The document discusses morphology, which is the study of how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes. It defines different types of morphemes including free morphemes that can stand alone as words, and bound morphemes that must be attached to other morphemes. The document also describes 21 different affixes that can be added to words to change their meaning or grammatical function, such as plural suffixes, verb tenses, comparative forms, and more.

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MORPHOLOGY
Teacher: Khalifa Shenina
4th Semester

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Lecture 1
What is Morphology?
Morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the internal
structure of words. It is the study of how words are put together.
The word itself consists of two morphemes, morph + ology.
The suffix –ology means "science of" and morph- means "word".
* A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has its own
meaning. Simple words like giraffe, wiggle, or yellow are morphemes,
but so are prefixes like re- and pre- and suffixes like –ize and –er.
* General definitions for what a word means:
- A word is a stretch of letters that occurs between blank spaces.
- "A word is something small that means something".
A word is one or more morphemes that can stand alone in a language.
Simple (simplex) words: are words that consist of only one morpheme,
like giraffe, fraud, murmur, oops, just, pistachio.
Complex words: are words that are made up of more than one
morpheme, like opposition, intellectual, crystallize, prewash, repressive,
blackboard.
Words and Lexemes, types and tokens
How many words occur in the following sentence?
My friend and I walk to class together, because our classes are in the
same building and we dislike walking alone.
When you count words, you may count them in a number of ways.
Therefore, it's useful to have some special terms for how we count
words.
1- If we are counting every instance in a which a word occurs in a
sentence, regardless of whether that word has occurred before or not,
we are counting word tokens. If we count word tokens in the sentence
above, we count 21.

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2- If we are counting a word once, no matter how many times it
occurred in a sentence, we are counting word types. Counting this way,
we count 20 types in the sentence above the two tokens of the word
and count as one type.
3- Another way of counting words is by using lexemes. Lexemes can be
thought of as families of words that differ only in their grammatical
endings or grammatical forms. E.g. singular and plural forms of a noun
(class, classes), present, past and participle forms of verbs (walk, walks,
walked, walking), different forms of a pronoun (I,me, my, mine) each
represent a single lexeme.
One way of thinking about lexemes is that they are the basis of
dictionary entries: dictionaries typically have a single entry for each
lexeme.
So if we are counting lexemes in the sentence above, we would count
class and classes, walk and walking, I and my, and our and we as single
lexemes; the sentence then has 16 lexemes.
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Lecture 2
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the language that meets
three criteria:
1- It is a meaningful segment.
2- It's indivisible. It cannot be cut down into smaller parts.
If you try to divide a morpheme, you'll end up either with having
meaningless parts or the meaning of the parts, if any, will not be related
to the meaning of the whole.
3- It reoccurs in the language with a relatively stable meaning.
Types of morphemes:
Depending on the way morphemes occur in the utterance, they are
grouped into two large groups:
1- Free (independent) morphemes:
They are morphemes which can occur alone as words and have a
meaning or fulfill a grammatical function. E.g., man, and, run
It can be divided into two categories:
a) Lexical (content) morphemes: They are free morphemes that have
semantic content or meaning, and usually refer to a thing, quality, state
or action. In the language, these morphemes take the forms of nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
b) Functional (grammatical) morphemes: They are free morphemes
which have little or no meaning on their own, but which show
grammatical relationships in and between sentences. They are
represented by prepositions, articles, conjunctions, pronouns,
demonstratives and auxiliary verbs.

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2- Bound (dependent) morphemes:
They are morphemes which never occur alone as words, but as parts of
words. They must be attached to another morpheme, usually a free
morpheme in order to have a distinct meaning.
There are two types of bound morphemes:
a) Bound roots: are those bound morphemes which have lexical meaning
when they are attached to other bound morphemes to form content
words. E.g. re + ceive = receive re + tain = retain
b) Affixes: They are bound morphemes which are usually marginally
attached to words, and which change the meaning or function of those
words. E.g. –ment en- -ing de-
Morphemes
To sum up:
Free Bound
Lexical grammatical Bound Affixes
Roots
Prefixes infixes suffixes

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Lecture 3
Types of affixes:
1- }Z1{ A Plurality forming morpheme
Cars car + {Z1} dogs dog + {Z1}
Teeth tooth + {Z1} children child + {Z1}
Men man + {Z1}
2- {Z2} A present verb third singular forming morpheme
He plays football. Plays play + {Z2}
Works work + {Z2} has have + {Z2}
Does do + {Z2} is be + {Z2}
3- {Z3} A possession forming morpheme
Father's father + {Z3}
Ali's Ali + {Z3}
4- {D1} A past simple forming morpheme from a verb
Played play + {D1}
Saw see + {D1}
5- {D2} An adjective forming morpheme from a verb
She saw the killed man. Killed kill + {D2}
Burnt (cake) burn + {D2}
6- {D3} An adjective forming morpheme from a noun
One – eyed eye + {D3} left – handed hand + {D3}
Cross – eyed eye + {D3} legged table leg + {D3}
Long beaded beard + {D3}

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7- {ING1} continuous forming morpheme
He's playing football. Playing play + {ING1}
Sitting sit + {ING1} coming come + {ING1}
Lying lie + {ING1}
8- {ING2} An adjective forming morpheme from a verb
I saw a flying bird. Flying fly + {ING2}
Smiling face smile + {ING2} Drinking water drink + {ING2}
9- {ING3} A Gerund forming morpheme
Can be:
A) Subject of a verb
Drinking is dangerous. Drinking drink + {ING3}
Smoking is bad for your health. Smoking smoke + {ING3}
B) Object of a verb
I hate smoking. Smoking smoke + {ING3}
10- {ING4} An adverb forming morpheme from a verb
Smiling, she met me. Smiling smile + {ING4}
Shouting, he closed the door. Shouting shout + {ING4}
11- {ISH1} An adjective forming morpheme from a noun
Mannish man + {ISH1} womanish woman + {ISH1}
Childish child + {ISH1} Boyish boy + {ISH1}
12- {ISH2} An adjective of nationality forming morpheme from names
of countries
Libyan Libya + {ISH2} French France + {ISH2}
Finnish Finland + {ISH2} Scottish Scotland + {ISH2}

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13- {ISH3} An adjective forming morpheme from an adjective
Reddish Red + {ISH3} Greenish Green + {ISH3}
14- {ISH4} A verb forming morpheme from a noun
Flourish Flower + {ISH4} brandish brand + {ISH4}
15- {ER1} A noun forming morpheme from a verb
Maker make + {ER1} Reader read + {ER1}
16- {ER2} An adjective of comparison forming morpheme from another
adjective, means (more)
Smaller small + {ER2} Better good + {ER2}
More many/much + {ER2} less little + {ER2}
17- {AL1} A noun forming morpheme from a verb
Arrival arrive + {AL1} Refusal refuse + {AL1}
Denial deny + {AL1} Approval approve + {AL1}
18- {AL2} An adjective forming morpheme from a noun
Educational education + {AL2} natural nature + {AL2}
Formal form + {AL2}
19- {EN1} = {D1} Past participle forming morpheme
Broken break + {EN1}
Written write + {EN1}
20- {EN2} A verb forming morpheme from an adjective
Lighten light + {EN2} shorten short + {EN2}
Fasten fast + {EN2} enable {EN2} + able
Enrich {EN2} + rich ensure {EN2} + sure
21- {EN3} A verb forming morpheme from a noun
Enjoy {EN3} + joy enslave {EN3} + slave