Motivation process theories
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Process motivation theories provide frameworks to understand how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped. The key theories discussed are reinforcement, expectancy, equity, and goal setting. Reinforcement theory examines how behaviors are strengthened or weakened through consequences. Expectancy theory focuses on how individuals are motivated when they believe effort will lead to good performance and performance will lead to outcomes. Equity theory analyzes how individuals are motivated based on fair comparisons to others. Goal setting theory proposes that specific, challenging goals improve performance and motivation.
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Motivation process theories
- 1. Prepared by: Lima Sierra MPA 613 – Organizational Behavior
- 2. *Process Motivation Theories Provides description and analysis of process wherein behavior is energized, directed, sustained and stopped. *Reinforcement *Expectancy *Equity *Goal Setting
- 3. Meaning & use of language * Goals Perception Skills Attitudes Emotional reactions
- 4. * The process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result of practice. or formal training
- 5. * *Drive– an aroused condition resulting from deprivation or stimulation Types: Primary drive (Inherent/Natural) Secondary drive (Learned i.e. attaining good feedback/review) Note: once a drive is learned, it triggers a behavior.
- 6. * *Stimulus– a cue which encourages a response *Response– a behavioral activity that resulted from a stimulus Types: Oral, written, manual or attitudinal
- 7. * *Reinforcers– object or event that increases or sustains a response Example: Praise, merit increase in pay, transfer to a desirable job.
- 8. Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner Social Learning by Albert Bandura *
- 9. *Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov *Concerns the automatic reflexes associated with digestion. Wherein his dog salivated in the presence of food but also at the presentation of stimuli before the food was given.
- 10. *
- 11. * *Concerned with learning occurring as a consequence of behavior
- 12. * Operant = a behavior that can be controlled by altering consequences that follow them. Example: performing job related tasks coming to work on time
- 13. *
- 14. * *Behavior is viewed as a function of continuous interaction between cognitive (conscious mental activities), behavioral and environmental determinants.
- 15. * *Vicarious learning (modeling) – identifying w/ heroes, leaders, parents, etc *Symbolism – creating a mental picture, setting, personal goals, using mental reminders *Self-control – i.e. not smoking, not drinking, holding back anger from hurled insults
- 16. * Person ( An employee, a manager, a chief executive officer, an entrepreneur) Symbolic Processes Symbolic verbal/mental representations of reality help guide a person’s behavior Self-control An individual controls his or her own behavior to the extent that he or she relies on cognitive supports and manages important cues received from environments and consequences Behavior Vicarious learning Behaviors are acquired by observing & imitating others in a specific setting Environment
- 17. * *The belief that one can perform adequately in a situation. choice of task, situations companions effort to expend how long he will try. employees sense of capability perception motivation & performance
- 18. *Feedback is important in formulation of efficacy perceptions that interact with goal setting to enhance performance motivation. *Pygmalion effect refers to enhanced learning/performance resulting from positive expectation of others. *
- 19. * *Strength – the conviction regarding magnitude whether strong or weak *Magnitude – level of task difficulty a person believes she/he can attain *Generality – the degree to which the expectation is generalized across situations.
- 22. *Reinforcement *Behavior modification - individual learning by reinforcement. - A motivation approach that relies in applying the principles of operant conditioning by B.F Skinner. Based on the assumption that behavior is more important than its “psychological causes”, such as the needs, motives and values held by individuals
- 23. *Reinforcement *Organizational Behavioral Modification is an operant approach to organizational behavior in work setting. systematic reinforcement of desirable organizational behavior punishment of unwanted organizational behavior.
- 24. *Reinforcement *Motivation = internal cause of behavior *Reinforcement = external cause of behavior
- 25. *Reinforcement * Positive Reinforcement *increases the strength of response *induces repetition of the behavior Example: incentives, recognition, financial reinforcement, promotion Negative Reinforcement Punishment Extinction *removes a painful or unpleasant stimulus or enables the person to avoid it Example: Exerting a high effort to complete a job is negatively reinforced by not to listen to a nagging boss. Working hard can keep the boss away. *a consequence that leads to suppression of the behavior that caused it. Example: Suspension of work due to unsubmitted report. Taking 10 points off for each day a paper is late. *decline in response rate because of non- reinforcement *Removal of positive reinforcement leads to decrease and disappearance of the learned behavior.
- 26. *Reinforcement * *response is reinforced every time it occurs *It accelerates early performance ( learning & applying a new job skill). Example: warmly greeted everyday by superior & praise for every unit produced. *reinforcing behavior only after some responses and not after every response. *Effective for use when goal is to sustain a response ( good performance). Example: Praise from boss when you prepare a report ( occasional compliment). Running for elective union position ( occasional winning).
- 27. *Reinforcement * *Interval Schedule (specified time required for every reinforcement– fixed or variable) *Ratio Schedule (specified responses required for every reinforcement - fixed or variable)
- 28. *Reinforcement
- 29. *Reinforcement * *1. Identify and define the specific behavior. Behavior is pinpointed when it can be accurately observed (seen) and reliably recorded (measured). *2. Count or measure the occurrences of the pinpointed behavior. (Data collection) *3. Analyze the ABCs of the behavior. (ABC Analysis) A = Antecedent of the Behavior, B = the pinpointed behavior and C = contingent consequence.
- 30. *Reinforcement *
- 31. *Reinforcement *4. Motivate / Reinforce program thru positive reinforce, negative reinforce, punishment or extinction. *5. Evaluate the applied program to trace and review changes in behavior before and after the implementation of an action plan program. Evaluation provides feedback to managers. *
- 32. Describe desired behavior in specific terms (don’t generalize) Explain why the behavior was helpful to the organization. The reinforcement must always be accompanied by personal expression of thanks. *Reinforcement *
- 33. *Reinforcement * *When a non-routine event disrupts the normal work pattern, a person begins to practice self-examination. *A combined principles of learning with emphasis on human interactions in a social setting
- 34. * *Reinforcement
- 37. *Expectancy *
- 38. *Expectancy *
- 39. *Expectancy *
- 40. *Expectancy * *Performance (P) = f(M*A) where M=motivation & A = ability *Motivation (M) = f(V1*E) where V1 = valence of each 1st level outcome, E=expectancy *V1=V2*I where V2=valences of 2nd level outcomes, I=Instrumentalities of 1st-level outcome
- 41. *Expectancy
- 42. *Expectancy * 1. Determine 2nd-level outcomes that are preferred by employees. 2. Link desired 2nd-level outcomes to the organizations’ goal performance goals. Note: Expectancy Theory assumes employees allocate their behavior according to anticipated consequences of actions.
- 44. *Equity * by Adams *Equity theory focuses on comparisons, tension and tension reduction. People compare their rewards, punishments, tasks and other job-related dimensions to those of others. *Examines discrepancies within person after person has compared his input/output ratio to that of a reference person in a similar work situation.
- 45. *Equity *Person- individual for whom equity/inequity is perceived *Comparison Other/Reference Person – individual/s or group used as reference for the ratio input/output *Inputs – character brought by a person to a job (achieved /ascribed) *Outcomes – what person received from the job *
- 46. OP The Equity Theory of Motivation A person with certain inputs (IP) and receiving certain outcomes (OP) Compares his or her input- outcome ratio to A reference person’s inputs (IRP) and outcomes (ORP) And perceives 𝑂𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑂𝑅𝑃 𝐼𝑅𝑃 (equity) 𝑂𝑃 𝐼𝑃 < 𝑂𝑅𝑃 𝐼𝑅𝑃 (inequity) Or 𝑂𝑃 𝐼𝑃 > 𝑂𝑅𝑃 𝐼𝑅𝑃 (inequity) IP = Inputs of the Person OP = Outcomes of the Person IRP = Inputs of the Reference Person ORP = Outcomes of the Reference Person Note: Change procedures to restore equity - inputs, outcomes, attitudes, reference person & situation *Equity
- 47. *Equity
- 49. * by E.A. Locke *Goal-setting theory proposes that an individual’s goals and intentions are primary determinants of behavior. *Goal-Setting
- 50. *Goal-Setting * Goal – the specific target an individual tries to achieve. *Goal Setting – the process of establishing goals. *
- 51. * *Goal Specificity *degree of quantitative precision/ clarity of the goal *Goal Difficulty *degree of proficiency/level of goal performance sought *Goal Commitment *amount of effort used to achieve the goal *Goal-Setting
- 52. *Goal-Setting
- 53. “The setting of a goal that is both specific and challenging leads to an increase in performance because it makes it clearer to the individual what he is supposed to do. This may provide the worker with sense of achievement, recognition, commitment, in that he can compare how well he is doing now versus how well he has done in the past and how well he is doing in comparison to others.” *Goal-Setting
- 54. *Goal-Setting
- 55. *Goal-Setting
- 57. Know employees ability, competence and offer them opportunities. Create an atmosphere that encourages, supports and sustains improvement. Sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities and goals (valences). Monitor employees’ needs, abilities, goals and preferences Attempt to channel self-motivated behavior into productive results. *Motivation Summary
- 58. *Motivation Summary Make employees note that valued outcomes can be achieved through performance Be a role model in style, techniques & work behavior. Establish goals to direct behavior Provide employees with jobs that offer equity, task challenge, diversity and a variety of opportunities
- 59. Thank You for Listening!!!
Editor's Notes
- CC is a study by Pavlov concerning the automatic reflexes associated with digestion. Wherein his dog salivated in the presence of food but also at the presentation of stimuli before the food was given. Note: In CC the response to be learned is already present and may be triggered by the appropriate unconditioned stimuli
- Behavior is viewed as a function of continuous interaction between cognitive (conscious mental activities), behavioral and environmental determinants. Behavior is learned thru modeling/vicarious learning or observing & imitating
- Reinforcement Schedules – timing of rewards and punishments in an organization Continuous Reinforcement – response is reinforced every time it occurs. It accelerates early performance ( learning & applying a new job skill). Example: warmly greeted everyday by superior & praise for every unit produced. Intermittent Reinforcement – schedule that results in reinforcing behavior only after some responses and not after every response. Effective for use when goal is to sustain a response ( good performance). Example: Praise from boss when you prepare a report ( occasional compliment). Running for elective union position ( occasional winning).
- Five Step Problem Solving Process 1.Managers Identify and define the specific behavior. Behavior is pinpointed when it can be accurately observed (seen) and reliably recorded (measured). 2.Managers count or measure the occurrences of the pinpointed behavior. (Data collection) 3.Managers analyze the ABCs of the behavior. ABC Analysis is the analysis of the Antecedents, behavior and consequences when investigating work or job-related issues. A = Antecedent of the Behavior, B = the pinpointed behavior and C = contingent consequence.
- Motivate program thru positive reinforce, negative reinforce, punishment or extinction.
- Evaluate the applied program to trace and review changes in behavior before and after the implementation of an action plan program. Evaluation provides feedback to managers.
- KANFER MODEL OF SELF REGULATION When a non-routine event disrupts the normal work pattern, a person begins to practice self-examination. A combined principles of learning with emphasis on human interactions in a social setting
- Expectancy theory is concerned with the expectations of a person and how they influence behavior.
- 1st level outcome = outcome of behavior for doing a job. 2nd level outcome = rewards or punishments produced by 1st-level outcome.
- Instrumentality (-1 to +1) = a person’s perception of the association of the 1st-level to the 2nd-level outcome Valence (-1 to +1) = strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome Expectancy (0 to 1) = perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome.
- by Adams Equity theory focuses on comparisons, tension and tension reduction. People compare their rewards, punishments, tasks and other job-related dimensions to those of others. Examines discrepancies within person after person has compared his input/output ratio to that of a reference person in a similar work situation.
- Goal – the object of action, the thing a person attempts to accomplish. The specific target an individual tries to achieve. Goal Setting – the process of establishing goals. In many cases, involves superior & subordinate working together to set subordinate goals specified period of time.
- Difficulty Factor – the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance but there is a point of diminishing returns. So the goal must be attainable to avoid low morale and frustration. Why participation in goal setting may increase job satisfaction: 1. Social factor of group discussion 2. Motivation factor of being involved in goal setting process 3. Cognitive factor of information sharing Participation Factor – participation in a goal setting is crucial to goal commitment. No participation leads to little commitment. Individual Differences – education, race & job tenure affects the goal setting process
- Mangers must take an active role in motivating their employees. He must understand needs, intentions, preferences, goals, reinforcement & comparison. Managers can influence employee’s motivation thru an atmosphere that encourages, supports and sustains improvement. Managers must remember that ability, competence and opportunity play a role in motivation. Managers need to be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities and goals. They must also consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards. Continual monitoring of employees’ needs, abilities, goals and preferences is each individual manager’s responsibility. Some individuals practice a high degree of self-regulation and personal motivation. Managers must attempt to channel self-motivated behavior into productive results. Managers as role models (style, techniques & work behavior) can be influential in motivating employees When employees note that valued outcomes can be achieved through performance, a major part of the motivation strategy has succeeded. Establishing goals to direct behavior is an important part of any motivational program. Managers should try to provide employees with jobs that offer equity, task challenge, diversity and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction.
- Mangers must take an active role in motivating their employees. He must understand needs, intentions, preferences, goals, reinforcement & comparison. Managers can influence employee’s motivation thru an atmosphere that encourages, supports and sustains improvement. Managers must remember that ability, competence and opportunity play a role in motivation. Managers need to be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities and goals. They must also consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards. Continual monitoring of employees’ needs, abilities, goals and preferences is each individual manager’s responsibility. Some individuals practice a high degree of self-regulation and personal motivation. Managers must attempt to channel self-motivated behavior into productive results. Managers as role models (style, techniques & work behavior) can be influential in motivating employees When employees note that valued outcomes can be achieved through performance, a major part of the motivation strategy has succeeded. Establishing goals to direct behavior is an important part of any motivational program. Managers should try to provide employees with jobs that offer equity, task challenge, diversity and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction.