This document provides an overview of learning theories and reinforcement concepts relevant to organizational behavior. It discusses three types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Key concepts around reinforcement include contingencies of reinforcement, types of reinforcers, punishment versus negative reinforcement, and schedules of reinforcement. Managers can influence employee behavior through understanding and applying principles of reinforcement, such as contingent reinforcement, appropriate use of punishment, and intermittent reinforcement schedules.
Personality: Meaning and Determinants of Personality, Process of Personality Formation, Personality Types, Assesment of Personality Traits for Increasing Self Awareness
Meaning of Perception: Perception is the process by which individuals select, organize and interpret
information from environment through five senses.
It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
Process of Perception
Inputs: Input refers to Stimuli available in the environment. It
includes, information, objects, events and people etc.
Throughputs: it is the stages of transformation. Perceptual inputs
are proceeds to obtain output. Throughputs includes:
Selection: selecting information on the basis of interests, experience,
background etc.
Organization: grouping stimuli into meaningful & identifiable patterns.
Interpretation: assigning meaning to the selected & organized
information.
Outputs: At this stage result of perceptual process can be seen. Transformed inputs.
Results in attitude, opinions, feelings, values & behavior.
Perceptual Error in Organizations:
Stereotyping : Judging people on the basis of group to which they
belong is called stereotyping.
Impression / first impressions : Making an opinion about a person on the
basis of first meeting itself.
Projection
Attributing (looking) one's own characteristics (qualities) to someone
else.
looking one's own qualities in other people. E.g., if a person is honest,
he will consider other people as honest.
Attribution
How people explain the cause of other’s or their own behaviour.
Selective perception
People perceive as per their need, motives or interests.
Inference
Judging others on the basis of incomplete information.
Perceptual set
Interpreting others behaviour according to our own mental set.
Halo effect
one trait forms a general impression. Evaluating a person on the basis
of single trait/ characteristics/ quality.
Factors influencing perception
Internal Factor: These are factors related to the characteristics of
perceiver.
Needs & motives: People with different needs generally experience different
stimuli. A hungry man catches attestation of food related objects.
Self concept: How the people see him self. Generally people select only
those aspects which they find match with their characteristics.
Past experience: A person also perceives on the basis of his past
experiences.
Beliefs: A person also perceives on the basis of what he believes irrespective
of what really is,
Expectations: Expectation refers to the anticipation of particular behavior
from a person which also affects the perceptions.
Current psychological states: The current state of mind also affects the
selection of stimulus.
External Factors: These are the environmental factors and are the
characteristics of the perceived (Stimuli).
Size: Big size catches attestation
Intensity: Loud sound and bright color catches attestation more.
Contrast: Stimuli which stand against the background catches attention
more.
Repetition: it catches attention more.
Personality: Meaning and Determinants of Personality, Process of Personality Formation, Personality Types, Assesment of Personality Traits for Increasing Self Awareness
Meaning of Perception: Perception is the process by which individuals select, organize and interpret
information from environment through five senses.
It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
Process of Perception
Inputs: Input refers to Stimuli available in the environment. It
includes, information, objects, events and people etc.
Throughputs: it is the stages of transformation. Perceptual inputs
are proceeds to obtain output. Throughputs includes:
Selection: selecting information on the basis of interests, experience,
background etc.
Organization: grouping stimuli into meaningful & identifiable patterns.
Interpretation: assigning meaning to the selected & organized
information.
Outputs: At this stage result of perceptual process can be seen. Transformed inputs.
Results in attitude, opinions, feelings, values & behavior.
Perceptual Error in Organizations:
Stereotyping : Judging people on the basis of group to which they
belong is called stereotyping.
Impression / first impressions : Making an opinion about a person on the
basis of first meeting itself.
Projection
Attributing (looking) one's own characteristics (qualities) to someone
else.
looking one's own qualities in other people. E.g., if a person is honest,
he will consider other people as honest.
Attribution
How people explain the cause of other’s or their own behaviour.
Selective perception
People perceive as per their need, motives or interests.
Inference
Judging others on the basis of incomplete information.
Perceptual set
Interpreting others behaviour according to our own mental set.
Halo effect
one trait forms a general impression. Evaluating a person on the basis
of single trait/ characteristics/ quality.
Factors influencing perception
Internal Factor: These are factors related to the characteristics of
perceiver.
Needs & motives: People with different needs generally experience different
stimuli. A hungry man catches attestation of food related objects.
Self concept: How the people see him self. Generally people select only
those aspects which they find match with their characteristics.
Past experience: A person also perceives on the basis of his past
experiences.
Beliefs: A person also perceives on the basis of what he believes irrespective
of what really is,
Expectations: Expectation refers to the anticipation of particular behavior
from a person which also affects the perceptions.
Current psychological states: The current state of mind also affects the
selection of stimulus.
External Factors: These are the environmental factors and are the
characteristics of the perceived (Stimuli).
Size: Big size catches attestation
Intensity: Loud sound and bright color catches attestation more.
Contrast: Stimuli which stand against the background catches attention
more.
Repetition: it catches attention more.
Impact of globalization on organizational behaviourRaj Shravanthi
One of the other major environmental context impacting organizational behavior is globalization.
Today, well-known U.S.-based multinational corporations have more than half their assets overseas.
With trends toward similar clothes, entertainment, material possessions, and recognition that English is the international business language, people around the world still think and behave in different ways.
The starting point of how the globalization environment affects and is affected by organizational behavior is culture.
Department of Management- ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
FEATURES OF OD
Comprehensive Change
Long-range Change
OD AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
OD INTERVENTIONS
Grid Organisation Development:
Management By Objectives:
Process Consultation:
Impact of globalization on organizational behaviourRaj Shravanthi
One of the other major environmental context impacting organizational behavior is globalization.
Today, well-known U.S.-based multinational corporations have more than half their assets overseas.
With trends toward similar clothes, entertainment, material possessions, and recognition that English is the international business language, people around the world still think and behave in different ways.
The starting point of how the globalization environment affects and is affected by organizational behavior is culture.
Department of Management- ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT
FEATURES OF OD
Comprehensive Change
Long-range Change
OD AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT
OD INTERVENTIONS
Grid Organisation Development:
Management By Objectives:
Process Consultation:
Identify that influence employee behavior
Describe outcomes resulting from behavior and tell how they influence future behavior
State how a supervisor’s leadership and expectations for employees can affect their behavior
Define motivation and describe the main approaches to understanding motivation at work
the practice of training people to obey rules and behave well.
the practice of training your mind and body so that you control your actions and obey rules; a way of doing this
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Implicitly or explicitly all competing businesses employ a strategy to select a mix
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A Memorandum of Association (MOA) is a legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and objectives upon which a company operates. It serves as the company's charter or constitution and defines the scope of its activities. Here's a detailed note on the MOA:
Contents of Memorandum of Association:
Name Clause: This clause states the name of the company, which should end with words like "Limited" or "Ltd." for a public limited company and "Private Limited" or "Pvt. Ltd." for a private limited company.
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Registered Office Clause: It specifies the location where the company's registered office is situated. This office is where all official communications and notices are sent.
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Capital Clause: This clause specifies the authorized capital of the company, i.e., the maximum amount of share capital the company is authorized to issue. It also mentions the division of this capital into shares and their respective nominal value.
Association Clause: It simply states that the subscribers wish to form a company and agree to become members of it, in accordance with the terms of the MOA.
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Constitutional Document: It serves as the company's constitutional document, defining its scope, powers, and limitations.
Protection of Members: It protects the interests of the company's members by clearly defining the objectives and limiting their liability.
External Communication: It provides clarity to external parties, such as investors, creditors, and regulatory authorities, regarding the company's objectives and powers.
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2. CONTENTS
• Overview of Learning Theories
• Learning Through Rewards and Punishments
• Contingencies of Reinforcement
• Schedules of Reinforcement
3. Nature of Learning
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or
observable behavior that results from practice or experience.
• Importance of Learning to OB
Most organizational behavior is learned (remember that only 2-12% of
behavior is directly linked to personality)
By controlling the situation, a manager can influence behavior/performance.
The manager is held accountable for the performance of his/her subordinates.
4. • Classical Conditioning: The learning of
“involuntary,” reflexive behavior, such as emotional
reactions
• Operant Conditioning: The learning of
voluntary, goal-directed behavior through the direct
experience of consequences
• Social Learning: The learning of voluntary, goal-
directed behavior through observation and imitation of
others
6. Examples of Operant Behaviors and their
Consequences
BEHAVIORS
The Individual
CONSEQUENCES
7. Examples of the Three Types of Learning:
Which Example Illustrates Each Type?
• After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker sees a
coworker fired for excessive tardiness, resulting in increased attention
to arriving on time
• After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker receives a
written reprimand for being late twice in one month, resulting in
increased attention to arriving on time
• After witnessing a coworker’s accidental loss of several fingers in a
machinery accident, a worker experiences anxiety when operating the
same piece of machinery
8. Contingency of Reinforcement
• Definition: The relationship between a behavior and the preceding and
following environmental events that influence that behaviour.
• Basic Components:
• Antecedent -- the stimulus that precedes the behaviour.
• Behavior -- the behavior emitted in response to the stimulus.
• Consequence -- the positive or negative consequence of the behaviour.
• Important Note: Managers can often control the contingencies of
reinforcement influencing their subordinate’s behavior, and thereby, the
behavior itself
9. Example of Contingent Reinforcement
NO
Manager and
employee
set goal
Does employee
achieve goal?
YES
Antecedent
(precedes the
behavior)
Manager is silent or
reprimands employee
Employee
Task
Behaviour
Manager compliments
employee for
accomplishment
Consequences Reinforcement
(result of the
Contingent
behaviour)
on Consequence
10. Categories of Reinforcers
• All reinforcers fall into one of two categories:
• Primary Reinforcers -- Based upon the satisfaction of
physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex, escape from
pain, etc. (Note that the text defines this as: “an event for
which the individual already knows the value.”)
• Secondary Reinforcers -- Learned reinforcers; the text
defines this as “an event that once had neutral value but has
taken on some positive or negative value for an individual
because of past experience
11. Types of Contingencies of
Reinforcement
Event is Added
Event is Removed
(best to use)
Pleasant
Event
Unpleasant
Event
Positive
reinforcement
(increases behaviour)
Punishment
(decreases behaviour)
(worst to use)
Omission
(decreases behaviour)
Negative
reinforcement
(increases behaviour)
12. Rewards Used by Organizations
MATERIAL REWARDS
Pay
Pay raises
Stock options
Profit sharing
Deferred compensation
Bonuses/bonus plans
Incentive plans
Expense accounts
SOCIAL/INTERPERSONAL REWARDS
Praise
Developmental feedback
Smiles, pats on the back,
other nonverbal signals
Requests for suggestions
Invitations to coffee or lunch
Wall plaques
SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS
Company automobiles
Health insurance plans
Pension contributions
Vacation and sick leave
Recreation facilities
Child care support
Club privileges
Parental leave
REWARDS FROM
THE TASK
Sense of achievement
Jobs with more responsibility
Job autonomy/self-direction
Performing important tasks
STATUS SYMBOLS
Corner offices
Offices with windows
Carpeting
Drapes
Paintings
Watches
Rings
Private restrooms
SELF-ADMINISTERED
REWARDS
Self-congratulation
Self-recognition
Self-praise
Self-development through
expanded knowledge/skills
Greater sense of self-worth
13. Negative Reinforcement
• Definition: An unpleasant event is occurring which can be removed
by emitting the desired behaviour.
• Differs from punishment, but may result from the fear of punishment.
• Two types are identified:
• Escape Learning: An unpleasant event occurs until the employee
emits an “escape response” to terminate it
• Avoidance Learning: An employee prevents an unpleasant event
from occurring by emitting the proper behaviour.
14. Potential Negative Effects of
Punishment
Recurrence
of undesirable
employee behaviour
Undesirable
emotional reaction
Antecedent
Undesirable
employee
behaviour
Punishment
by
manager
But
Short-term
leads to
decrease in
frequency long-term
of
undesirable
employee
behaviour
Aggressive,
disruptive
behaviour
Apathetic,
noncreative
performance
Fear of
manager
Which tends
to reinforce
High turnover
and absenteeism
15. Punishment and Interpersonal
Relations
• The inappropriate use of punishment increases with:
• Anger and/or frustration on the part of the manager
• Inadequate interpersonal communication
• In such cases, this inappropriate punishment creates long term
interpersonal problems, by:
• Reducing trust
• Stifling motivation
• Undermining and/or destroying relationships.
16. How to Make Punishment Effective
Managers should:
• Use the principles of contingent punishment, immediate
punishment, and punishment size.
• Praise in public, punish in private.
• Develop alternative desired behaviour.
• Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events.
• Use “positive discipline” (i.e., change behaviour through reasoning,
with an emphasis on personal responsibility or “self control,” rather
than by imposing increasingly severe punishments)
17. Guidelines for Using
Contingencies of Reinforcement
Managers should:
• Not reward all employees the same (i.e., take individual differences into
account to reward employees with consequences that they personally value,
within the constraints of perceived equity)
• Consider consequences of both actions and non-actions
• Make employees aware of what behavior will be reinforced (and then be sure
to reinforce it uniformly)
• Let employees know what they are doing wrong
• Not punish in front of others
• Make their response equal to workers’ behaviour
18. Schedules of Reinforcement
• Definition: The determination of when reinforcers are applied; after every response
or only after some responses
• Two general categories of schedule are:
• Continuous Reinforcement: Every behavior is reinforced; the simplest schedule
• Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some behaviors are reinforced; four types
are identified in the text:
• Fixed Interval: based on a fixed time interval
• Fixed Ratio: based on a fixed number of responses
• Variable Interval: based on a variable time interval
• Variable Ratio: based on a variable number of responses
19. Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement
SCHEDULE
FORM OF
REWARD
Fixed interval
Reward on fixed
time basis
Fixed ratio
Reward tied to
specific number
of responses
Variable interval Reward given
after varying
periods of time
Variable ratio
INFLUENCE
ON
PERFORMANC
Leads to average
E
and irregular
performance
EFFECTS
ON
BEHAVIOR
Fast extinction of
behavior
Leads quickly to
very high and
stable
performance
Moderately fast
extinction of
behavior
Leads to
moderately high
and stable
performance
Slow extinction
of behavior
Reward given for Leads to very
some behaviors
high
performance
Very slow
extinction of
behavior