Motivation is influenced by cultural and situational factors. There are three elements of work motivation: direction of behavior, level of effort, and level of persistence when facing obstacles. Early motivation theories include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McGregor's Theory X and Y, and Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Goal setting theory proposes that goals direct behavior when people are aware of goals and accept them. Reinforcement theory states that behaviors are strengthened by their consequences. SAS Institute motivates employees through equitable financial rewards, a supportive work environment, and benefits beyond compensation.

1. MOTIVATION

2. OverviewCritical Concepts Of MotivationWhat is Motivation?Elements Of Work MotivationFour General Approaches to MotivationEarly Theories Of MotivationTheories Of MotivationCase Study

3. Behavior- INFER motivation Performance- evaluation of behavior– Typing speed Ability- Determines behavior Situational Constraints -impact behavior Motivation- What you will do (ratherthan what you can do)Critical concepts in motivation

4. MotivatingMotivation is very much a function of the context of a person’s work and personal life. That context is greatly influenced by cultural variables, which affect the attitudes and behaviors of individuals (and groups) on the job

5. Elements of Work Motivation Which behaviors does aperson choose to performIn an organization?Direction of BehaviorHow hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior?Level of EffortWhen faced with obstacleshow hard does a person keep trying to perform achosen behavior successfully?Level of Persistence

6. The Motivation EquationInputs:EffortTimeEducationExperienceSkillsKnowledgeJob behaviorsPerformance:QuantityQualityLevel of customer serviceOutcomes:PayJob securityBenefitsVacationSatisfactionPleasure

7. MotivationIntrinsicactually performing the behaviorBehavior performed for its own sake ExtrinsicBased on acquisition of material or social rewards or

8. The Intrinsic-Extrinsic DichotomyTwo sets of needs that motivate workersMotivational Factors (Intrinsic)Maintenance Factors (Extrinsic)Research on managers in Greece found that:People are motivated more by the nature of the workDissatisfactions resulted from conditions surrounding the work

9. Motivating peopleAn important role of a manager is to motivate the people working on a project.Motivation is a complex issue but it appears that their are different types of motivation based on:Basic needs (e.g. food, sleep, etc.);Personal needs (e.g. respect, self-esteem);Social needs (e.g. to be accepted as part of a group).

10. Four General Approaches to MotivationBehavioralHumanisticCognitiveSociocultural

11. Behavioral ApproachRewards are consequences of behaviorsIncentives encourage or discourage behaviors

12. Humanistic ApproachesThird force psychologyEmphasis on personal choiceNeedsSelf-actualization/Self-determinationMaslow’s hierarchy

13. Cognitive PerspectiveFocus on thinkingEmphasizes intrinsic motivation People are active and curious Plans, goals, schemas, and expectations

14. Cognitive PerspectiveAttribution theoryPerceived cause of successes or failuresLocusStabilityResponsibilityAttributions in the classroomTeacher actions influence student attributionsExpectancy X Value Theory

15. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and BaconSociocultural Conceptions of MotivationEmphasizes participation in communities of practiceLegitimate peripheral participationRelate to authentic tasksSee table 10.2, Woolfolk, p. 358 for a comparison of all four approaches

16. Early Theories of MotivationMaslow’s hierarchy of needs theoryMcGregor’s theory X and theory YHerzberg’ motivation-hygiene theory

17. Maslow‘s Hierarchy of NeedsSelf-actualizationself-developmentand realization5Esteem needsself-esteem, recognition4Social needssense of belonging, love3Safety needsecurity, protection2Physiological needsfood, water, shelter1

18. Need satisfactionSocialProvide communal facilities;Allow informal communications.EsteemRecognition of achievements;Appropriate rewards.Self-realizationTraining - people want to learn more;Responsibility.

19. The Needs Hierarchy in the International ContextHow applicable are motivation theories proposed by Maslow and Herzberg in the international context?Haire, Ghiselli and Porter’s survey concluded that Maslow’s needs, in particular the upper-level ones, are important at the managerial level, although the managers reported that the degree to which their needs were fulfilled did not live up to their expectations.Ronen concluded that need clusters are constant across nationalities and that Maslow’s need hierarchy is confirmed by these clusters. Also, Herzberg’s categories are confirmed by the cross-national need clusters..

20. The Needs Hierarchy in the International ContextRonen’s need clustersJob goals, such as working area, work time, physical working conditions, fringe benefits, and job security;Relationships with co-workers and supervisors; andWork challenges and opportunities for using skills.

21. Alderfer’sERG Theory

22. Herzberg’ Motivation-hygiene TheoryMotivation-hygiene Theory assumes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction.

23. Motivators Hygiene factorsAchievementRecognitionWork itselfResponsibilityAdvancementGrowthSupervision Company policy Relationship with supervisor Working conditions Salary Relationship with peers Personal life Relationship with subordinates Status Security ExtremelySatisfiedNeutral ExtremelyDissatisfiedHerzberg’ Motivation-hygiene Theory

24. Traditional viewSatisfaction Dissatisfaction Hygiene factorsMotivatorsSatisfaction No satisfactionNo dissatisfactionDissatisfactionHerzberg’s Viewcontrasting views of satisfaction-dissatisfaction

25. Theory XTheory X offered by McGregor assumes that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform. It is a negative view about people.

26. A manager who view employees from a Theory X perspective believes:Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.Because employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve desired goals.Employees will shirk responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.Most works place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.

27. Theory YTheory Y assumes that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction. It is a positive view about people.

28. A manager who view employees from a Theory Y perspective believes:Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or playMen and women will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectivesThe average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibilityThe ability to make good decisions widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of managers.

29. Theories of MotivationNeed TheoryExpectancy TheoryEquity TheoryProcedural Justice Theory

30. Three-needs theory recognizes that the need for achievement, power, and affiliation are major motives in work.

31. Need for achievement: The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.Need for power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.Need for affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

32. Equity TheoryOutcomesPayFringe benefitsJob satisfactionStatusOpportunities for advancementJob securityInputsSpecial skillsTrainingEducationWork experienceEffort on the jobTime

33. Equity TheoryInputs lead to outcomesObjective level of outcomes does not determine work motivationOutcome/input ratio compared to ratio of referent others leads to work motivation

34. Table 6.4 Conditions of Equity and Inequity

35. Equity Theory PropositionsIf paid according to time, overrewarded employees will produce more than equitably paid employees. If paid according to quantity of production, overrewarded employees will produce fewer but higher-quality units than equitably paid employees.

36. If paid according to time, underrewarded employees will produce less or poorer-quality output.If paid according to quantity of production, underrewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees.

37. Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way on the basis of the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

38. Figure 6.3 Expectancy Theory

39. Individual performance IndividualeffortABIndividualgoalsOrganizationalrewardCA=Effort-performance linkage=Performance-reward linkageB=AttractiveCSimplified Expectancy Theory

40. JCM—five Core Job DimensionsSkill variety:the degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talentsTask identity:the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.Task significance:the degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people.

41. Autonomy: the degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.Feedback: the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual’s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.Motivating Potential Score(MPS)╳autonomy ╳feedback

42. CriticalPsychologicalstatesPersonaland workoutcomesCore jobdimensionsHigh internalwork motivationSkill varietyTask identityTask significantExperiencedMeaningfulness of the workHigh-qualitywork performanceExperiencedresponsibility foroutcomes of the workAutonomy High-satisfactionwith the workLow absenteeismand turnoverKnowledge of theactual results of the work activitiesFeedbackEmployee growth-needstrengththe Job Characteristics Model

43. High nAchEquityComparisonPerformanceEvaluationcriteriaAbility IndividualeffortTaskcomplexityIndividualperformanceOrganizationalrewardsIndividualgoalsObjectiveperformanceevaluationsystemDominantneeds Reinforcement Goals direct behaviorIntegrating Theories of Motivation

44. Procedural Justice TheoryHigher motivation occurs when procedures used to make decisions are perceived as fairFactors for determination of fairnessInterpersonal treatment of employeesExtent to which managers explain decisions to employees

45. Locke & Latham

46. Goals are the focus of our motivation, and the

47. direct our behavior

48. 2 conditions must be met:

49. • Must be aware of the goal and know how to accomplish it

50. • Must accept the goal and be willing to work for it

51. Difficult = higher performance