This is an assignment for my University of Bath MA in International Education, based on the tensions in transition from MYP to DP. It revolved around the different schools of through about learning and, most importantly, inquiry. It focuses on the different approaches to inquiry characterised by Dewey and Vygotsky, before moving onto a modern look at evidence-based practices.
Defining Inquiry for the PreK-12 continuum. Inquiry as a 'theory of everything' of good education, built on a solid foundation of well-taught knowledge, skills and concepts.
MA International Education University of Bath assignment (Education in and International Context).
In this assignment I have tried to propose an original idea for helping schools define and measure the degree to which they demonstrate the values of international education.
Assessment Assignment: Bath MA International EducationStephen Taylor
This is an assignment I completed for the Assessment unit of the University of Bath's MA in International Education programme.
It is shared here to allow me to embed it onto my professional reflective blog at http://ibiologystephen.wordpress.com
Downloads have been disabled.
How International Is Our School? MA DissertationStephen Taylor
Title: A pilot-test of a visualization and set of evaluation rubrics for factors affecting the promotion of international-mindedness and global engagement (IMaGE) of a school.
Constructivist Learning in University Undergraduate Programmes. Has Constructivism been Fully Embraced?
Is there Clear Evidence that Constructivist Principles have been
Applied to all Aspects of Contemporary University Undergraduate Study?
This conceptual paper provides an overview of constructivist education and the development and
use of constructivist principles in contemporary higher education, outlining constructivism and
some specific facets of student-centered learning. Drawing from first-hand experience and using two
examples of current university assessment practice, reflective learning, and learning outcomes, the
author argues that, despite claims constructivist pedagogical approaches have become normative
practice when it comes to assessment processes, constructivism has not been fully embraced. The question ‘is there clear evidence that constructivist principles have been applied to all aspects of university undergraduate study?’ is considered. This is important and significant and should be of concern to all educators who espouse constructivist principles in higher education.
Defining Inquiry for the PreK-12 continuum. Inquiry as a 'theory of everything' of good education, built on a solid foundation of well-taught knowledge, skills and concepts.
MA International Education University of Bath assignment (Education in and International Context).
In this assignment I have tried to propose an original idea for helping schools define and measure the degree to which they demonstrate the values of international education.
Assessment Assignment: Bath MA International EducationStephen Taylor
This is an assignment I completed for the Assessment unit of the University of Bath's MA in International Education programme.
It is shared here to allow me to embed it onto my professional reflective blog at http://ibiologystephen.wordpress.com
Downloads have been disabled.
How International Is Our School? MA DissertationStephen Taylor
Title: A pilot-test of a visualization and set of evaluation rubrics for factors affecting the promotion of international-mindedness and global engagement (IMaGE) of a school.
Constructivist Learning in University Undergraduate Programmes. Has Constructivism been Fully Embraced?
Is there Clear Evidence that Constructivist Principles have been
Applied to all Aspects of Contemporary University Undergraduate Study?
This conceptual paper provides an overview of constructivist education and the development and
use of constructivist principles in contemporary higher education, outlining constructivism and
some specific facets of student-centered learning. Drawing from first-hand experience and using two
examples of current university assessment practice, reflective learning, and learning outcomes, the
author argues that, despite claims constructivist pedagogical approaches have become normative
practice when it comes to assessment processes, constructivism has not been fully embraced. The question ‘is there clear evidence that constructivist principles have been applied to all aspects of university undergraduate study?’ is considered. This is important and significant and should be of concern to all educators who espouse constructivist principles in higher education.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Can We Actually Assess Learner Autonomy? The Problematic Nature of Assessing Student Autonomy.
This paper explores, from a theoretical basis, the difficulty in defining and assessing learner
autonomy in higher education. Although the development of learner autonomy as a key aim of higher education, it is a vague and ill-defined term. As such, the assessment of learner autonomy within university programs of study is highly problematic. The author argues that the authentic assessment of genuine learner autonomy may not be possible within formal credit-bearing programs of higher education. The aim of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion so that university teaching staff may reflect and consider whether they can assess autonomy in the programs they are responsible for.
The Role of Interest and Enjoyment in Determining Students’ Approach to Learning.
This paper provides information about findings from a recent research project that provides a new insight into how students’ approaches to learning may be impacted by their level of interest in and enjoyment of the topic being studied. The data from this research suggests that for contemporary students, interest and enjoyment play an important role in determining their approach to learning. As such there are implications for all educators who may wish to encourage their students to use a deep approach to learning.
Problems With Assessing Student Autonomy in Higher Education, an Alternative Perspective and a Role For Mentoring.
https://www.edupij.com/files/1/articles/article_123/EDUPIJ_123_article_5a91aa7fe0490.pdf
Learning outcomes a good idea yet with problems and lost opportunitiesThe University of Hull
Learning outcomes are used throughout assessment processes in higher education. In many countries their use is mandatory, with a frequent assumption that they bring many positive benefits to educational processes. Yet, there are tensions associated with them and their current mode of use has far less flexibility than they should provide. This paper considers from a conceptual basis some of the tensions associated with the use of prescribed pre-articulated learning outcomes and the question of whether learning outcomes, as currently operationalized, provide the benefits they were meant to deliver. This is of significance to educators throughout higher
education.
E-learning: Is This Teaching at Students or Teaching With Students. Robert Jo...eraser Juan José Calderón
E-learning: Is This Teaching at Students or Teaching With Students?. Robert John Muirhead, BN, RGN, RSCN
The development of e-learning as a teaching
strategy in higher education has implications
relating to student learning, the role of the
teacher, and the institution of higher education.
This paper debates the andragogical and
pedagogical theories that support the development
of e-learning to date. Leading to a discussion on
how the process of e-learning may be contributing
to the “stamp-me-smart” culture and restricting
the development of critical thinking within
student nurses. Concluding that e-learning has a
top-down institution-led development that is
contrary to the student-led development
espoused by universities.
Search terms: Nurse, education, e-learning,
androgogy, pedagogy
The uk's key information set was it really needed and what was its real purposeThe University of Hull
An Unnecessary KIS? The UK’s Key Information Set, was it Really needed and What was its Real Purpose?
This paper provides a critical analysis of the United Kingdom’s higher education Key Information
Set (KIS), which was implemented following the 2011 UK White Paper ‘Students at the Heart of the System’. It argues that one of the central tenets of the KIS – providing information that
students within a free market can make an informed choice and, through this process of consumer choice improve the quality of teaching, is untenable because a central component of the KIS, the National Student Survey (NSS), is unreliable when used for comparing university courses. Further,it argues that the KIS reified a neoliberal perspective about the worth and value of higher education qualification, positioning it as a commodity of value only to the paying individual rather than being
something of value to society as a whole. It will be of particular interest to academics and policy
makers from outside of the United Kingdom, where governmental and regulatory agencies may be implementing similar policies
(How) Do Students Use Learning Outcomes? Results from a Small-Scale Project.
Pre-specified, prescribed or intended Learning Outcomes have been in use throughout
higher education programs for over two decades. There is an assumption amongst quality assurance bodies and university program approval and review processes that students engage with them. Yet, learning outcomes may constrain learning, they may not always be understood by learners and their relevance to learning has been questioned. There is anecdotal evidence from lecturers that some students do not understand them and do not use or refer to them. This paper reports on a small-scale
research project investigating how university student’s use prescribed learning outcomes in their everyday learning and when producing assessed work. No clear differences were found between higher and lower achieving students, yet there were differences between first- and third-year students. Surprisingly, some were able to achieve highly without referring to the outcomes against which they were assessed.
Competence and competency in higher education. competencey based educationThe University of Hull
Competence and competency in higher education, simple terms yet with complex meanings: Theoretical and practical issues for university teachers and assessors implementing Competency-Based Education (CBE).
Background/purpose – British, European and American universities are increasingly adopting competency-based learning, yet, there are different and conflicting definitions of competence, competency, and competency-based learning. Consequently, multiple interpretations and understandings are held by educators in respect of what these terms mean, when applied to their own teaching and assessment practices. Therefore, unless informed and considered discussion has taken place amongst staff about their individual understandings and interpretations, any development of new, competency-based assessment processes and procedures, is necessarily problematic. The main purpose of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion, so that teaching staff can arrive at a common understanding and interpretation of what competency-based education is, so that they may develop appropriate, authentic and equitable assessment processes.
Mobilising learning as actor: Actor network theory and the BKOErnst Thoutenhoofd
English presentation by Ernst D. Thoutenhoofd about the Dutch course in Higher Education teaching (BKO) to the Sectie Leerproblemen, Orthopedagogiek & Klinische Onderwijskunde, Groningen University, Netherlands, 11 April 2011.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Can We Actually Assess Learner Autonomy? The Problematic Nature of Assessing Student Autonomy.
This paper explores, from a theoretical basis, the difficulty in defining and assessing learner
autonomy in higher education. Although the development of learner autonomy as a key aim of higher education, it is a vague and ill-defined term. As such, the assessment of learner autonomy within university programs of study is highly problematic. The author argues that the authentic assessment of genuine learner autonomy may not be possible within formal credit-bearing programs of higher education. The aim of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion so that university teaching staff may reflect and consider whether they can assess autonomy in the programs they are responsible for.
The Role of Interest and Enjoyment in Determining Students’ Approach to Learning.
This paper provides information about findings from a recent research project that provides a new insight into how students’ approaches to learning may be impacted by their level of interest in and enjoyment of the topic being studied. The data from this research suggests that for contemporary students, interest and enjoyment play an important role in determining their approach to learning. As such there are implications for all educators who may wish to encourage their students to use a deep approach to learning.
Problems With Assessing Student Autonomy in Higher Education, an Alternative Perspective and a Role For Mentoring.
https://www.edupij.com/files/1/articles/article_123/EDUPIJ_123_article_5a91aa7fe0490.pdf
Learning outcomes a good idea yet with problems and lost opportunitiesThe University of Hull
Learning outcomes are used throughout assessment processes in higher education. In many countries their use is mandatory, with a frequent assumption that they bring many positive benefits to educational processes. Yet, there are tensions associated with them and their current mode of use has far less flexibility than they should provide. This paper considers from a conceptual basis some of the tensions associated with the use of prescribed pre-articulated learning outcomes and the question of whether learning outcomes, as currently operationalized, provide the benefits they were meant to deliver. This is of significance to educators throughout higher
education.
E-learning: Is This Teaching at Students or Teaching With Students. Robert Jo...eraser Juan José Calderón
E-learning: Is This Teaching at Students or Teaching With Students?. Robert John Muirhead, BN, RGN, RSCN
The development of e-learning as a teaching
strategy in higher education has implications
relating to student learning, the role of the
teacher, and the institution of higher education.
This paper debates the andragogical and
pedagogical theories that support the development
of e-learning to date. Leading to a discussion on
how the process of e-learning may be contributing
to the “stamp-me-smart” culture and restricting
the development of critical thinking within
student nurses. Concluding that e-learning has a
top-down institution-led development that is
contrary to the student-led development
espoused by universities.
Search terms: Nurse, education, e-learning,
androgogy, pedagogy
The uk's key information set was it really needed and what was its real purposeThe University of Hull
An Unnecessary KIS? The UK’s Key Information Set, was it Really needed and What was its Real Purpose?
This paper provides a critical analysis of the United Kingdom’s higher education Key Information
Set (KIS), which was implemented following the 2011 UK White Paper ‘Students at the Heart of the System’. It argues that one of the central tenets of the KIS – providing information that
students within a free market can make an informed choice and, through this process of consumer choice improve the quality of teaching, is untenable because a central component of the KIS, the National Student Survey (NSS), is unreliable when used for comparing university courses. Further,it argues that the KIS reified a neoliberal perspective about the worth and value of higher education qualification, positioning it as a commodity of value only to the paying individual rather than being
something of value to society as a whole. It will be of particular interest to academics and policy
makers from outside of the United Kingdom, where governmental and regulatory agencies may be implementing similar policies
(How) Do Students Use Learning Outcomes? Results from a Small-Scale Project.
Pre-specified, prescribed or intended Learning Outcomes have been in use throughout
higher education programs for over two decades. There is an assumption amongst quality assurance bodies and university program approval and review processes that students engage with them. Yet, learning outcomes may constrain learning, they may not always be understood by learners and their relevance to learning has been questioned. There is anecdotal evidence from lecturers that some students do not understand them and do not use or refer to them. This paper reports on a small-scale
research project investigating how university student’s use prescribed learning outcomes in their everyday learning and when producing assessed work. No clear differences were found between higher and lower achieving students, yet there were differences between first- and third-year students. Surprisingly, some were able to achieve highly without referring to the outcomes against which they were assessed.
Competence and competency in higher education. competencey based educationThe University of Hull
Competence and competency in higher education, simple terms yet with complex meanings: Theoretical and practical issues for university teachers and assessors implementing Competency-Based Education (CBE).
Background/purpose – British, European and American universities are increasingly adopting competency-based learning, yet, there are different and conflicting definitions of competence, competency, and competency-based learning. Consequently, multiple interpretations and understandings are held by educators in respect of what these terms mean, when applied to their own teaching and assessment practices. Therefore, unless informed and considered discussion has taken place amongst staff about their individual understandings and interpretations, any development of new, competency-based assessment processes and procedures, is necessarily problematic. The main purpose of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion, so that teaching staff can arrive at a common understanding and interpretation of what competency-based education is, so that they may develop appropriate, authentic and equitable assessment processes.
Mobilising learning as actor: Actor network theory and the BKOErnst Thoutenhoofd
English presentation by Ernst D. Thoutenhoofd about the Dutch course in Higher Education teaching (BKO) to the Sectie Leerproblemen, Orthopedagogiek & Klinische Onderwijskunde, Groningen University, Netherlands, 11 April 2011.
I use this lab sequence over a couple of lessons to get to grips with some basics of different types of reactions, balancing, writing formulas and problem-solving.
The first task is made using the free concept-mapping software, IHMC CMap. The second expands on it with key terms from the four subtopics in our unit.
This is a document used in my EE summer school sessions. After looking at excellent examples of EE's, examiners' reports, the EE guide and subject-specific guidance, students were given this document.
In this formative in-class Criterion C task, we connect the content from the last unit with some basics on Forces, using the Red Bull Stratos jump as a basis.
Colleagues Responses 2Colleague #1……..Moses JacksonTop of FoWilheminaRossi174
Colleagues Responses 2
Colleague #1……..Moses Jackson
Top of Form
Topic of Interest
My research interest is teacher professional development. I intend to conduct It will be an emancipatory case study research to produce knowledge beneficial to disadvantaged people such as teachers and school leaders in postwar developing countries.
As a consequence, my tentative topic of interest is ‘An Investigation of the Impact of Teachers Professional Development Initiatives on the Educational Systems of Post War Countries: Case Study of Liberia from 2017—2020”
Philosophical Orientation that reflects my worldview
The philosophical orientation that reflects my worldview is Relativism and Constructivism which holds there is nothing as a single truth. According to (Burkholder & Burbank, 2020), relativists-constructivists believe truth is not a one-size-fits-all because its authenticity or realities may vary equally from context to context.
As a relativist-constructivist, I believe perceptions or assertions which individuals hold regarding a particular situation as truth could be different from that of others, in the same situation. For instance, if a research finding showed Western education was superior to traditional African education, and another finding showed traditional education viewed without using the lens of Westerners, is highly efficient, that would be a clear indication of truth being relative.
Based on my philosophical orientation, I take cognizance that all of the findings will not be the truth portrayed by the data. As a relativist-constructivist, it would behoove me to apply professional interpretation skills to arrive at conclusions of the multiple truths situation.
Epistemological and ontological assumptions
Epistemological Assumptions
My epistemological assumption is based on the relativist-constructivist view that knowing something can be generated when individuals interact and construct meaning from their interactions (Burkholder & Burbank, 2020). Burkholder and Burbank hold that knowledge can be co-created in ways such as experience, perceptions, intuitions, and beliefs.
In the world we find ourselves today, all knowledge we have acquired is based on what social scientists refer to as “agreement reality” or Ideas and beliefs that members of a group such as a society or culture typically accept as true (Babbie, 2017). This implies that most of what we perceive or refer to as knowledge today is basically what other people before us decided to accept as fact and justified as knowledge.
Ontological assumptions
My ontological assumption is based on my response to the question, “What is that single truth or knowledge about the world around me that exists, which needs to be determined or discovered?” As a proponent of relativism, I concur that there can be no one truth because truth itself is subjective or subject to situations, interpretations, and understood through individual exchanges. From the ontological perspective, I concur truth ...
CO1. Understand the concept of pedagogy, andragogy and heutagogy.
CO2. ComprehendtheBruner’s concept attainment model and Ausbel’s advance organiser model.
CO3. Gain mastery of role play, simulation, gaming and prioritisation exercises.
CO4. Use different types of resources, users and their role in a resource centre.
CO5. Comprehend the construction of achievement test and blue print making.
Reflection (1)Following chapter 6 where Piaget’s cognitive devel.docxdebishakespeare
Reflection (1)
Following chapter 6 where Piaget’s cognitive development theory was discussed, this chapter extends this discussing by adding to, comparing and contrasting Piaget’s theory. Burner and Vygotsky are two developmental theorists that share with Piaget that the belief in cognitive development (Driscoll, 2005). In contrast, they, Burner and Vygotsky, focused on interactional theories and connect consider learning a cause for cognitive development (Driscoll, 2005).
Burner, introduced the three modes of representations, believed in schooling as a means of observe cognitive development. In fact, he linked the representation modes (i.e., enactive, iconic, and symbolic) to the readiness of learning (Driscoll, 2005). What marks Burner is that he believes that type of subject, stage of cognitive development, and child’s characteristics none of which is a condition to effective learning (Driscoll, 2005). Defining these three modes clarified the distinction between Piaget and Burner’s views of readiness (Driscoll, 2005). While Piaget attributes the student’s understanding of the lesson to its logical appropriateness, Burner sees that each lesson could be modified to suit the student’s cognitive ability (Driscoll, 2005). In addition, the variation in thinking level in these three modes led Burner to reject Ausubel’s perspective regarding that prior knowledge determines the student’s readiness for learning explaining that thinking ability is actually the factor that measures the learning readiness (Driscoll, 2005). Burner presented modes justify some failure situation that happens in learning. Providing students with a symbolic mode of instruction without realizing that this mode actually goes beyond their current ability is an obvious reason of failure to understand (Driscoll, 2005). This makes more responsibility on teachers, as well as curriculum developers. Besides taking the students’ level of thinking into account when developing and giving the instruction, temporal factor is critical. Burner claimed that full understanding of the instruction means achieving the symbolic mode, and that lack of time my affect the learning outcomes and produce only iconic learning (Driscoll, 2005).
By regulating the discovery as a means of learning, Burner is taking instructors to a higher level of teaching. Setting hypotheses, testing them, conducting inquiry, defining concepts, and having feedbacks and reflections are some strategies that regulate learning by discovery and produce a discover model as Burner suggests. Culture has a lot to do with learning. Burner declared that culture influences thinking (Driscoll, 2005). Cultures have been always playing a pioneering role in defining the primary issues that should be covered in education. We see that universities everywhere are teaching the majors that are valued in their communities. By doing so, they do not necessarily believe in these majors but may be responding to the learners’ major demands.
Unlike ...
Active Learning Framework and Process of Classroom Engagement A Literature Re...ijtsrd
This literature review shows different types of Active Learning Frameworks ALFs . It includes behaviorism, constructivism, connectivism as a learning theory, universal learning design, deductive and inductive teaching techniques, debates, discussions, microlearning, and digital storytelling techniques, improving student engagement and participation, enhancing the learning environment, and building knowledge structure. The literature shows that the classroom environment of the 21st century differs from the traditional teaching environment. The Internet and modern research based teaching models have created fundamental, long term changes in the classroom teaching environment, technologically, socially, and psychologically. As the norm of traditional teaching models has slowly eroded, ALFs have taken their place across junior colleges, 4 year colleges, and graduate level universities. This replacement represents significant changes in educational pedagogy. Although using a new teaching framework is generally difficult in the classroom, a blended teaching method will facilitate active learning. This studys findings suggest future research possibilities for an ALF that can benefit the classroom. Ultimately, using an ALF can lead to a more comprehensive active learning process, thereby helping students and institutions of higher education. There is a need to explore educators who have experienced ALFs regarding how different ALFs have affected student engagement and participation in the structure of building knowledge. Quantitative survey data may then help generalize the research results. Hasan Ahmed | Latifa Rahman "Active Learning Framework and Process of Classroom Engagement: A Literature Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50583.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/50583/active-learning-framework-and-process-of-classroom-engagement-a-literature-review/hasan-ahmed
The Potential Effects Neoliberal Ideology brought to the Student Engagement i...inventionjournals
The student engagement of Ideological and Political Theories Curriculum (IPTC) is a contemporary China-based research ‘hot topic’ in higher education, which is effected by a movement of Neoliberal Ideology (NI). This paper seeks to investigate the relationship between NI and the student engagement of IPTC and then highlights the potential effects of NI brought to IPTC. Within the context of China’s education organizations, the paper stated the current understanding on IPTC from college students’ perspective with phenomenography interview. Furthermore, the potential effects of NI on student engagement, which included the decline of cognitive engagement decline, behavior engagement and affection engagement were illustrated in detail in the result and discussion section. Finally, the paper ends with the reflection of China’s higher education and suggestions for IPTC teaching in the future
This presentation is for my class to work through as teachers are on a series of PD days. It is based on a very bad One Direction joke cracked in a class about vectors.
I split the presentation for the unit into two, as I added so many slides to help with student questions and misconceptions. This one focuses on mathematical aspects of the unit.
In the first week of High School, my Grade 9 Chemistry class were asked to put on a short show for the BBP and KA students (3-5 year-olds) about water. We used it as a chance to get to know each other and to formatively assess Criterion B: Communication and F: Attitudes in Science.
This was made with Jon Schatzky and Barney Trezona.
As a task in our MYP Areas of Interaction workshop, we worked together to unpack on AOI for students. We chose Approaches to Learning, and then focused on 'Social'. Using the document "Making the PYP Happen' and its trans-disciplinary skills, we then decided to create a rubric for the skill of 'Conflict Resolution'.
Ideas for integrating inquiry and differentiation with AOI'sStephen Taylor
Jon Schatzky and I have been working on some ideas on this MYP workshop. None of the work presented here is definitive, but some of the graphics might be of use. The editable powerpoint is available for download.
Big thanks to Cameron Hall for his great work on visualising the Areas of Interaction.
One World: Scientific Solutions to Global IssuesStephen Taylor
A one or two lesson formative assessment task to introduce students to One World.
Students watch one of two videos which introduce a scientific solution to a problem in a global context. They then prepare a mind-map poster which goes through the stages of the One World criterion.
This is a work in progress, but outlines some of the ways in which home-made concept cartoons are used in my class. It was featured on the SlideShare homepage.
I highly recommend that teachers, especially in Middle School, get a copy of the concept cartoons resources.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...
MYP: Mind The Gap [MA Assignment]
1. Stephen Taylor (@sjtylr) Understanding Learners and Learning
MYP: Mind the Gap
Tensions in transitions between the International Baccalaureate’s
Middle Years (MYP) and Diploma (DP) programmes:
A pragmatic approach to finding a balance between the approaches
to inquiry of John Dewey and L.S. Vygotsky.
Stephen Taylor
MA International Education
University of Bath
Assignment brief:
“A critical analysis of an issue related to learners and learning.”
This is an assignment for the University of Bath MA in International Education,
Understanding Learners & Learning unit, uploaded with permission from my tutor and
posted here as part of my professional learning portfolio.
It builds on some of my blog posts (ibiologystephen.wordpress.com) and adds some
theoretical background to my MYP Mind the Gap: Tensions in Transitions breakout
session at the IB Asia Pacific regional conference in Kuala Lumpur in 2013.
Given a greater scope for the assignment, I would build on the final section connecting
current research to the discussion more clearly, though I have done this in some blog
posts already (and it didn’t really fit). I’ve jazzed up the presentation of this paper a wee
bit for the purpose of posting to the blog. Any oddities are on SlideShare.
My definition of inquiry, based on this research and follow-up work:
See blogposts here: https://ibiologystephen.wordpress.com/2016/02/27/defining-inquiry/
“Inquiry is critical, creative, reflective thought, built on a foundation of well-
taught knowledge, skills and concepts, that invites learners to take action on
their learning and ask “what if…?”
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Introduction
“All social movements involve conflicts, which are reflected intellectually
in controversies. It would not be a sign of health is such an important
social interest as education were not also a source of struggles, practical
and theoretical.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.5)
The transition from the International Baccalaureate’s (IB) Middle Years
Programme (MYP), an international curriculum and assessment framework for
students aged 11-16, to the higher-stakes Diploma Programme (DP), serving
students aged 16-18 and acting largely as a globally-recognized university-entry
pathway, is a microcosm of dialogue on educational principles and practices that
represents debates about the nature of education that have been raging for
centuries and show little sign of abating. I currently teach sciences in the MYP
and the DP, as well as acting as MYP Coordinator in an international school in
Japan after being a DP Coordinator in a school in Indonesia. Over the last ten
years I have seen changes throughout the IB continuum of programmes, and
through my own professional and academic learning have encountered multiple
facets of tension across the transition between programmes.
The International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) has been working
hard to ease these tensions with significant current overhauls of the MYP (the
Next Chapter) and a shift to a more concept-based DP. Yet in my anecdotal
experience there is skepticism across the MYP-DP ‘gap,’ as MYP-purist teachers
decry the dogmatic approach of their DP counterparts and some content-oriented
DP teachers criticize the MYP for ‘not preparing students well enough’ for high-
stakes assessment. In this assignment, I aim to explore these tensions in the
transition from MYP to DP from the perspective of the cognitive/rationalist and
behaviourist/empiricist views of learning and to further explore the contentious
issue of inquiry through the similarities and differences between the beliefs of
educational philosophers John Dewey and L.S. Vygotsky.
I propose that some of the fundamental disagreements between
practitioners across the MYP-DP ‘Gap’ are the result of a false dichotomy and
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central to this analysis is a careful (re)definition of the term inquiry to mean
critical and reflective thought (Elkjaer, 2009), and that through application of
recent findings in educational research with regard to what makes effective
teaching and learning (Hattie, 2012) teachers can act as mediators of inquiry (in
Vygotsky’s sense) in order to work to the borders of a student’s Zone of Proximal
Development.
I opened with John Dewey’s quote on controversy as a sign of health in
education, from his 1938 text Experience and Education, as a provocation for the
discussion to come but also as part of the reflection of a lifelong educator. It is an
influential book for me as a learner and a leader as he writes from the
perspective of years of his own experience, the polemic views of his youth
somewhat tempered by the pragmatism that comes with age and the testing of
one’s theories over time through debate and practical reality, and quotes from
this text serve an inspiration for various sections of this paper. I can appreciate
this journey, mirroring my own transition over the last ten years from idealistic
fledgling IB educator to a more pragmatic and critical proponent of both
internationalism and ‘effective’ teaching and learning. I see his early ideas on
education and its role in society as being in line with my own strong values with
regard to internationalism, and the mission of the IBO to “develop inquiring,
knowledgeable and caring young people,” who are encouraged to become “active,
compassionate and lifelong learners,” (IBO, 2012), yet, in more recent years (and
in line with updates to the IB’s MYP, I have taken an increasingly evidence-
based approach to pedagogy. As a result I feel personal dissonance with the
debate of either-or in terms of inquiry versus direct instruction or between
student-generated learning versus high-impact practices; as Dewey put it, I
would rather “think in terms of Education itself rather than in terms of some
‘ism about education, even such an ‘ism as progressivism.” (Dewey, 1938, p.6). I
hope with this paper to be able to outline a position that focuses not on ‘picking
sides’ but on finding a common ground for success across the MYP-DP gap.
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Defining Learning
“The history of educational theory is marked by opposition between the
idea that education is development from within and that it is formation
from without; that it is based natural endowments and that education is a
process of overcoming natural inclination and substituting in its place
habits acquired under external pressure.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.17, emphasis mine)
As far back as ancient Greece, with the emergence of the trivium
(grammar, dialectic and rhetoric), ideas about how we learn and should therefore
teach have been in competition (Robinson, 2013), with the grammar and
dialectic approaches of most relevance to this paper. The grammar, defined as
early as Dionysius Thrax’s (170-90 BCE) writings, highlights the study,
discipline and tradition of language, and of the knowledge passed from teacher
to student. However Socrates’ (and subsequently Plato’s) dialectic (or logic) - the
modern - emphasizes the nature of questioning knowledge and challenging the
status quo (Robinson, 2013). Almost a century ago the same debate was, in
essence, still taking place between Vygotsky (most closely aligned with the
grammar) and Dewey (the dialectic).
As the field of educational research has grown this debate can be
encompassed by three broader views of learning: the cognitive/rationalist view
(with which the inquiry-focused MYP teacher might more strongly identify), the
behaviourist/empiricist view (to which a typical exam-focused DP teacher might
belong) (Greeno et al., 1996). This tension continues to the modern day, with
competing ideologies vying for control over education and assessment; there is
perceived disconnect between the ideals of inquiry-based (constructivist)
learning - Dewey’s ‘formation from within’ - and practices of ‘direct instruction’
(formation from without) that are seen to help prepare students for high-stakes
testing and university entry. Parallel to this is the pragmatic/sociohistoric view,
to which Dewey and Vygotsky are classified and within which we see varying
perspectives on the nature of inquiry and its relation to the community (Greeno
et al., 1996).
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In we are to effectively ease the tension and further the discussion, we
need a working definition of learning. According to Knud Illeris (2009, p.7)
“Learning can broadly be defined as any process that in living organisms leads to
permanent capacity change and which is not solely due to biological maturation
or ageing.” In simpler terms, Greeno et al. (1996), define learning as simply “the
process by which knowledge is increased or modified,” and transfer as “the
process of applying knowledge in new situations.” In each case, learning is
defined as a process, the implication being that education is the catalyst for that
process, the system within which permanent capacity change is facilitated,
leading to an increase in or modification of knowledge. To characterize the
nature of the process is to engage with opposing views of education. The
practical conceptualizations of learning – curriculum, pedagogy and assessment -
can look very different depending on which view one takes and I will outline the
three major perspectives here, each in terms of epistemology, learning and
transfer.
With a focus on the open-ended, transferable and conceptual, the inquiry-
driven MYP class has a strong sense of the cognitive/rationalist view of learning,
suiting the dialectician as a teacher. The C/R perspective “emphasizes
understanding of concepts and theories in different subject matter domains and
general cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, planning, solving problems
comprehending language” (Greeno et al., 1996). Learning is understood as “a
constructive process of conceptual growth,” and through this constructivist
approach transfer is based on the assertion that “concepts and principles of a
domain are designed to provide generality [...] assumed to depend on an abstract
mental representation in the form of a schema that designates relations that
compose a structure that is invariant across situations“ (Greeno et al., 1996). In
terms of practical conceptualization, the C/R classroom would be one of
interactive environments, problem-solving (or problem-based learning) and
group-work, in which a process of modeling and transfer of conceptual learning
to new situations would be used to develop reasoning and higher-order thinking
skills, as characterized through Blooms’ taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956). Students
may (or may not) have input in the design of the curriculum. However, these
methodologies take time – more time than required to cover the same content
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under didactic methods - and so if there is a criticism of the MYP it tends to
come, in my experience, from teachers who are more concerned with the
coverage of content and backwash-effect of high-stakes testing.
In contrast these test-oriented practitioners better fit the
behaviorist/empiricist (B/E) view of learning, which sees knowledge as an
“organized accumulation of associations and components of skills,” where
learning is the “formation, strengthening and adjustment” of associations
between stimulus and response (Greeno et al., 1996). Transfer is dependent on a
gradient of similarity between the known and the unknown, or “how many and
which kinds of associations needed in the new situation have already been
acquired in the previous situation.” (Greeno et al., 1996) This, perhaps
reductionist, view of learning and the implications for practical
conceptualization favour a learning environment in which the subject-area
expertise of the teacher and the transmission of information are key, through
which knowledge and skills are trained and tested and students are given
explicit, content-oriented feedback for improvement. This approach is highly
operable by the exam-oriented teacher or the grammarian: a clear set of goals
can be defined, with limited parameters and a finite amount of time and
resources in which to demonstrate competence. Where assessment might be
more narrow-focused it might also be more reliable, generating large quantities
of data that could be used for investigation into the impacts of pedagogical
practices. I will return to this idea of measuring effect size of learning
interventions later.
As the organizational beliefs on education may remain stable through a
continuum of education with a common misson, the nature of educational
experience across the MYP-DP can show its own transition from the C/R view to
the B/E view on learning and pedagogy. We need to then build on Illeris and
Greeno et al.’s definitions of learning with one that recognizes the role of this
experience in the process of change. I propose the use of David Kolb’s definition
of learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p.38) (emphasis mine) in (Elkjaer,
2009, p.84), in which experience can be interchanged, dependent on context, with
such terms as culture or practice (Elkjaer, 2009, p.75; Glassman, 2001).
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Experience “is the concept Dewey used to denote the relation between
‘subject’ (individual) and worlds, as well as between action and thinking,
between human existence and becoming knowledgeable about selves and worlds
of which they are a part.” (Elkjaer, 2009, p.78) In this sense, Dewey’s concept of
experience “is characterized by reaching forward towards the unknown”
(Elkjaer, 2009, p.80), and as a result “experience occurs when habitual action
and thinking are disturbed and calls for inquiry.” (Elkjaer, 2009, p.86).
(emphasis mine) Building on these definitions (and in the context of schooling),
we can see learning as a permanent change in capacity of the individual that
arises as the result of the purposeful application of education; a process through
which the relationship between knowledge, self and worlds is moulded by the
experience of the learner, which is itself given meaning and future application
(transferability) by the process of inquiry. And it is this term - inquiry - that acts
as the battleground for debate between the modern C/R teachers of the MYP and
the B/E teachers of the exam-oriented DP courses.
A pragmatic approach to inquiry
“Basing education upon personal experience may mean more multiplied
and more contacts between the mature and the immature than ever
existed in the traditional school, and consequently more, rather than less,
guidance by others. The problem, then, is: how these contacts can be
established without violating the principle of learning through personal
experience.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.21)
At the crux of the perceived disconnect between the MYP and the DP is
term inquiry and what might be a skewed perception of its meaning; in its
loosest educational sense, inquiry refers to a student-driven educational
experience, one in which all learning outcomes are directed by the child.
However, even the IB’s Primary Years Programme, seen as the most open-ended
of the continuum, defines inquiry as being “structured and purposeful” but in
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which the students are engaged “actively in their own learning.” (IBO, 2009,
p.29) This interpretation is highly important as it articulates the need for the
teacher (and the curriculum) to provide the purpose (objectives) and the
structure (instruction, learning engagements) under which the students may
best learn.
The IBO builds further on their description of inquiry, as a process in
which the student is “invited to investigate significant issues by formulating
their own questions,” where the goal is “active construction of meaning.” (IBO,
2009, p.29) The practical conceptualization of this is a curriculum in which units
of inquiry are carefully planned by expert teachers and modified to include the
genuine (and significant) interests of the students. As a result, the nature of
inquiry is developed as “critical and reflective thinking,” (Elkjaer, 2009, p.75),
and it is this definition of inquiry that I propose we use across the continuum.
This can be modified further to include the pragmatic approach, in
Dewey’s sense: “pragmatism is a method to think and act in a creative
(imaginative) and future-oriented (i.e. consequential) manner. (Elkjaer, 2009,
p.77). This pragmatic approach to inquiry can be applied to learning across the
IB continuum with ease and clarity, for even the most structured of the IB’s DP
exams and assessments require students to go beyond the simple recollection of
facts into the application, synthesis and evaluation of ideals; students are
required to be able to select and modify their learning to solve problems in
unknown situations. The accomplished learner must act as a pragmatist, who
recognizes that “the situation determines which concepts and theories are useful
for analysis of a given problem” (Elkjaer, 2009, p.77), and who can use these as
tools “to transform a difficult situation to one that is manageable and
comfortable for the subject” (Elkjaer, 2009, p.77).
We must ourselves be pragmatists and think, as Dewey noted, about how
the contacts between the mature and immature (the expert and the novice) can “
can be established without violating the principle of learning through personal
experience.” (Dewey, 1938, p.21) In order to do this, we can consider the ideas of
L.S. Vygostky and then the findings of more recent educational research on how
we learn and inquire.
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Greeno et al. present Dewey and Vygotsky as figureheads of the
situitive/pragmatist-sociohistoric (S/P) view of learning, in which knowledge is
“distributed among people and their environment” and learning is interactive,
taking place “by a group or individual (and) involves becoming attuned to
constraints and affordances of material and social systems with which they
interact” (Greeno et al., 1996). In the situitive sense, success is determined more
by successful participation in the community, rather than through subsets of
skills or tasks, and “the practices of a community provide facilitating and
inhibiting patterns that organize the group’s activities and the participation of
individuals who are attuned to those regularities” (Greeno et al., 1996).
Although there are similarities between the views of Dewey and Vygotsky, their
differences lie in their pragmatist (Dewey) and sociohistoric (Vygotsky)
approaches to inquiry and the relationships between learning and the
community (Greeno et al., 1996; Glassman, 2001).
Both Dewey and Vygotsky recognized a strong interplay between the self
and the social history (or ‘culture’), yet the directions of these interactions were
somewhat opposite: in Dewey’s view, the child was a ‘free agent’ whose personal
experience informs her thinking, which in turn contributes to the intellectual
social tools of the culture (Glassman, 2001). On other hand, Vygotsky placed
emphasis on the role of the social history of the culture as determining the ‘tools’
of education: as the child develops through her learning, she is better equipped
to be part of the culture, and so her learning serves a social purpose over the
personal intellectual (Glassman, 2001).
Inquiry as Pedagogy
“It is through the mediation of others, through the mediation of the adult
that the child undertakes activities. Absolutely everything in the
behaviour of the child is merged and rooted in social relations. “
Vygotsky, 1932, in (Daniels, 2001, p.18)
The concept of mediation by the learned adult highlights both the
similarities and the differences between Dewey and Vygotsky’s ideas about
inquiry and pedagogy. From the constructivist perspective, both recognized the
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role of social interaction in the process of learning. However Dewey was rather
less the developmentalist than Vygotsky and was concerned more with the child
as a ‘free-thinker’ whose learning was a result of facilitation by the adult
(Glassman, 2001). Dewey’s adult (the facilitator) was responsible for the creation
of opportunities for inquiry – or authentic ‘long-term projects’ - through which
the child would develop the pragmatic use of concepts and ideas (Glassman,
2001). Although he promoted free inquiry, Dewey was careful to determine the
importance of the adult facilitator as an expert learner:
“A primary responsibility of educators is that they […] recognize in the
concrete what surroundings are conducive to having experiences that led to
growth. Above all, they should know how to utilize the surroundings, physical
and social, that exist so as to extract from them all they have to contribute to
building up experiences that are worth while.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.40, emphasis mine)
In comparison, Vygotsky’s approach to inquiry and the role of the teacher
is more directive and purpose-driven; where Dewey’s inquiry works from the
inside-out, Vygotsky’s is from the outside-in (Glassman, 2001), whereby the
culture determines the curriculum (Lawton, 1975) and through which learning is
driven by a process of adult mediation (Daniels, 2001, p.18). This draws parallels
with the transition from MYP to DP, as the framework of the MYP curriculum
model and the later prescription of the written and assessed curriculum of the
DP appear to sit in greater alignment with Vygotsky’s approach to guided
inquiry (Glassman, 2001) than to Dewey’s more open-ended philosophy.
Vygotsky’s adult is an interlocutor, possessor of the knowledge of the culture and
guide to the ‘neophyte’ (child’s) learning (Glassman, 2001), who makes expert
use of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD) to steer the child’s path of
learning towards the goal of becoming an active participant in the culture
(Glassman, 2001; Daniels, 2001, p.58).
The zone of proximal development is an enduring concept in pedagogy
that allows for multiple interpretations and applications, though it is important
to note, as did Vygotsky, that instruction (the actions of the adult interlocutor)
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and development (the learning of the neophyte) do not coincide (Daniels, 2001,
p.58). This is to say that the experience of learning created by the instructor
must create a dissonance in the learner, or a gap between what they know and
where they need to be in order to progress. It is the role of the adult to create
that gap and to expertly guide the learner across it, not through presentation of
pure fact but through challenge. However:
“Vygotsky never specified the forms of social assistance to learners that
constitute a ZPD…. He wrote about collaboration and direction, and about
assisting children ‘through demonstration, leading questions, and by
introducing the initial elements of the task’s solution’…but did not specify
beyond these general prescriptions”.
(Moll, 1990, p. 11, in Daniels, 2001, p.59)
Moll further suggests that
“The focus of change within the ZPD should be on the creation,
development and communication of meaning through the collaborative use
of mediational means rather than on the transfer of skills from the more
to less capable partner.”
(Daniels, 2001, p.60 emphasis mine)
This returns us to the nature of inquiry as critical reflective thought, in a
pragmatic sense, and the emphasis on collaboration and meaning continue to
align with the IB’s guidance on inquiry mentioned earlier. I assert that by
combining these ideals and practices into a pedagogy of pragmatic inquiry,
centred around Vygostky’s ZPD, that we can overcome perceived tensions in the
transition between the MYP and the DP.
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The Gap: A modern approach to the Zone of Proximal Development
“It does not follow that all authority is rejected, but rather that there is
need to search for a more effective source of authority.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.21)
The ZPD is further enhanced by the description of two further zones by
Valsiner (1997): the Zone of Free Movement (ZFM), which describes the
constraints (and possibilities) of the learner’s access to the environment, and the
Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA), which describes the encouraged actions
(engagements) that might take the learner through and beyond the ZFM
(Valsiner, 1997), summarized in (Daniels, 2001, pp.61-64). If we consider these
zones in combination with our pragmatic approach to inquiry, we can see the
outline of a framework of pedagogical practices that could promote learning, yet
is in need of an evidential foundation.
In our search for a more effective source of authority.” (Dewey, 1938,
p.21), we may look to more recent educational research for inspiration on the
choice of practices that will promote effective action and facilitate the learner’s
growth. With Visible Learning for Teachers (2012) and Visible Learning and the
Science of How We Learn (2013), John Hattie builds on his wide-ranging 2008
meta-analyses to provide teachers with a toolbox of strategies to use in the
classroom in order to achieve ‘effective’ learning. Using decades of educational
research data, he provides us with ‘effect sizes’ for various learning interventions
(strategies), noting that almost all actions we take as teachers cause learning
(d>0), but an impact score of d=0.4 represents the mean average achievement of
a student in a normal class, in a normal year; the student who advances by one
academic grade level. He defines high-impact practices (d>0.6) and urges
teachers to use these data to inform their educational decision-making. It is
important to note, though, that although these data are from incredibly large
meta-analyses and so are statistically reliable, the underlying practices are
potentially highly-variable. Furthermore, these data are backward-looking, not
predictive, so a teacher’s own implementation may experience a different level of
success. Finally, as is the nature of assessment, these data tend to come from the
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results of standardized tests and it is not always our intention to educate
students with these in mind – though with the MYP-DP gap under discussion in
this paper, this is an important consideration.
These data do provide signposts for teachers as we design educational
experiences for students, and Hattie is able to use them to exemplify the
difference between teachers as facilitators of learning and as activators of
learning (Hattie & Yates, 2013, p.73). He asserts that as a result of employing
successful high-impact strategies, we can close ‘the Gap’ between where the
learner is and where he needs to be.
Teacher as Facilitator d Teacher as Activator d
Inductive teaching 0.33 Teaching students self-verbalisation 0.76
Simulation and gaming 0.32 Teacher clarity 0.75
Inquiry-based* teaching 0.31 Reciprocal teaching 0.74
Smaller classes 0.21 Feedback 0.74
Individualized instruction 0.22 Metacognitive strategies 0.67
Web-based learning 0.18 Direct instruction 0.59
Problem-based learning 0.15 Mastery learning 0.57
‘Discovery’ mathematics 0.11 Providing worked examples 0.57
Whole language instruction 0.06 Providing goals 0.50
Student control over learning 0.04 Frequent testing (testing effect) 0.46
Behavioural organisers 0.41
Average Facilitator 0.19 Average Activator 0.61
*this refers to more open-ended inquiry, rather than our working definition of pragmatic
inquiry as critical, reflective thought.
There appears to be a clear division in the effectiveness of methods
favoured by the practical conceptualizations of the cognitive/rationalist view
(facilitator) and the behaviorist/empirical view (activator) of learning and
anecdotally this is used as justification for resistance to inquiry as a method of
lerning in MYP as we prepare students for DP. Similarly, we can identify some
of the practices favoured by Dewey (facilitator: inquiry-based, problem-based,
student-control over learning), and Vygotsky (activator: self-verbalisation,
feedback, reciprocal teaching). These meta-analyses support the connection
between the actions of the teacher and the learning of the student and that if we
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have to meet goals of high-stakes assessment, then we ought to adopt higher-
impact practices. This is not to suggest, though, that we remove inquiry from the
curriculum. On the contrary, Hattie’s meta-analyses are but one set of learning
impacts; in others, inquiry-based learning scores much higher, with an
increasing impact on reasoning and critical thinking (Mayer & Alexander, 2010,
p.372). Instead we should use these ideas in combination to outline a pedagogy
for effective inquiry: we engage students in critical reflective thought in order to
form meaning and we employ practices that will afford them robust raw
materials (foundational knowledge) upon which they can build deeper learning.
The power of prior (mis)learning
“The belief that genuine education comes about through experience does
not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative.[…] Any
experience is miseducative that has the effect of arresting or distorting the
growth of further experience.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.25)
It seems Dewey recognized early on the power of misconception in
arresting the development of later learning and the importance of the learning
experience in creating or removing that ill-conceived concept. Hattie recognizes
that prior learning effects are very powerful (d=1.04), and quotes David Ausubel
as saying “the most important single factor that influences learning is what the
learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly” (Hattie &
Yates, 2013, p.114). Implicit in this statement are a number of factors. First, the
nature of the knowledge gap and the diversity of learners that enter our
classrooms, for each possess his own zone of proximal development and a
different stage of readiness to learn the objectives of our course or lesson.
Through employing high-impact strategies such as self-assessment (now
‘student expectations’ d=1.44), formative assessment (d=0.73) and through
giving effective feedback (d=0.74), we can acknowledge the zone of free
movement and promote actions that will move learning forward for that student.
The second implication is that we “teach him accordingly,” rather than perhaps
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“teach the content clearly.” It places the emphasis on the teacher as a guide to
learning, in Vygotsky’s sense; the curriculum content may indeed be a product of
the culture, but access to that knowledge is activated by the instructor, who
must employ high-impact methods that will work for that learner. The third
implication is the importance of what the student already knows, for no student
enters our classroom a blank slate. If a student has a strong prior knowledge of a
concept or field of learning, this will have a high positive impact on his learning;
it is “easier to build on coherently organized existing knowledge than it is to
learn new materials de novo” (Hattie & Yates, 2013, p.114). Conversely,
misconception “will create an obstacle, an effect called interference.”
Inquiry needs raw materials and we cannot create a critical reflective
thinker without the content upon which a conceptual foundation can be built. We
have seen that a ‘pure’ inquiry approach in the vein of Dewey is not likely to be
effective alone, and so we must decide upon which factual foundations concepts
and critical thinking can be built (Willingham, 2007).
I propose here that we take the opportunity in MYP to ensure that:
1. Understandings are made explicit to students and that high-impact
practices are employed in order to help students achieve them.
2. Content is substantive and strategies are taught in order to help
students commit this to memory, but content is not so exhaustive so
that it results in ego-depletion (expanded below).
3. Meta-cognitive strategies (d=0.67), analogous to the IBO’s Approaches
to Learning, are carefully planned and taught in order to develop
students’ thinking skills and to lead to a perhaps transformative
learning experience form the novice to the expert learner (Kegan,
2009; Hattie, 2012).
4. Vertical connection of concepts, knowledge and skills allow for
continuity of experience in line with Dewey’s ideas that “the future
has to be taken into account at every stage of the educational
process.” (Dewey, 1938, p.47), for this future-oriented thinking is at
the heart of a pragmatic approach to inquiry.
5. All teachings are planned carefully in order to avoid the effect of
interference, or misconception. If we are to reduce the content of the
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MYP in order to better meet the goals of inquiry, it is our
responsibility to ensure as best we can that the knowledge students
do learn is conceptually accurate and it takes significant efforts to
reverse misconceptions once formed (Abdi, 2006).
Proposal two might seem to run counter to IB’s (and certainly to Dewey’s)
philosophy of inquiry. If we focus on inquiry as critical reflective thought,
however, then we must accept the need for significant raw materials for that
inquiry: the over-learning of basic skills and content are encouraged in order to
commit foundational knowledge to System I memory (thinking fast), so that
when needed, the student has the cognitive surplus to be able to make effective
use of System II memory (thinking slow) (Kahnemann, 2011), summarized in
(Hattie & Yates, 2013). This line of thinking follows Kahnemann’s (2011) dual-
system theory on learning for automaticity and ego-depletion: where the practice
of what is often derided as ‘rote’ learning is used to commit content and
operations to permanent memory (System I), activation of System II can lead to
ego-depletion or mental exhaustion, yet it is needed for the higher-order pursuit
of inquiry as critical, reflective thought. Consequently, if we aim to teach
students to be critical thinkers without helping them to commit meaningful (and
useful) content to memory, we may actually be hindering their progress
(Willingham, 2007). Although I propose above that we should be actively
teaching substantive content for memory, I do not favour the pre-teaching of the
DP syllabus in the MYP courses, and this comes from largely from the
perspective of motivation. We must invite students to inquire through
experiences that “arouse curiosity (and) strengthen initiative,” (Dewey, 1938,
p.38), ensuring that the experiences we create for learners are indeed moving
forces for their future development (Dewey, 1938, p.38),.
From Principles into Practice
As long as secondary school education is characterized by high-stakes
terminal assessment and university entry there will inevitably be a degree of
backwash through the curriculum that will cause tension and debate about the
pedagogies that are used to cause learning. I hope that I have succeeded in
17. Stephen Taylor (@sjtylr) Understanding Learners & Learning
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characterizing a pragmatic approach to inquiry – critical reflective thought – as
being one which encompasses not only the intellectual ideals of Dewey but the
developmental practicalities of Vygotsky, and in connecting these to more
discussion of effect sizes have made some worthwhile recommendations for
teaching students across the MYP-DP transition.
“What we want and need is education pure and simple, and we shall make
surer and faster progress when we devote ourselves to finding out just
what education is and what conditions have to be satisfied in order that
education may be a reality and not a name or a slogan.”
(Dewey, 1938, p.91)
Thanks
Thank-you to Dr. Rita Chawla-Duggan for her support as tutor during this unit.
18. Stephen Taylor (@sjtylr) Understanding Learners and Learning
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