries with medium to high precipitation and temperatures. The model can help countries select efficient techniques by considering their unique climatic conditions.
This document outlines Ethiopia's water resource management policy. It discusses the potential for water scarcity given Ethiopia's water endowment and inefficient allocation systems. The policy promotes integrated and comprehensive management of water resources across sectors. It emphasizes efficient pricing based on willingness to pay, conservation, and equitable access. Constraints to efficient water utilization include preventions on highest uses, low prices, and bureaucracy. The policy aims to address these through pricing reforms, private sector involvement, and improved information systems.
The document discusses global and India's freshwater situation. Globally, freshwater reserves are depleting rapidly due to population growth, inefficient use, and climate change. By 2025, many countries including India, China, and parts of Europe and Africa will face water scarcity. In India, traditional water reserves are under strain from increasing population, urbanization, and economic development. Improved national water management strategies are needed to integrate regional initiatives and ensure long-term sustainable water usage across sectors.
2013 my lect -wwd hotel palash-“international year of water cooperation-bra...SG PHADKE
International year of WaterCooperation-Brain stormingissues today”
The document discusses water issues in India on World Water Day, which is observed annually on March 22nd. It summarizes the status of water and wastewater in India, including pollution issues affecting surface and groundwater sources. Key problems outlined are inadequate infrastructure, population growth, and depletion of resources. Water conflicts, diseases caused by contaminated water sources, and lack of proper sanitation are also addressed. The document advocates for improved management and cooperation to tackle India's water challenges.
Water management is a global issue and it is the prime duty of all the people to save and conserve water so that it can be passed on safely to the future generation. Viewers please watch the ppt and leave your likes and comments.
The document discusses water issues in India. It provides details about Team Go Green which has 5 members and is coordinated by Sandeep Kapalawai. It then discusses that access to drinking water and sanitation in India is still inadequate despite efforts. While coverage has increased from 1% rural sanitation in 1980 to 21% in 2008, many Indians still lack access. Future conflicts may occur due to water scarcity issues as demand rises and availability declines.
This document summarizes the key issues around water supply and sanitation in India. It notes that a team led by Mr. Ajay Kumar Keshari prepared the report. The main problems are identified as lack of access to water and sanitation in both rural and urban areas, poor water quality due to contamination, low cultural prioritization of hygiene, lack of education on sanitation, and poverty exacerbating all other issues. Coverage of water supply and sanitation remains inadequate in both rural and urban regions of India.
This document is a case study examining accessibility to water supply and waste disposal facilities in Oworonshoki slum area of Lagos, Nigeria. It finds that private individuals provide 64% of daily water while public provision is only 36%. The slum area faces serious problems with sanitation and hygiene due to lack of facilities and open defecation. The study evaluates accessibility and usefulness of water and waste services for improved living standards through surveys and analysis of the local population. Key issues identified include water scarcity, overflowing drains, infrequent waste collection contributing to unhygienic conditions and health risks for residents.
This document discusses water quality and management. It defines safe and adequate water supplies according to the WHO. It then discusses issues with water quality in places like Africa, Asia, and Latin America where disinfected water is often contaminated. The document outlines various water quality variables and management recommendations. It emphasizes adopting water demand management approaches like reducing unaccounted water, leakage detection, and public awareness campaigns to more sustainably manage limited water resources.
The document discusses the issues of clean drinking water and sanitation in India. It notes that 36% of the world's population lacks improved sanitation and 768 million people use unsafe drinking water. It outlines causes such as water pollution and lack of awareness. Solutions proposed include installing solar-powered water pumps and raising awareness. Challenges include high costs, changing policies, and lack of technical skills, but mitigation efforts like private sector investment, training, and laws can help address these challenges.
The Norwegian Pension Fund Global states that responsible water management is a focus area in their responsible management strategy, still they invest heavily in companies, such as The Coca-Cola Company and Nestle, which have several documented cases of illegal overuse of water and irresponsible water management.
This document discusses the importance of water and its various uses. It outlines different sources of water including rain, surface water sources like reservoirs and rivers, groundwater sources like wells and springs. It notes the criteria for determining a safe water source is that it must be sufficient in quantity and meet quality standards. The document also briefly discusses water pollution and efforts to control it through laws and policies.
Safe Drinking Water Act How Safe is My Drinking WaterMichael Klein
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. This presentation provides an overview of the SDWA.
This document provides an overview of water quality and safety. It discusses the importance of drinking water, recommended daily water intake amounts, potential water contaminants including bacteria, chemicals, and minerals, and sources of drinking water like tap, well, bottled, and public water systems. It also covers water treatment methods, potential health effects of contaminants, and maintaining water system infrastructure.
The document discusses the importance of drinking water and the disadvantages of drinking other beverages like soda and coffee. It states that these other drinks can cause dehydration by pulling water from the body. Some consequences of not drinking enough water include headaches, dizziness, and dry mouth. The document provides tips for increasing water intake, such as drinking water with meals instead of other drinks. It also lists advantages of drinking water like improved skin health, weight control, and increased energy.
Water borne diseases, prevention and guidelines for safe drinking waternavjotjyoti
Water borne diseases are acquired by drinking contaminated water or contact with contaminated recreational water. They account for 4.1% of global disease burden and 1.8 million deaths annually. Diseases are classified as water-washed, water-scarce, water-based, and vector-borne. Guidelines for safe drinking water include treating water through coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection to remove pathogens and chemicals. Public education on water sources, treatment, and health risks is also important to prevent water borne diseases.
Water quality can be assessed through various physical, chemical, and biological indicators. It depends on factors like geology, ecosystem, and human activities. Standards are set based on intended uses like drinking, industrial, or environmental. Water is sampled and tested using on-site or laboratory methods to monitor these indicators. Maintaining adequate water quality is important for public health and ecosystem protection.
Kofi Annan identified five key areas for improving quality of life, especially in developing countries: water and sanitation, energy, health, agriculture, and biodiversity. Access to safe drinking water is important for health and development but availability is limited, as over 40% of the global population lives with limited or scarce water supplies. While some areas have ample water, it is often polluted. Providing safe drinking water requires both appropriate technologies and community involvement from planning through long-term management.
On March 22nd, from 10.30 – 13.00 (USA-EST); The 2nd High level panel on “Youth Views on VNRs Through a Water Lens’’ will be held virtually. In Observing World Water Day 2024 and acknowledging the critical role of water for a peaceful and prosperous society, the Royal Academy of Science International Trust (RASIT) and Cansu Global are proud to present the findings of their Junior Researchers that have looked at the Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) of UN Member States through a water lens.
World Peace Essay. Persuasive Essay: Persuasive essay about world peaceJodi Hartman
Here are four poems by Anne Sexton that demonstrate how she used poetry as a form of communication and expression during psychotherapy:
1. "Music Swims Back to Me" expresses longing for connection and intimacy through vivid sensory language and metaphor.
2. "Wanting to Die" gives a raw, visceral glimpse into Sexton's suicidal thoughts and mental anguish.
3. "Her Kind" conveys the isolation of depression through the speaker's dark self-image and the last line's defiant assertion of identity.
4. "The Room of My Life" depicts Sexton's state of mind through the metaphor of a cluttered room, symbolizing her chaotic inner world.
Together these poems offer a
Adaptation Futures 2016 covered a wide range of topics, from social science research focused on gender, to challenges with policy implementation, to the latest concepts in green urban design.
Many ASSAR members attended this conference as delegates, presenters and workshop leaders. In this Spotlight our team members recount their experiences of the conference and describe the work they presented there.
Here we present our experience and research outcomes regarding one of the possible approaches to disseminate knowledge. The independent educational project with flexible formula provides many benefits both for participants, and teachers. The advantages incudes, but are not limited to, clearly hearable voice in public debate and/or useful preliminary results from experimental research. We argument here also for significant educational impact of this approach.
This document summarizes challenges to food and water security in the Global South, and the potential role of space technologies. Rapid urbanization and population growth are increasing demands on limited water resources and arable land. Climate change is making weather more unpredictable and damaging crops. Remote sensing from satellites can monitor these issues to inform management and planning. Combined with terrestrial sensors, satellites could help detect pollution and validate hydrological models. Space data could also improve farming practices by providing historical, current and predicted climate information. The document recommends space-based solutions be used with terrestrial technologies and policies to strengthen food and water security in developing nations.
In July 2014, experts from public, private and research sectors met at the Rockefeller Foundation's "Planetary Health" summit to explore ways to better value ecosystems today to ensure their healthy existence tomorrow.
FORUM ON INVESTING IN YOUNG
CHILDREN GLOBALLY OVERVIEW
In January 2014, the Board on Children, Youth, and Families of the
Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the National Research Council (NRC), in
collaboration with the IOM Board on Global Health, launched the Forum
on Investing in Young Children Globally (forum). At this meeting, the
participants agreed to focus on creating and sustaining, over 3 years, an
evidence-driven community of stakeholders that aims to explore existing,
new, and innovative science and research from around the world and
translate this evidence into sound and strategic investments in policies
and practices that will make a difference in the lives of children and their
caregivers.
The document provides an overview of sustainability and education for sustainable development. It discusses the key challenges facing sustainability like climate change and resource depletion. It then outlines various solutions and trends in business, higher education, K-12, communities and other sectors to work towards a more sustainable future. The document concludes by providing resources for learning more about sustainability initiatives and getting involved.
HELP Policy recommendations_Water Risk Reduction webinar22Feb2023_KNNT-1.pdfKnnt Thein
Ecocivilisation Year of Water 2023
It is an attempt to cross-pollinate “the scientific and technological approaches and the humanity, art and cultural approaches”.
Series of webinars are being schedules. Through the lens of cross-pollination!
HELP High-level Expert and Leaders Panelhttps://www.wateranddisaster.org/
High-Level Expert Panel on Water and Disaster (HLEP/UNSGAB)The High-Level Expert Panel on Water and Disaster (HLEP/UNSGAB) was convened at the request of the UN Secretary General’s Advisory Board on water and Sanitation (UNSGAB) in 2007, under the Presidency of H.E. Dr. Han Seung-soo, Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea and Former President of the Korea Water Forum.
The HELP included 21 experts in disaster preparedness and response and international issues, and was co-moderated by the World Water Council, the UN Secretariat for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), the Japan Water Forum and the Korea Water Forum. More … https://www.wateranddisaster.org/who-we-are/
The issue of “water and disasters” must be addressed if we hope to make sustainable development a reality.
The High-level Experts and Leaders Panel on Water and Disasters (HELP) issues principles and flagship initiatives to assist the international community, governments and stakeholders in mobilizing political will and resources, when adopted, principles turn policies.
HELP promotes actions to raise awareness, ensure coordination and collaboration, establish common goals and targets, monitor progress, and take effective measures aimed at addressing the issues of water and disasters.
This presentation is a proof of Action in Cross-pollination among HELP, Ecocivilisation, and wider international Community.
The document summarizes reports from several workshops at a conference on drowning prevention. The workshops addressed topics like open water drowning prevention strategies, developing a world drowning report to track statistics and issues, identifying key research areas, and potential impacts of climate change on drowning risks. Recommendations from the workshops included developing consensus statements, compiling open water hazard guidelines, establishing standardized global drowning data collection, and creating an ILS task force to address climate change adaptation.
The environment has been erroneously perceived as a god’s-given resource to be explored and exploited for production of goods and services necessary for the satisfaction of human needs and comfort. This perception inspired man to engage in breath-taking explorations into the huge vaults of the heavens with ozone layer depletion, green house effect as consequences resulting to global warming, climate change, loss of biodiversity on one hand and pollution, deforestation, flooding, draught, famine, flood, extreme weather events on the other hand, as global catastrophic threats to human kind. These problems have become a major concern of the international community who has called for a new type of education for a better understanding of the complexity of the problems of the environment as well as for effective management of environmental resources. This type of education is referred to as environmental education. This paper explored the library as a medium for the dissemination of knowledge of the environment and its problems. It explored various ways through which knowledge of environmental problems and their prevention is promoted through the instrumentality of the library. It concludes that library as a reservoir of knowledge should be equipped with materials containing information on environmental problems and as well as be made accessible to all humans in every part of the globe.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Estuaries, long recognized for their local importance, form collectively an important global ecosystem, sensitive to both climate change and local pressures. This has been recognized by a 2013 U.S. workshop, which issued a set of recommendations directed at building worldwide capacity and collaborations to address estuaries as a global ecosystem. The workshop recognized that modern observation and modeling technology is poised to play a key role in advancing the scientific understanding of estuaries, and identified the need to map the resulting understanding of individual estuaries into a common global framework. An international partnership has since emerged, driven by the increasingly recognized need to advance estuarine observation, modeling, science and science translation worldwide. Anchoring the partnership is a belief that there are important commonalities across estuaries that, if explored, will prove synergistic and transformation towards understanding and sustainable management of all estuaries. On behalf of this emerging international partnership, we describe here steps that are being taken to develop Our Global Estuary. Integral to these efforts are: (a) the organization of regular international workshops, to build a common vision and global capacity and collaborative networks—the first of these workshops planned for Chennai, India; (b) the creation of a pilot project, Our Virtual Global Estuary, where a common modeling and analysis framework, supported by and supporting local observations, will be progressively put in place for estuaries across the world—with an initial set identified in Brazil, China, Portugal, Spain, and United States, and additional estuaries under consideration; and (b) exploration of synergies with global organizations (such as the Partnership for Ocean Global Observations) and global-scale programs and initiatives (such as Blue Planet), to further contextualize the role of estuaries in the earth’s sustainability.
Human transformation of freshwater ecosystems is rapidly exceeding capacity required to sustain the conditions we need to survive and thrive. Water crises are already impacting people around the globe—from river basins in California and China, to the cities of São Palo and Bangkok. Under current population and growth trends, the 2030 Water Resources Group predicts global water demand will exceed available supply by 40 percent by 2030.
Cap.10 - Governance and Water Security: Analysis of the profile of representa...fcmatosbh
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The document outlines a proposed 8-day unit on water and sanitation challenges. It discusses three major global challenges: lack of prioritization by governments, poor populations paying disproportionately more, and lack of international cooperation. It suggests examining case studies from primary sources on issues in Nicaragua, where access to improved sanitation and water sources remains limited. A sociological perspective could offer insight into key players' agendas and power structures. Students would develop a proposal to address problems identified, following guidelines in Creswell's research methods text. The proposal would undergo review and defense with peers. The unit aims to help students appreciate water and sanitation issues and how to help developing nations.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines fresh water scarcity from the perspectives of Human Development and Family Studies and Organizational Leadership. The paper concludes that in order to conserve fresh water resources, the current water management system needs to be restructured to allow for more reuse and recycling of water to adequately meet public needs. The best way to do this is to develop new water-saving technologies through organizations, while also encouraging personal conservation efforts.
6th international day of women and girls in science assembly “Beyond the Borders: Equality in Science for Society” To ask a Question to Panelists, which will be available from 4-9 February 2021; In celebration of the 75th anniversary of the United Nations, the Girls in Science will present their first Progress Report, showcasing their achievements as constructive agents of change, and how Girls in Science all over the world stand up for equality, the rights for health, education, water, sustainable energy, and climate change, among others.
Here are the key points about climate change and its impacts on urban environments:
- Climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures due to increased greenhouse gas emissions from human activities like burning fossil fuels.
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- To address these challenges, cities are implementing both mitigation strategies to reduce their carbon footprint and adaptation measures to deal with the impacts of climate change that can no longer be avoided.
- Effective solutions require an integrated approach where mitigation and adaptation work together - for example, investing in renewable energy helps mitigate emissions while making the
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4. Safe Drinking Water
The need, the problem, solutions and an action plan
Contents
Foreword 4
Summary 7
Background 8
Ways to save and replenish 9
Making water safe and potable 12
Simple ways to succeed: Some national examples 13
Making wastewater fit for use again 15
Technologies to make safe drinking water 17
Action plan 21
3
5. Foreword
The Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) has earned a reputation as
one of the world’s foremost organizations for the promotion of science in the
developing world. This reputation is based largely on the worldclass research
conducted by its more than 600 members. This reputation is also based on
the Academy’s annual awards, grants, and fellowships, given to young scientists
from the developing world that have become among the most important
sources of scientific capacity building in the South.
While TWAS continues to nurture and expand its roots in the basic
sciences, it has increasingly examined how it might apply the scientific
expertise of its members to the South’s most pressing environmental,
economic development and health problems.
Much of the Academy’s work in this area has been conducted in close
partnership with the Third World Network of Scientific Organizations
(TWNSO) and is best represented by a series of monographs on best practices
that has been published in cooperation with other international organizations,
including the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Special
Unit for Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC), the
United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) Global Environment
Facility (GEF) and the World Meteorological Organizations (WMO). The
initiatives have focused on such issues as the conservation and wise use of
medicinal and indigenous plants, the protection of biodiversity in arid and
semi-arid regions, and the management of water resources in the developing
world.
This report, “Safe drinking water: The need, the problem, solutions
and an action plan,” is both an expansion and narrowing of focus of the
Academy’s larger efforts to put science to work in meeting critical human
needs in the developing world. It is an expansion because the Academy, for
the first time on its own, is moving beyond its traditional focus on capacity
building within the scientific community to applications of science in the larger
society, especially applications to address pressing environmental and public
health issues in the developing world. And it is a narrowing of focus, in the
sense, that this volume, unlike our previous volumes produced in cooperation
with TWNSO and its partners, largely avoids examining matters of policy and
administration. Instead it concentrates on effective science-based strategies
that have improved both water supplies and water quality in the communities,
nations and regions that have adopted them.
Indeed there may be no more critical problem facing the South than
securing adequate supplies of clean drinking water. As the following text makes
clear, it is a problem that demands our immediate attention because, if
4
6. neglected, it could have serious consequences for the health and well-being
of billions of people. In fact, if today’s clean drinking water problems are left
unresolved, all other policy initiatives designed to promote sustainable
development will likely fail because it is virtually impossible to envision future
generations of adequately fed and reasonably healthy people in the South,
particularly the arid South, unless we successfully attend to our current
problems in ensuring adequate supplies of clean water.
As revealed in the report, the good news is that science-based strategies
for attaining adequate supplies of clean drinking water have been put in place
in many parts of the developing world. Such strategies could be readily adopted
by others through concerted efforts designed to promote an exchange of
information among experts and policy officials and sustained programmes to
increase public awareness. This report is intended in large measure to facilitate
such efforts.
Part of the wonder of science will always lie in laying the groundwork
for what lies ahead. And part of the unmistakable value of science will always
lie in showing the rest of the world what can be done to improve the conditions
of all people, especially those who have been marginalized by circumstances
beyond their control.
This volume speaks to the latter concern and does so in a language that
we hope will achieve its ultimate goals: to increase public awareness about
the nature of the problem and, equally important, to describe what can be
done about it –now. This monograph, moreover, will form the basis of a more
comprehensive study that TWAS plans to undertake with other academies
and research organizations in the near future.
I would like to thank Dorairajan Balasubramanian, director of research,
L.V. Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad Eye Research Foundation, Hyderabad,
India, for his efforts in conducting the research and writing the draft
manuscript. I would also like to thank Daniel Schaffer, public information
officer for the Third World Academy of Sciences, Trieste, Italy, for his editorial
help in preparing the final draft for publication. We welcome your comments
and suggestions – both large and small – as the Academy moves ahead in
addressing this and other critical economic, environmental and health issues.
C.N.R. Rao, President
Third World Academy of Sciences
July 2002
5
7. Safe Drinking Water
The need, the problem, solutions and an action plan
Summary
Safe drinking water is the birthright of all humankind – as much a birthright
as clean air. The majority of the world’s population, however, does not have
access to safe drinking water. This is certainly true in most parts of Africa and
Asia. Even in relatively advanced countries such as India, safe drinking water
is not readily available, particularly in rural areas. One reason safe drinking
water is of paramount concern is that 75 percent of all diseases in developing
countries arise from polluted drinking water. Knowledge about how to make
water safe for consumption is rare in most developing countries. We simply
must do a better job of raising public awareness and understanding about the
nature of the problem and the technologies and strategies that are available
to address it.
The following document describes some of the best methods for
purifying water inexpensively. The conclusion is encouraging: Appropriate,
locally based, strategies can be devised to obtain safe drinking water in many
different parts of the developing world. To this end, we hope the document
proves useful.
We also plan to prepare a ‘user friendly’ version of this document in the
form of a poster or a pamphlet. These publications will be publicized through
our network of scientific academies and other organizations in developing
countries. Each developing country could produce suitable material in local
and national languages and develop other programmes to engage and educate
the public. If we spark the interest of all concerned, we may indeed make
progress in solving one of the most critical problems facing humankind.
7
8. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
Background
Safe drinking water is a human birthright – as much a birthright as clean air.
However, much of the world’s population does not have access to safe drinking
water. Of the 6 billion people on earth, more than one billion (one in six) lack
access to safe drinking water. Moreover, about 2.5 billion (more than one in
three) do not have access to adequate sanitation services. Together, these
shortcomings spawn waterborne diseases that kill on average more than 6
million children each year (about 20,000 children a day).
Water covers 70 percent of the globe’s surface, but most is saltwater.
Freshwater covers only 3 percent of the earth’s surface and much of it lies
frozen in the Antarctic and Greenland polar ice. Freshwater that is available
for human consumption comes from rivers, lakes and underground sources
and aquifers. Together these sources account for just 1 percent of all water
on earth.
Six billion people depend on this supply and a significant portion of the
world’s population now face water shortages. Today 31 countries representing
2.8 billion people, including China, India, Kenya, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Peru,
confront chronic water problems.
Within a generation, the world’s population will climb to an estimated
8 billion people. Yet, the amount of water will remain the same. The challenge
is as clear and compelling as pristine water cascading down a mountain stream:
We must find new and equitable ways of saving, using and recycling the water
that we have.
Fig. 1 Water availability
54321
54321
Abundant
54321
54321
54321
54321
Limited
54321
54321 Prone to severe shortage
Scarce
Stressed
8
9. Ways to save and replenish
The problem is not a lack of freshwater;1 indeed plentiful freshwater
resources are available in Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa,
Europe and Central Asia. Water resources, moreover, do not correlate with
the level of economic activity within countries. The Congo has huge freshwater
resources – 291,000 cubic metres per capita. Papua New Guinea has 170,000
cubic metres per capita. The United States, meanwhile, has just 9000 cubic
metres per capita and Kuwait only 75 cubic metres per capita.
Unequal access. Access to safe water varies both among and within nations.
For example, 77 percent of city and town dwellers in the Congo have access
to safe drinking water but only 17 percent of rural inhabitants do. In the Lao
Peoples’ Democratic Republic, the situation is reversed: Virtually all rural
Laotians have access to safe drinking water but only 60 percent of the residents
in the capital city of Vientiane do.
Use of freshwater resources varies from one country to another. In low-
income countries, almost 90 percent of freshwater is used for agriculture, 8
percent for industry and only 5 percent for households. In high-income
countries, industry uses 59 percent, agriculture 30 percent and households
just 11 percent.
Two key factors lie at the centre of global concerns for the future
availability of freshwater, particularly safe drinking water. First, total
withdrawals of freshwater have increased dramatically in recent times. In fact,
withdrawals have doubled over the past 40 years. As a result, groundwater
aquifers are currently being depleted faster than they are being replenished
in parts of India, China, and the United States. Inefficient irrigation practices
that have played such a large role in groundwater depletion not only waste
water but degrade soil quality and reduce farm productivity, placing the
progress of the ‘green revolution’ at risk.
The second key factor of concern has been the relentless rise in
population in various parts of the world, particularly in developing countries.
Global population is expected to increase by 1.5 billion over the next 25 years
(reaching some 8 billion people by 2025). If this population increase comes
to pass, the amount of available freshwater per person per year will drop 40
percent – from more than 8000 cubic metres to about 5000 cubic metres.
Ways to save and replenish
We must meet the world’s growing demand for freshwater. However, we must
do so with limited financial resources and with practices that minimize
1
Freshwater resources refer to total renewable resources such as rivers, groundwater and rainfall.
9
10. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
ecological disruption. Analyses of the situation suggests that our goals can be
reached. Experts have proposed a four-fold path towards a viable solution for
making water both potable and safe:
• Seek new sources.
• Save and redistribute supplies.
• Reduce demand.
• Recycle.
Some of these approaches are global in nature, while others are regional,
national, local and even family-specific. These efforts will ultimately succeed
only when we empower people with the knowledge and means to address
the issue on their own.
Seek new sources. As we seek new sources, it is important to note that
extracting freshwater from ocean saltwater is a time-honoured technique that
can be further advanced through the development of new, energy-efficient
methods of desalinization based on reverse osmosis. Earlier methods of
heating, evaporating, condensing and then collecting the resulting freshwater
proved too expensive for widespread use.
Reverse osmosis, however, represents a much cheaper, more energy-
efficient, alternative. In reverse osmosis, a thin, semi-permeable membrane
is placed between a container of saltwater and a container of freshwater. The
saltwater is subject to high pressure, pushing the water molecules across the
membrane into the freshwater container. The material comprising the
membrane allows water to pass while leaving the salt and impurities behind.
Development of sturdy, chemical-resistant membranes – made of thin,
composite polyamide films that can last for 10 years – has made reverse
osmosis an increasingly attractive and cost-effective technology for large-scale
extraction of freshwater from the sea. Today less than 1 percent of the world’s
drinking water comes from the sea, but with advances in reverse osmosis,
the percentage is likely to grow.
Redistribute. The second pathway for making water both potable and safe
involves saving and redistributing water supplies in ways that enable supplies
to reach those who need it in a waste-free and inexpensive manner. This
strategy seeks to save existing sources, not to develop new ones. The simple
act of plugging leaks from tanks, pipelines and taps can save large quantities
of water. Peter Gleick, a water expert who is president of the Pacific Institute
for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security, in the United States,
estimates that water lost from Mexico City’s leaky supply system, which serves
17 million people, would be enough to meet the needs of 3 million people. In
10
11. Ways to save and replenish
many countries, more than 30 percent of the domestic water supply is lost to
porous pipes, faulty equipment, and poorly maintained distribution systems.
Periodic repair and upgrade of these systems, combined with modest
modifications in domestic water facilities (for example, installing reduced-
volume flush toilets), could make substantial amounts of water, which are
currently wasted, available for consumption.
Many communities worldwide have harvested rainwater for centuries.
However, this practice has waned in recent years for a variety of reasons,
most notably the crowding of people into tenements, apartment blocks and
group housing as part of the response to incessant population growth. Given
current and looming shortages in water supplies, time-tested methods of water
harvesting should be revived and encouraged. Many nations have pursued
this path with great success. Several water harvesting case studies, detailed
below, highlight one of the most eco-friendly and energy-efficient methods
for meeting the water needs of large populations.
Reduce demand. The third path for ensuring adequate supplies of safe
drinking water focuses on reducing demand. In developing countries,
agricultural practices place the highest demand on water, accounting for nearly
90 percent of all water consumption. In developed countries, industry, which
accounts for about 60 percent of all consumption, is the largest user. In both
the North and South, domestic needs represent less than 15 percent of total
water withdrawals. As these percentages show, reductions in demand for
water must come from the agricultural and industrial sectors. The good news
is that newer and more water-efficient processes for both of these sectors
have been developed over the past 50 years. For example, the amount of
water used in the production of one ton of steel has declined sharply from 80
tons in the 1950s to six tons today. Replacing steel with aluminium, other
alloys and plastics (for instance, in the automobile industry) has reduced
industry’s need for water even more.
Traditional agriculture worldwide, particularly for the cultivation of rice
and wheat, has been characterized by water-guzzling practices. For many farm
commodities, minor improvements in agricultural efficiency could substantially
reduce the demand for water without compromising the quality or size of the
yield. Innovative water-saving methods (discussed below), which have been
adopted in many countries, could serve as models for others to follow.
Recycle. The fourth path to a more secure water future lies in recycling. The
dictum here is ‘waste not, want not.’ Terrace farming, practiced in many hillside
communities throughout the world, may be the simplest example of effective
water recycling and multiple use. In terraced farming, water flowing from the
11
12. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
higher terrain is not drained but is used to irrigate plants in the lower terrain.
Even wastewater or sewerage can be – and has been – processed and recycled
for use.
The reed-bed system (fig. 2), used in many countries, represents an
eco-friendly way of treating polluted wastewater for reuse. Such diverse
countries as Israel, Namibia, India, and Singapore practice recycling. Even
when circumstances make it difficult to recycle wastewater, ‘grey’ water can
be used to recharge groundwater. Such practices help curb salinity levels,
raise the water table in aquifers, and improve the ecological health of wetlands
or sanctuaries.
Fig. 2 Reed-bed recycling system
Inlet from
sedimentation
tank
Roots of acclimated plants
Outlet in proprietary filling media
Making water safe and potable
How should we apply the technologies and strategies described above to
make drinking safer and more potable around the world?
Safe drinking water must be among the highest priorities for every nation
on earth. Today contaminated water kills more people than cancer, AIDS,
wars or accidents. It is vitally important that the water which humans drink
be free of disease-causing germs and toxic chemicals that pose a threat to
public health.
Moreover, given that more than 80 percent of the world’s population
lives in developing countries, technologies for making drinking water safe
12
13. Simple ways to succeed: Some national examples
must be accessible, affordable, environmentally sound, and tailored to a
nation’s cultural norms.
Technological options fall into two broad categories – those used by
municipal authorities at centralized points from where water is then
distributed, and those that can be practiced in individual homes.
Chlorination is the most common and effective method for purifying
water. Even under poor sanitary and hygienic conditions, in which people
collect whatever water that is available from community tanks, wells, pumps
and taps for use in their homes, if water is chlorinated, a dramatic decline in
the incidence of water-borne diseases follows.
The island-cluster nation of Maldives, in the Arabian Sea/Indian Ocean,
has developed an effective and inexpensive method for producing safe drinking
water that can be done at home. Called the solar water disinfection technique
(or SODIS), sunlight and plastic containers are used to kill pathogens
contaminating domestic water. More than a dozen solar water disinfection
techniques have been perfected and put into practice. A family, village or
community may choose the technique it finds most suitable to its
circumstances.
Simple ways to succeed: Some national examples
Seeking new sources of water often requires a great deal of effort and large
sums of money. As a result, such efforts must take place at the national or
transnational level. However, effective methods at the family and community
level can bring a rich supply of substantially clean water with little effort and
at a reasonable cost. Many countries have devised successful practices based
on this strategy. The most common method is water-harvesting, which involves
capturing rainwater and then using it to recharge groundwater sources and
refill collection ponds.
Nepal: This small Himalayan nation has always had a water problem. Its
population lives in far-flung isolated communities often on hillsides of varying
altitudes where rainfall occurs only 3 months a year. Pipeline water supplies
are neither easy to construct nor maintain. The Nepalese have developed
innovative microlevel methods to capture and harvest rainwater on rooftops,
soak pits and village ponds. Called Baresiko Pani Thapne, this community-
based rainwater harvesting scheme has eased water-shortage problems in
several districts in an economically efficient manner that also empowers
people by encouraging them to participate in the process.
13
14. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
Sri Lanka: This pearl on the Indian ocean has a long-standing tradition of
harvesting rainwater using palm leaves, trees trunks and rocks. Gutters, made
of tin sheets, split bamboo, banana stems or arecanut sheaths, channel water
onto rooftops where it is captured and stored. Studies suggest that households
in the Anuradhapura District collect rainwater on rooftops not only because
it is economical but because of the rainwater’s incomparable quality.
Kenya: This lush equatorial country of great geographical contrasts has a
national rainwater association. In Laikipia, the association first harvested rain
in 200-litre drums but eventually turned to megalitre drums with capacities
ranging from 50 to 100 cubic metres. Such large storage capacities proved
sufficient for meeting human and livestock needs as well as the needs of
small-scale vegetable farms. Coupled with the runoff created by terraced
agriculture, the effort has helped to increase the efficiency of water harvesting.
These advances, which have taken place within the past 10 years, have
significantly raised agricultural productivity and living standards.
Ghana: The Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), established
in 1965, works with nongovernmental organizations, individuals and
communities to provide safe, potable water by effectively tapping groundwater
and surface water sources. Methods are similar to those used in Kenya. The
GWSC-sponsored National Water Supply Programme provides water to about
60 percent of the 56,000 rural communities under its jurisdiction.
Indonesia: Dean Desa, a nongovernmental organization in this archipelago
nation, encourages public participation in the development and wise utilization
of water. Under a unique system of finance, affordable rainwater storage
cisterns can be built even in the poorest communities. The system works like
this: A family is given two female goats. When these goats bear four young
goats (which is often the case), two of the goats are returned to the owner
and two are given to the borrower. The borrower then rears the goats and
uses them as payment for water tanks. The Philippines have adopted the
same financial practice using hogs instead of goats as their medium of
exchange.
Singapore: This tiny nation pursues the world’s most comprehensive and
multi-faceted strategy for capturing rainwater for human use. The effort, which
is well-planned, easy-to-execute and cost-effective, could help solve water-
shortage problems faced by many other cities. Each high-rise building is
required to have a rooftop collection system. Water that is collected is sent to
two tanks, one of which is used solely for toilet flushing. Mosquito infestation
14
15. Making wastewater fit for use again
is controlled by fine mesh screens covering the tanks and dousing the stored
water with a paraffin oil layer. In addition to apartment houses and high-
rises, all educational institutions are required to collect, filter and chlorinate
roof top rainwater. The airport has been turned into another huge catchments
area. Runoff from rooftops, runways and hangars at Changi Airport provides
80,000 cubic metres of water. Computer analyses indicate resource savings
of more than 14 percent. Rainwater, moreover, costs nearly 25 percent less
than potable water to collect and distribute.
India: The sprawling desert province of India Rajasthan offers one of the
most successful efforts in harvesting and using water to meet community
farming and family needs. We highlight it for two reasons. First, many areas in
Central and West Asia have remarkably similar geo-climatic conditions to
those in Saharan Africa, which makes the experience in Rajasthan both relevant
and replicable. Second, the experience showcases an example in which the
‘technical solution of an urban engineer’ – characterized by digging deeper
borewells and using hand pumps – has been replaced by the ‘commonsense’
and ‘rural wisdom’ of local participants. Nongovernmental agencies recruited
people from some 150 remote rural schools and 50 community centres located
in dry or brackish water areas. After considerable interaction with and input
from the villagers, more than 200 underground tanks were constructed during
the ensuing decade using local labourers and materials. The initiative, which
employed 6,000 people, provided an additional 12 million litres of collected
rainwater upon its completion. Maintenance problems, which plagued the
piped-water and hand-pump system, are now few in number. These communal
tanks and wells, moreover, serve as a meeting place for rural women who
come there not only for water but for news, gossip and a guilt-free respite
from their men and families. In eastern Rajasthan, a rain-fed land, a
nongovernmental organization, Tarun Bharat Sangh, has helped local people
build 4,500 check-dams and water-harvest facilities in 850 villages using local
money and expertise. This effort has raised well levels 2 to 3 metres and
turned seasonal rivulets and tributaries into perennial sources of water for
some 100,000 people. In 2000, project leader Rajendra Singh, won the Ramon
Magsaysay Award for his efforts.
Making wastewater fit for use again
The examples cited above describe effective methods for harvesting water
and improving aquifer levels. Such efforts, in turn, make it possible to recharge
15
16. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
groundwater aquifers. Another source of water that has the potential to be
recycled and made fit for consumption is wastewater. If left unrecycled,
wastewater returns to earth either directly or as a result of evaporation. Under
such circumstances, pollutants – if not recovered, controlled or treated –
remain a source of contamination, usually near the location where the water
is discharged. Consequently, recycling wastewater involves the removal and,
if necessary, recovery of pollutants. Two pilot projects in Sri Lanka and Chile
are worthy of discussion.
Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka extracts raw rubber from its rubber plantations and
then processes it for use in a variety of value-added products. The nation also
has vibrant coconut and textile processing sectors. These economic
endeavours generate considerable wastewater effluents that can be treated
and used again. To this end, the Rubber Research Institute built a pilot plant
capable of treating 30 cubic metres (30 million litres) of effluent water each
day. The system consists of (1) a ‘matter trap’ with five compartments that
lengthens the pathway through which the water must pass; (2) an anaerobic
digestion chamber with five compartments that holds and handles two days’
worth of effluent in a vented rectangular tank. There, colonized anaerobic
bacteria, which are found in the rubberized coconut fibres that fill the tank,
convert dissolved organic pollutants into gas (methane, hydrogen sulfide and
carbon-dioxide) – some 40 cubic metres of gas per 2 tons of rubber per day;
(3) the outflow then returns to the aerobic tank where the biodegradable
pollutants are digested in the presence of bubbled air; (4) the aerobically
treated effluent is fed into a circular conical floored clarifier enabling the
solids to settle into a sludge at the bottom. The effluent, meanwhile, flows
from the clarifier’s water surface into (5) a sand-bed filter consisting of sand
at the top and ‘metal’ gravel and stones of increasing size below. The filtered
liquid is subsequently discharged for reuse. Three such plants have been in
operation since 1995 and the process has now been licensed to a commercial
firm that plans to market it.
Chile: The operational scales and methodologies used in Chile differ from
those in Sri Lanka. The two-step Chilean technique, based on an aerobic
process, is more suitable for the treatment of sewerage generated at domestic
rather than industrial sites. The first step relies on a biofilter through which
the wastewater is drained. This filter consists of several layers with large stones
on the bottom, smaller stones and gravel above, followed by a layer of sawdust
– all of which is topped by 20 to 30 centimetres of humus containing a large
number of microorganisms and 5,000-10,000 earthworms per square metre.
The wastewater passing through the biofilter becomes clear as its original
16
17. Technologies to make safe drinking water
organic content is drastically reduced. Because the process is aerobic, the
larger the area and greater the aeration, the more effective it is. In the second
stage, water is processed through a shallow chamber where it is irradiated
with ultraviolet (UV) radiation from a UV-lamp delivering 30 watts per square
meter per second. Such UV intensity kills all the bacteria in the water within
one minute. Water exiting the UV chamber is not only sterile but of excellent
quality. The bio-reactor can handle up to 1,000 litres a day per square metre.
The system, moreover, is easy to maintain and does not consume a great
deal of electricity. Because residues do not accumulate, the only regular
maintenance consists of adding sawdust to the biofilter every few months.
Some humus should also be removed periodically to maintain an active and
growing biosystem. The system has been patented and commercially installed
in several different sites in Chile – for example, in schools with several hundred
students, settlements with 500 to 1,000 peoples, and even in a region with
12,000 people.
Private industry initiatives: In addition to national initiatives, private industry
has financed and implemented several comprehensive programmes to
improve the water quality of lakes, recycle water, and make potable water
available to villages (for example, Unilever’s PAGER programme Morocco).
The ‘Plebys’ initiative in the United States has developed a simple two-stage
filter (similar to the Chilean type) for use at home. Such programmes have
encouraged community participation, sometimes with small financial
incentives (for example, a few cents a day to pay for the materials and water
supply). Nongovernmental organizations have turned to local talent, resources
and institutional know-how to make safe drinking water available on consistent
basis.
Technologies to make safe drinking water
Unless water is made safe for drinking, the war against water-borne diseases
will be lost. Several convenient and easy-to-use methods have been devised.
Some, which rely on high-technology, are more suitable for use at city/central
point treatment facilities. Others, based on more modest technologies, can
be used at the settlement cluster level – in schools, community centres,
apartment buildings and villages. Then there are ‘traditional’ and/or
‘appropriate’ technological options that can be used in individual homes or
during emergencies. The quality of water obtained by each of these techniques
(high-, medium- or traditional- and appropriate-technology) should be
17
18. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
excellent – free from pathogens and toxins and as fit for drinking as water
sold commercially.
High-technology/high volume methods: Time-honoured methods of treating
high volumes of water to meet the demand of urban populations involve
sedimentation and filtration followed by the killing of pathogens through
chlorination or sometimes ozone bubbling. While such processes remain
logistically feasible and even acceptable for relatively low-volume demand
(for example, in schools, hospitals and villages), these methods contend with
‘flow through’ or ‘steady-state’ volumes of water and not static captive pools
of water collected in siphoned tanks. To addresses these challenges, several
methods have been successfully devised and developed. A few are highlighted
below.
• UV-protected granulated activated charcoal bed: This innovative
method has been developed at the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) Johnson Space Center. Charcoal is an effective water-
purification material that can adhere (adsorb on its surface) diverse classes
of inorganic, organic or biological contaminants. The larger the surface area
of the charcoal, the more effective it is. As a result, experts have opted to use
powdered or granulated charcoal instead of charcoal lumps. The process
extends the active life of the charcoal through the use of ultraviolet light that
inhibits the growth of microbes on the carbon surface while disinfecting and
purifying the water passing through the tubing. Unlike chlorinated disinfectants,
UV light does not leave residual matter, which helps to prolong the life of the
active charcoal bed.2
• Titanium dioxide and UV light as the purifier: More than 20 years
ago, Japanese scientists illustrated that anatase, a naturally occurring mineral
that is a form of titanium dioxide or TiO2, is an efficient disinfectant when
subject to ultraviolet radiation. Under such conditions, TiO2 produces reactive
oxygen and free radicals that kill bacteria, fungi and viruses in a brief time.
TiO2, a mineral found in abundance in nature in its purest raw form (in Africa,
Australia, Sweden and Canada), has been used as a whitener in paints, tooth-
paste, cosmetics and paper. The addition of TiO2 and the shining ultraviolet
rays (similar to the Chilean experience cited above) purifies the water though
‘photocatalysis’ (photo refers to the UV light; catalysis refers to the fact that
TiO2 aids the purification process without being used up). A decade ago, the
first International Conference on TiO2 Photocatalytic Purification and
Treatment of Water and Air, highlighting the advantages of using TiO2 and
UV-light to purify, took place in Canada. Since that conference, several
improvements have made the TiO2 photocatalysis method even simpler and
more effective.
2
For additional information, see www.usrttc.org/PDF/TBQ298.pdf
18
19. Technologies to make safe drinking water
• TiO2 and sunlight to purify water: While TiO2 is an inexpensive and
non-toxic substance used to purify water, it does have some disadvantages.
First, because it is suspended as a powder in water, it must subsequently be
filtered. Second, TiO2 uses ultraviolet light and most of the sun’s light that
falls on earth is above this range. To solve these drawbacks, a research team
in Germany sought to immobilize the catalyst as coatings on glass using a
process (sol-gel transformation) that produces solids from liquid solutions.
Such coatings could be used as effectively and for longer periods without
filtering. The researchers improved the light absorption character of TiO2 by
adding small quantities of iron oxide (Fe2O3) into the TiO2 grid. This allowed
the use of direct sunlight instead of UV-light. In experimental tests, the
composite TiO2 (Fe2O3 catalyst coated on glass), together with the use of
sunlight, proved successful, opening the possibility of much broader use.3
• Electrochemical activation (ECA): In this method, electrical energy
instead of light is used for purification. The catalyst is not TiO2 alone, but a
mixture of oxides of various metals (such as Ru, Ir, Pt and Ti) that are coated
on the surface of electrodes. The electrodes are placed on either side of a
vessel that is divided into two sections by a vertical diaphragm (ceramic,
coated with other oxides) which separates the water contained in the two
chambers. Rain water passes through one of these anode chambers to a
second vertical chamber that contains replacement-free and regeneration-
free catalyst granules. The latter oxidizes all organic and biological substances
and decontaminates the water. The outflow is then fed into the other chamber
of the electrolytic column, while a direct current electrical energy, generated
by car battery, passes through. The electrochemical activation (double layer
intensification) is intense enough to purify even the most obdurate pollutant.
A business group from Estonia has commercialized the purifier as a low cost,
easy-to-maintain purification device that provides drinking water which meets
World Health Organization (WHO). The system yields 120 litres per hour,
consumes small amounts of energy and the cartridge does not have to be
replaced for years.4
• Portable reverse osmosis water purifiers: Commercial companies now
make small reverse osmosis devices for home use that can regularly produce
7 litres per hour of pure water from any type of water. The devices, which can
be mounted on a wall, consume little electricity, use membranes that do not
need replacement for 2 to 3 years, and rely on filters that must be replaced
just once a year. Home units currently cost US$200. Larger units, designed
to serve an apartment building with throughput rates of 100 litres per hour,
cost US$4000. These devices may prove attractive for middle- and upper-
income homes or communities where water is hard or brackish.
3
For additional information, contact hopp@isc.fgh.de
4
For additional information, see www.aquastel.com/summary.html
19
20. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
• Efficient adsorbent filters: Filtering water removes suspended
particulate matter. The finer the filter, the more it can decontaminate and
purify. Use of a membrane allows selective passage of water while preventing
unwanted dissolved material from passing through. Water purification requires
a quick-flow, corrosion-resistant, high-stability (in terms of pressure,
temperature and contaminants) bactericidal and economical membrane filters.
Recent research in Russia on such filters has been promising. Laboratory
materials not have only met technical requirements but have been inexpensive
to produce, suggesting that it could suitable for domestic community and
industrial uses.5
Appropriate technologies for home use: In isolated rural communities in
developing countries and during emergencies, there should be access to rapid
but reliable methods of purification that supply small volumes of water (10 to
1,000 litres). The systems should rely as much as possible on local labour
and material. Use of alum, permanganate and chlorine tablets for quick
purification is easy and practicable at the domestic level.
Fig. 3 Mud-pot filtering system A well-known and safe method practised at
homes in South Asia involves a mud-pot
filtering system (fig. 3). The top pot contains
pre-washed gravel and sand through which
raw water passes. The water exits through a
hole in the bottom of the pot into a second
pot kept below. The mouth of the second
pot is covered with a cloth filter while a
crushed coal bed lies on a pad below,
removing many toxins and germs from the
water. Clean water exits through a hole in
the bottom of the second pot and then is
collected below in a third earthenware pot.
The collection rate is slow, but it can be done
overnight at home so that clean, cool
drinking water is available throughout the
day. This method needs no electric power,
filters or chemicals. As a result, maintenance costs are minimal, requiring
only funds for the charcoal, gravel and sand that must be replaced every few
days.
The solar disinfection method (or SODIS) is an easy, small-scale and cost-
effective technique for providing safe water at homes or in small communi-
5
For additional information, contact head@ism.ac.ru
20
21. Action plan
ties. Water is filtered to Fig. 4 Solar disinfection method
remove the solids and
particulate matter. The
water is then moved
into a throw-away, col-
ourless and transparent
bottle where it is kept in
the sun for irradiation.
To maximize the effect-
iveness of the process,
the bottle should lie on
the ground and its sur- Removal of solids
Inactivation of microorganisms
by UV radiation and thermal
face should be black- by sedimentation
treatment
ened to better absorb
the light and generate
heat (fig. 4).
The combination of solar radiation and heat inactivates pathogens. The
treated water can now be stored in a cool mud pot for drinking. This method
has been successfully tested in Bolivia, Burkina Faso, China, Colombia,
Indonesia, Thailand and Togo.6 In places where electric supply is available,
filter cartridges (with or without irradiation) can be used either on stored or
flow-through water supplies.
Action plan
Prospects for providing adequate access to safe drinking water to homes and
communities on a global scale may not be grim as we think. Ongoing efforts
by communities, townships, state, provincial and national governments have
made safe water a realizable goal. This is the theme of the Africa 2000 Initiative
for Water Supply and Sanitation, launched by World Health Organization
(WHO), in 1993. The effort led to the Brazzaville Declaration 1996, which
established relevant principles and recommendations for enabling the people
of Africa to have access to safe water supplies and sanitary waste disposal
facilities.
Individuals and communities. Efforts need not be left solely to governmental
and nongovernmental agencies. Individuals, families and communities also
have a vital role to play. Such responsibilities include:
• Water harvesting at home, schools and community buildings.
6
For further details, contact wegelin@eawag.ch
21
22. Safe Drinking Water: The need, the problem, solutions, and an action plan
• Water recycling at the microlevel, including at homes, buildings and
communities.
• Saving water by ensuring taps and pipes are not leaky and by using
optimum amounts of water for washing and toilet flushing.
• Making sure that the water is purified by methods suited to family
conditions and needs.
• Maintaining proper levels of sanitation at home.
Governments. Participants at the Second Regional Meeting on the Africa
2000 Initiative, held in Harare, Zimbabwe, agreed to a framework for action
and series of recommendations. While the efforts focused on Africa, the
recommendations and action plan could prove relevant for much of the world.
Based on these and other deliberations, and on the material discussed above,
we suggest the following action plan whose objectives are to (1) assist
countries in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of policies and
action plans designed to ensure safe water supply, and (2) to promote
cooperation among governments, international agencies, nongovernmental
organizations, and the private sector to advance the interrelated goals of safe
water and adequate sanitation. Major areas of focus include community
empowerment and management, private-sector involvement in water supply
and sanitation, country-level collaboration and cooperation, and sanitation
and hygiene education.
The action plan should include:
• Encouragement of political commitment through effective policy
formulation, support for the implementation of plans, and improved
budgetary allocations.
• Promotion of intersectoral coordination and cooperation to forge a
policy consensus for the promotion of safe water drinking.
• Support of local efforts and community-based strategies for
addressing the issue.
• Facilitation of access to appropriate technologies.
• Development of legal and regulatory frameworks for private industry
and nongovernmental participation.
• Devising of mechanisms that enable governmental agencies to pursue
sanitation as a national priority, including development of sanitation
policies and guidelines, organization of advocacy campaigns focusing
on policy makers, and the integration of hygiene education into all
water supply and sanitation projects.
• Involvement of women in water-supply activities by identifying
women’s groups and movements at all levels and incorporating their
22
23. Action plan
views into community-level water-harvesting, recycling, saving and
purifying, and supply initiatives.
Private industry and nongovernmental organizations. Many countries –
for example, India, Indonesia, Kenya, and Nepal – have active non-
governmental organizations that involve communities in the funding and
implementation of programmes designed to transform arid and semiarid
terrains into productive agricultural regions receiving sufficient amounts of
water. Such efforts should be expanded by:
• Exchanging information among and between industry and
nongovernmental organizations on relevant and novel methods and
strategies.
• Focusing on sociological factors that may have an impact on the
most suitable technologies and programmes for a given region/
community.
• Ensuring equity in both services and benefits.
• Involving communities in all aspects of water harvesting, recycling,
storage, purification and supply.
• Coordinating efforts among governmental and intergovernmental
sectors for the purposes of achieving harmonious processes and
results.
The proverbs “waste not, want not,” “little drops of water make the mighty
ocean,” and “what is saved is what is earned” represent simple truths. Water
is plentiful. What is needed is to ensure that it is not wasted but treated,
purified and made available in a fair and safe manner. The task is doable,
thanks to the earth’s hydrological cycle. The earth does not let a drop of
water escape but wraps it tightly within and around itself. We who live on
earth can – and should – do so too.
23