Biochemical Evidence For dna As Genetic Material
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Biochemical Evidence For dna As Genetic Material What is genetic material The genetic information in all cell is stored in DNA ,Discovery of Transformation in Bacteria , The transforming principle is DNA , HERSHEY & CHASE (1952) EXPERIMENT WITH T2 BACTERIOPHAGE, Summary of Hershey & Chase (1952 ) experiment
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Chromosome walking jumping transposon tagging map based cloning
Chromosome walking, jumping, and transposon tagging are techniques used for gene mapping and cloning. Chromosome walking involves isolating overlapping DNA fragments in steps to characterize large chromosome regions. Chromosome jumping uses rare cutting enzymes to isolate larger DNA fragments spanning hundreds of kb. Transposon tagging involves inducing transposon insertion mutations, identifying the disrupted gene, and using the transposon as a tag to clone the gene. Map-based cloning localizes a gene of interest by identifying closely linked markers, screening libraries to find flanking markers, and identifying the gene between markers through complementation tests.
Sequence alig Sequence Alignment Pairwise alignment:-
Sequence Alignment Pairwise alignment:- Global Alignment and Local AlignmentTwo types of alignment Progressive Programs for multiple sequence alignment BLOSUM Point accepted mutation (PAM)PAM VS BLOSUM
Restriction Endonuclease (Cutting of DNA)
in gene cloning technique the cutting of DNA is essential. With the help of restriction endonuclease, it has been done. It also describes the restriction digest of a DNA molecule.
Cosmid
Cosmids are hybrid cloning vectors that combine features of plasmids and bacteriophages. They contain approximately 200 base pairs of DNA from the lambda phage, including the cos site sequence, which allows the vector to be packaged into phage particles and transduced into bacteria like a phage. Cosmids can accommodate large foreign DNA inserts of 35-45 kilobase pairs and are commonly used to construct genomic libraries.
Prokaryotic genome organization
Prokaryotic genomes are typically organized as single circular chromosomes that are condensed into a nucleoid region within the cell. DNA supercoiling, which involves the over- or under-winding of DNA strands, facilitates compaction of prokaryotic genomes and enables DNA metabolism. Topoisomerases regulate DNA supercoiling by introducing temporary breaks in DNA strands, allowing strands to pass through one another and relieve torsional stress that builds during processes like transcription and replication. The two major types of topoisomerase are types I and II, which introduce single-strand or double-strand breaks, respectively, in regulating supercoiling levels.
Site directed mutagenesis by pcr
Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biology technique used to make specific changes to DNA sequences. It involves using a primer containing the desired mutation in a PCR reaction to introduce the mutation into the gene of interest. There are different approaches for site-directed mutagenesis using PCR, including using a mutated primer in normal PCR or a primer extension method. The technique is used for applications like protein engineering to study the impact of sequence changes or insert restriction sites. However, it can be difficult to replicate the mutated DNA and screening mutations requires sequencing.
Methods of screening
This document discusses various methods for screening recombinant clones, including:
1. Blue-white screening using X-gal to detect the presence or absence of insertions disrupting beta-galactosidase activity.
2. Insertional inactivation screening by inserting DNA fragments to disrupt antibiotic resistance or repressor genes.
3. Antibiotic sensitivity screening to detect circularized recombinant plasmids capable of conferring antibiotic resistance.
4. Auxotrophic yeast strain screening using yeast vectors containing selectable marker genes to complement host mutations.
5. Reporter gene assays using enzymes like luciferase, GFP, etc. fused to promoters to identify positive recombinant clones.
DNA footprinting
DNA footprinting is a technique used to identify protein binding regions on DNA. It involves treating DNA with nucleases like DNase I, which will degrade the DNA except for regions bound by proteins. These protected regions, called footprints, can identify transcription factor binding sites that regulate gene expression. The technique was originally developed in 1978 to study the binding specificity of the lac repressor protein, and it provides information on DNA-protein interactions and transcriptional regulation.
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Chromosome walking jumping transposon tagging map based cloning
Chromosome walking, jumping, and transposon tagging are techniques used for gene mapping and cloning. Chromosome walking involves isolating overlapping DNA fragments in steps to characterize large chromosome regions. Chromosome jumping uses rare cutting enzymes to isolate larger DNA fragments spanning hundreds of kb. Transposon tagging involves inducing transposon insertion mutations, identifying the disrupted gene, and using the transposon as a tag to clone the gene. Map-based cloning localizes a gene of interest by identifying closely linked markers, screening libraries to find flanking markers, and identifying the gene between markers through complementation tests.
Sequence alig Sequence Alignment Pairwise alignment:-
Sequence Alignment Pairwise alignment:- Global Alignment and Local AlignmentTwo types of alignment Progressive Programs for multiple sequence alignment BLOSUM Point accepted mutation (PAM)PAM VS BLOSUM
Restriction Endonuclease (Cutting of DNA)
in gene cloning technique the cutting of DNA is essential. With the help of restriction endonuclease, it has been done. It also describes the restriction digest of a DNA molecule.
Cosmid
Cosmids are hybrid cloning vectors that combine features of plasmids and bacteriophages. They contain approximately 200 base pairs of DNA from the lambda phage, including the cos site sequence, which allows the vector to be packaged into phage particles and transduced into bacteria like a phage. Cosmids can accommodate large foreign DNA inserts of 35-45 kilobase pairs and are commonly used to construct genomic libraries.
Prokaryotic genome organization
Prokaryotic genomes are typically organized as single circular chromosomes that are condensed into a nucleoid region within the cell. DNA supercoiling, which involves the over- or under-winding of DNA strands, facilitates compaction of prokaryotic genomes and enables DNA metabolism. Topoisomerases regulate DNA supercoiling by introducing temporary breaks in DNA strands, allowing strands to pass through one another and relieve torsional stress that builds during processes like transcription and replication. The two major types of topoisomerase are types I and II, which introduce single-strand or double-strand breaks, respectively, in regulating supercoiling levels.
Site directed mutagenesis by pcr
Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biology technique used to make specific changes to DNA sequences. It involves using a primer containing the desired mutation in a PCR reaction to introduce the mutation into the gene of interest. There are different approaches for site-directed mutagenesis using PCR, including using a mutated primer in normal PCR or a primer extension method. The technique is used for applications like protein engineering to study the impact of sequence changes or insert restriction sites. However, it can be difficult to replicate the mutated DNA and screening mutations requires sequencing.
Methods of screening
This document discusses various methods for screening recombinant clones, including:
1. Blue-white screening using X-gal to detect the presence or absence of insertions disrupting beta-galactosidase activity.
2. Insertional inactivation screening by inserting DNA fragments to disrupt antibiotic resistance or repressor genes.
3. Antibiotic sensitivity screening to detect circularized recombinant plasmids capable of conferring antibiotic resistance.
4. Auxotrophic yeast strain screening using yeast vectors containing selectable marker genes to complement host mutations.
5. Reporter gene assays using enzymes like luciferase, GFP, etc. fused to promoters to identify positive recombinant clones.
DNA footprinting
DNA footprinting is a technique used to identify protein binding regions on DNA. It involves treating DNA with nucleases like DNase I, which will degrade the DNA except for regions bound by proteins. These protected regions, called footprints, can identify transcription factor binding sites that regulate gene expression. The technique was originally developed in 1978 to study the binding specificity of the lac repressor protein, and it provides information on DNA-protein interactions and transcriptional regulation.
Pyrosequencing
Pyrosequencing is a sequencing method that detects DNA polymerase activity by measuring the release of pyrophosphate using a cascade of enzymatic reactions that generate visible light. It utilizes emulsion PCR to amplify DNA fragments on beads in microreactors. The beads are then loaded into wells and sequenced by sequentially adding nucleotides and detecting light produced upon incorporation using a CCD camera. Key advantages are its accuracy, high throughput of up to 48,000 probes per day, and ease of automation. However, it requires specialized equipment and software.
Gene silencing
Overview of Gene silencing, how it's works. its pros and cons to the future aspects of genetic engineering.
GENOME ORGANISATION IN EUKARYOTES
The document discusses genome organization in eukaryotes. It begins by defining the genome as an organism's entire hereditary information, encoded in DNA or RNA. In eukaryotes, DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers, which condense into chromosomes. The document then discusses various levels of chromatin organization, from DNA wrapping around nucleosomes to form beads on a string, to higher-order folding forming metaphase chromosomes. Chromatin exists in two types - loosely packed euchromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin. Overall, the document provides an overview of eukaryotic genome and chromatin organization from nucleosomes to chromosomes.
cryptic satellite DNA
This document discusses cryptic satellite DNA. It begins by introducing satellite DNA as highly repetitive sequences that form distinct bands during density gradient centrifugation. Cryptic satellite DNA does not form distinct bands due to base methylation. The document then provides two examples of cryptic satellite DNA: 1) In Drosophila virilis, there are three major satellites and a cryptic one. 2) In a hermit crab, one major very highly repeated DNA and three minor variants comprising inverted repeats account for 30% of its genome. These minor variants are considered cryptic satellites.
BLAST
This document discusses the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST), which allows users to compare a query DNA or protein sequence against sequence databases to find regions of local similarity. BLAST breaks the query into short words that are then searched for in database sequences. When words are found in common, BLAST extends the alignment in both directions to find higher-scoring matches. BLAST outputs include a graphical display of alignments, a hit list ranking matches by similarity score, and detailed alignments. BLAST has many applications, such as identifying species, establishing evolutionary relationships, DNA mapping, and locating protein domains.
DNA Supercoiling
This contains DNA Supercoiling , relation between Linking no,Twist and Writhe and a brief explanation of Topoisomerase
lambda cloning vector
- Lambda bacteriophage cloning vectors were developed to overcome limitations in the size of DNA that could be inserted into unmodified lambda vectors.
- Segments of the non-essential lambda genome could be deleted to allow insertion of up to 18kb of new DNA while still allowing packaging.
- Natural selection was used to generate lambda strains lacking restriction sites, allowing restriction-based cloning.
- The first lambda vectors were insertion and replacement vectors, while later cosmids allowed cloning of fragments up to 52kb.
Protein data bank
The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a database for the three-dimensional structural data of large biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids. This presentation deals with what, why, how, where and who of PDB. In this presentation we have also included briefing about various file formats available in PDB with emphasis on PDB file format
Phagemid vector
This document discusses the phagemid vector pBluescript, which can be used in either the positive or negative orientation. pBluescript is a phagemid vector that can be used to clone DNA fragments for sequencing, mutagenesis, protein expression or other molecular biology experiments. References for further information about pBluescript are provided.
Genomic and c dna library
Genomic and cDNA libraries are constructed to isolate genes of interest from organisms. Genomic libraries contain total chromosomal DNA while cDNA libraries contain mRNA from specific cell types. DNA is digested and ligated into vectors to clone fragments. Libraries are screened using probes and PCR to identify clones containing genes of interest. cDNA libraries are useful for studying eukaryotic gene expression as they contain mRNA from specific cells. Thousands of clones may need to be screened to have high probability of isolating a particular gene fragment.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing
This document discusses DNA sequencing methods. It describes the Maxam-Gilbert sequencing method developed in 1976-1977 which uses chemical modification and cleavage of DNA at specific bases, followed by electrophoresis to separate fragments by size. It also mentions the popular Sanger sequencing method. The procedure for Maxam-Gilbert sequencing involves labeling DNA, cleaving it with chemicals, running the fragments on a gel, and analyzing the results to deduce the DNA sequence. Advantages include no premature termination and ability to sequence stretches not possible with enzymatic methods, while disadvantages include use of radioactivity and toxic chemicals.
RNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
RNA plays important roles in coding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes. Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material, including those that cause diseases like SARS, influenza, hepatitis C, and measles. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was the first virus crystallized and shown through experiments to have RNA, not DNA, as its genetic material. When purified TMV RNA was inoculated into healthy tobacco plants, it caused lesions, demonstrating that the RNA alone carried the genetic information to cause infection.
Cosmids vector
1. A cosmid is a type of plasmid vector that contains sequences from bacteriophage lambda, specifically the cos sites. This allows DNA fragments up to 45kb to be packaged into phage particles and transduced into bacteria.
2. Cosmids are developed by combining features of plasmid and phage vectors. They can accept large DNA inserts through packaging and transduction while also replicating stably inside bacteria like plasmids.
3. Cloning with cosmids involves inserting DNA fragments into the cosmid, ligating to form concatemers, in vitro packaging into phage particles, and transducing the particles into bacteria where the cosmids replicate as plasmids.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic genome
Prokaryotic genomes are circular, double-stranded DNA contained within the nucleoid. They vary in length but are generally a few million base pairs. DNA supercoiling allows for tight packing of the genome.
Eukaryotic genomes are linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins within the nucleus. The DNA is wrapped around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, compacting the genome. Eukaryotic genomes are generally larger and contain more DNA than prokaryotic genomes.
Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes include genome size, number of chromosomes, ploidy level, association with histones, and method of compaction.
Dna sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the order of nucleotides in DNA. There are several methods of DNA sequencing including conventional, cycle sequencing, automated sequencing, and pyrosequencing. Conventional methods include chemical degradation and chain termination. Chemical degradation uses base-specific chemical reactions to cleave DNA fragments for sequencing. Chain termination uses DNA polymerase and dideoxynucleotides to terminate DNA strand extension for sequencing. Cycle sequencing applies the chain termination method to PCR for linear amplification of sequencing products. Automated sequencing uses fluorescence labeling for high-throughput sequencing. Pyrosequencing sequences DNA by detecting pyrophosphate release during polymerase nucleotide incorporation without electrophoresis.
repetitive and non repetitive dna.pptx
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
Cot curve
Cot value and Cot Curve analysis is a technique for measuring DNA complexity based on renaturation kinetics. DNA is denatured and allowed to reanneal, with larger DNA taking longer. Cot value accounts for DNA concentration, time, and buffer effects, representing repetitive sequences - lower Cot means more repeats. Examples show bacteria have nearly all single-copy DNA, while mouse has varying proportions of single-copy, middle repetitive, and highly repetitive sequences. Cot curve analysis provides information on genome size, complexity, and proportions of sequence types.
Gen bank databases
GenBank is a database that contains annotated nucleotide and protein sequences. It includes genomic DNA, mRNA, and EST sequences. There are three main sections in a GenBank file - the header, features, and sequence. The header provides definition, accession number, organism, and reference information. The features section contains gene and protein annotation. The sequence section displays the actual nucleotide or amino acid sequence. Understanding the GenBank file format helps effectively search and retrieve sequences from this important biological database.
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The National Center for Biotechnology Information advances science and health by providing access to biomedical and genomic informationLinker, Adaptor, Homopolymeric Tailing & Terminal Transferase
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DNA as genetic material
The genetic material of a cell refers to materials like DNA, RNA, and proteins that play a fundamental role in determining cell structure and heredity. Early experiments suggested DNA, RNA, or proteins could be the genetic material. However, later experiments provided strong evidence that DNA is the primary genetic material:
1. Frederick Griffith's experiments in 1928 with pneumococcus bacteria showed that genetic information could be transferred between bacteria.
2. In 1944, Avery, Macleod, and McCarty proved that the transforming principle in pneumococcus was DNA, not RNA or proteins.
3. In 1952, Hershey and Chase's experiment with bacteriophage T2 virus showed that only DNA entered bacterial cells
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE -DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
12 TH.CH.4-MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE -DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
#GRIFFITH EXPE.
#AVERY,MAC CLEOD ,MAC CARTY EXPE.
#HARSHY AND CHASE EXPE.
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Pyrosequencing
Pyrosequencing is a sequencing method that detects DNA polymerase activity by measuring the release of pyrophosphate using a cascade of enzymatic reactions that generate visible light. It utilizes emulsion PCR to amplify DNA fragments on beads in microreactors. The beads are then loaded into wells and sequenced by sequentially adding nucleotides and detecting light produced upon incorporation using a CCD camera. Key advantages are its accuracy, high throughput of up to 48,000 probes per day, and ease of automation. However, it requires specialized equipment and software.
Gene silencing
Overview of Gene silencing, how it's works. its pros and cons to the future aspects of genetic engineering.
GENOME ORGANISATION IN EUKARYOTES
The document discusses genome organization in eukaryotes. It begins by defining the genome as an organism's entire hereditary information, encoded in DNA or RNA. In eukaryotes, DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers, which condense into chromosomes. The document then discusses various levels of chromatin organization, from DNA wrapping around nucleosomes to form beads on a string, to higher-order folding forming metaphase chromosomes. Chromatin exists in two types - loosely packed euchromatin and tightly packed heterochromatin. Overall, the document provides an overview of eukaryotic genome and chromatin organization from nucleosomes to chromosomes.
cryptic satellite DNA
This document discusses cryptic satellite DNA. It begins by introducing satellite DNA as highly repetitive sequences that form distinct bands during density gradient centrifugation. Cryptic satellite DNA does not form distinct bands due to base methylation. The document then provides two examples of cryptic satellite DNA: 1) In Drosophila virilis, there are three major satellites and a cryptic one. 2) In a hermit crab, one major very highly repeated DNA and three minor variants comprising inverted repeats account for 30% of its genome. These minor variants are considered cryptic satellites.
BLAST
This document discusses the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST), which allows users to compare a query DNA or protein sequence against sequence databases to find regions of local similarity. BLAST breaks the query into short words that are then searched for in database sequences. When words are found in common, BLAST extends the alignment in both directions to find higher-scoring matches. BLAST outputs include a graphical display of alignments, a hit list ranking matches by similarity score, and detailed alignments. BLAST has many applications, such as identifying species, establishing evolutionary relationships, DNA mapping, and locating protein domains.
DNA Supercoiling
This contains DNA Supercoiling , relation between Linking no,Twist and Writhe and a brief explanation of Topoisomerase
lambda cloning vector
- Lambda bacteriophage cloning vectors were developed to overcome limitations in the size of DNA that could be inserted into unmodified lambda vectors.
- Segments of the non-essential lambda genome could be deleted to allow insertion of up to 18kb of new DNA while still allowing packaging.
- Natural selection was used to generate lambda strains lacking restriction sites, allowing restriction-based cloning.
- The first lambda vectors were insertion and replacement vectors, while later cosmids allowed cloning of fragments up to 52kb.
Protein data bank
The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a database for the three-dimensional structural data of large biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids. This presentation deals with what, why, how, where and who of PDB. In this presentation we have also included briefing about various file formats available in PDB with emphasis on PDB file format
Phagemid vector
This document discusses the phagemid vector pBluescript, which can be used in either the positive or negative orientation. pBluescript is a phagemid vector that can be used to clone DNA fragments for sequencing, mutagenesis, protein expression or other molecular biology experiments. References for further information about pBluescript are provided.
Genomic and c dna library
Genomic and cDNA libraries are constructed to isolate genes of interest from organisms. Genomic libraries contain total chromosomal DNA while cDNA libraries contain mRNA from specific cell types. DNA is digested and ligated into vectors to clone fragments. Libraries are screened using probes and PCR to identify clones containing genes of interest. cDNA libraries are useful for studying eukaryotic gene expression as they contain mRNA from specific cells. Thousands of clones may need to be screened to have high probability of isolating a particular gene fragment.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing
This document discusses DNA sequencing methods. It describes the Maxam-Gilbert sequencing method developed in 1976-1977 which uses chemical modification and cleavage of DNA at specific bases, followed by electrophoresis to separate fragments by size. It also mentions the popular Sanger sequencing method. The procedure for Maxam-Gilbert sequencing involves labeling DNA, cleaving it with chemicals, running the fragments on a gel, and analyzing the results to deduce the DNA sequence. Advantages include no premature termination and ability to sequence stretches not possible with enzymatic methods, while disadvantages include use of radioactivity and toxic chemicals.
RNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
RNA plays important roles in coding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes. Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material, including those that cause diseases like SARS, influenza, hepatitis C, and measles. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was the first virus crystallized and shown through experiments to have RNA, not DNA, as its genetic material. When purified TMV RNA was inoculated into healthy tobacco plants, it caused lesions, demonstrating that the RNA alone carried the genetic information to cause infection.
Cosmids vector
1. A cosmid is a type of plasmid vector that contains sequences from bacteriophage lambda, specifically the cos sites. This allows DNA fragments up to 45kb to be packaged into phage particles and transduced into bacteria.
2. Cosmids are developed by combining features of plasmid and phage vectors. They can accept large DNA inserts through packaging and transduction while also replicating stably inside bacteria like plasmids.
3. Cloning with cosmids involves inserting DNA fragments into the cosmid, ligating to form concatemers, in vitro packaging into phage particles, and transducing the particles into bacteria where the cosmids replicate as plasmids.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic genome
Prokaryotic genomes are circular, double-stranded DNA contained within the nucleoid. They vary in length but are generally a few million base pairs. DNA supercoiling allows for tight packing of the genome.
Eukaryotic genomes are linear chromosomes associated with histone proteins within the nucleus. The DNA is wrapped around histone octamers to form nucleosomes, compacting the genome. Eukaryotic genomes are generally larger and contain more DNA than prokaryotic genomes.
Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes include genome size, number of chromosomes, ploidy level, association with histones, and method of compaction.
Dna sequencing
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the order of nucleotides in DNA. There are several methods of DNA sequencing including conventional, cycle sequencing, automated sequencing, and pyrosequencing. Conventional methods include chemical degradation and chain termination. Chemical degradation uses base-specific chemical reactions to cleave DNA fragments for sequencing. Chain termination uses DNA polymerase and dideoxynucleotides to terminate DNA strand extension for sequencing. Cycle sequencing applies the chain termination method to PCR for linear amplification of sequencing products. Automated sequencing uses fluorescence labeling for high-throughput sequencing. Pyrosequencing sequences DNA by detecting pyrophosphate release during polymerase nucleotide incorporation without electrophoresis.
repetitive and non repetitive dna.pptx
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
Cot curve
Cot value and Cot Curve analysis is a technique for measuring DNA complexity based on renaturation kinetics. DNA is denatured and allowed to reanneal, with larger DNA taking longer. Cot value accounts for DNA concentration, time, and buffer effects, representing repetitive sequences - lower Cot means more repeats. Examples show bacteria have nearly all single-copy DNA, while mouse has varying proportions of single-copy, middle repetitive, and highly repetitive sequences. Cot curve analysis provides information on genome size, complexity, and proportions of sequence types.
Gen bank databases
GenBank is a database that contains annotated nucleotide and protein sequences. It includes genomic DNA, mRNA, and EST sequences. There are three main sections in a GenBank file - the header, features, and sequence. The header provides definition, accession number, organism, and reference information. The features section contains gene and protein annotation. The sequence section displays the actual nucleotide or amino acid sequence. Understanding the GenBank file format helps effectively search and retrieve sequences from this important biological database.
NCBI National Center for Biotechnology Information
NCBI National Center for Biotechnology InformationThapar Institute of Engineering & Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India
The National Center for Biotechnology Information advances science and health by providing access to biomedical and genomic informationLinker, Adaptor, Homopolymeric Tailing & Terminal Transferase
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Similar to Biochemical Evidence For dna As Genetic Material
DNA as genetic material
The genetic material of a cell refers to materials like DNA, RNA, and proteins that play a fundamental role in determining cell structure and heredity. Early experiments suggested DNA, RNA, or proteins could be the genetic material. However, later experiments provided strong evidence that DNA is the primary genetic material:
1. Frederick Griffith's experiments in 1928 with pneumococcus bacteria showed that genetic information could be transferred between bacteria.
2. In 1944, Avery, Macleod, and McCarty proved that the transforming principle in pneumococcus was DNA, not RNA or proteins.
3. In 1952, Hershey and Chase's experiment with bacteriophage T2 virus showed that only DNA entered bacterial cells
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE -DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
12 TH.CH.4-MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE -DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
#GRIFFITH EXPE.
#AVERY,MAC CLEOD ,MAC CARTY EXPE.
#HARSHY AND CHASE EXPE.
#Friedrich Miescher
Genetic material
The document discusses the evidence that led scientists to determine that DNA is the genetic material of living organisms. It describes key experiments including Griffith's experiment with pneumonia bacteria strains that showed cell debris could transform one strain into another, and Hershey and Chase's experiment using bacteriophage that demonstrated viral DNA, not proteins, enters host cells to direct new virus production. The document also reviews various lines of evidence that supported DNA as the carrier of hereditary information, such as its location in cell nuclei and ability to accurately replicate.
Hershey and chase
The Hershey-Chase experiment helped confirm that DNA is the genetic material by showing that the DNA, but not the proteins, of bacteriophages enters host bacterial cells during infection. They uniquely labeled the DNA and proteins of bacteriophages with different radioactive isotopes, then showed that the progeny of infected bacteria contained the radioactivity from the original phage DNA but not proteins. This provided strong evidence that DNA, rather than protein, carries the genetic information required for reproduction.
research done to prove DNA a genetic material
1. Genetic inheritance refers to the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genetic material. DNA was identified as the genetic material based on its ability to stably replicate and mutate over generations.
2. Experiments in the early 20th century identified DNA as the substance within chromosomes that determines inheritance. Key experiments included Avery, MacLeod and McCarty demonstrating transformation is caused by DNA.
3. The structure of DNA was elucidated in 1953 when Watson and Crick proposed the double helix model based on X-ray crystallography data from Franklin and Chargaff's rules regarding nucleotide base ratios. This established DNA as the molecule of heredity.
DNA -Genetic Material
The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function. It discusses early experiments that established DNA as the genetic material, including Griffith's experiments showing transformation in bacteria and Avery, Macleod and McCarty's experiments proving that DNA is the transforming principle. It describes Chargaff's rules, Watson and Crick's proposal of the double helix model based on X-ray diffraction data, and semiconservative DNA replication demonstrated by Meselson and Stahl's experiment using nitrogen isotopes.
The hershey chase experiment
The Hershey-Chase experiment proved that DNA is the genetic material transferred from viruses to bacteria. They labeled the DNA of some bacteriophages with radioactive phosphorus and the protein of others with radioactive sulfur. When the labeled phages infected bacteria, only the bacteria infected with phages containing radioactive DNA became radioactive, showing the DNA entered the bacteria while the labeled proteins did not. This provided evidence that DNA rather than protein carries genetic information.
Molecular basis of inheritance
This document provides information on DNA structure and replication. It describes that DNA is made of two polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide bases. Replication of DNA is semiconservative, meaning each new DNA molecule contains one original and one newly synthesized strand. Experiments by Meselson and Stahl using isotopes of nitrogen demonstrated that replication results in daughter DNA molecules with one original and one new strand, supporting the semiconservative model proposed by Watson and Crick.
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B.sc. agri i pog unit 1 introduction to genetics
The document provides an overview of genetics principles including:
1) DNA serves as the repository for genetic information in cells and replicates through a complex process to minimize errors. The flow of information goes from DNA to RNA to protein.
2) Early experiments by Griffith, Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty demonstrated that DNA carries genetic information by showing it was responsible for bacterial transformation. Further work by Hershey and Chase using bacteriophage showed that viral DNA, not protein, entered host cells to direct new virus production.
3) The relationships between DNA, RNA, and protein were established as the central dogma of molecular biology, where DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein
Molecular Genetics
The document summarizes the central dogma of biology and the discovery of DNA as the genetic material. It describes key experiments that showed DNA replicates in a semiconservative manner, with each parental strand serving as a template for a new complementary daughter strand. The process of DNA replication requires several enzymes including DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase and primase to unwind, copy and join new DNA strands.
MB class 2.ppt
DNA is the genetic material in most organisms as shown through experiments. Frederick Griffith showed bacterial transformation through DNA in 1928. Avery, MacLeod and McCarty isolated DNA from bacteria and showed it could transform other bacteria in 1944. Hershey and Chase used radioactive labels in 1952 to track bacteriophage DNA and proteins entering bacteria, demonstrating that only DNA entered and was used to produce new phage particles. While some viruses use RNA as their genetic material, these classical experiments provided strong evidence that DNA carries hereditary information in the majority of living things.
Basic concepts & scope of recombinant DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA molecules from different sources and introducing them into host cells. Key developments include the discovery that DNA carries genetic information (Avery, 1944), determining DNA's structure (Watson and Crick, 1953), developing techniques to cut and join DNA (restriction enzymes and ligase, 1970s), and creating the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining bacterial plasmid and phage DNA (Cohen and Boyer, 1973). These advances laid the foundation for genetic engineering.
Chapter 12- DNA, RNA, and Proteins
Fredrick Griffith discovered that heat-killed pneumonia bacteria could transform harmless bacteria into deadly disease-causing bacteria when mixed together and injected into mice. This led researchers like Oswald Avery to determine that DNA was the molecule responsible for transformation. Further experiments by Hershey and Chase showed that the genetic material of viruses that infect bacteria is DNA. Together, these findings established DNA as the genetic material that gets passed from parents to offspring and controls inheritance.
Class xii chapter 6
This document discusses the structure and replication of DNA. It provides details on:
1. The key components of DNA including deoxyribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. It also describes how nucleotides and polynucleotide strands are formed.
2. The double helix structure of DNA proposed by Watson and Crick, including how the strands are antiparallel and connected through complementary base pairing.
3. Semiconservative replication of DNA, where each old DNA strand acts as a template for a new complementary strand, resulting in two identical double-stranded DNA molecules after replication.
4. Experiments by Meselson and Stahl using isotopes that provided evidence supporting the
The Discovery of DNA
DNA was discovered through the work of many scientists over several decades. Gregor Mendel discovered the principles of heredity in 1866. Frederick Griffith's experiment in 1928 showed that genetic material could be transferred between bacteria. Avery, Hershey and Chase's experiments in the 1940s-50s proved that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography images in 1952 provided key evidence of DNA's structure. Watson and Crick combined this evidence to propose their model of DNA's double helix structure in 1953.
Transforming principle..
Frederick Griffith discovered the principle of transformation through experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria. He found that heat-killed virulent S-strain bacteria could make non-virulent R-strain bacteria transform and become virulent. Later, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty discovered that DNA alone from S bacteria could transform R bacteria. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase provided conclusive evidence that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material through experiments using bacteriophages infecting E. coli bacteria. They found that radioactive DNA, but not protein, passed from the bacteriophages into the bacterial cells.
Dna as genetic material
This power point presentation is an attempt to present some direct and some indirect evidences in favour of DNA as genetic material. Very few organisms have RNA as genetic material for example plant virus and some bacteriophages
Genetics : Molecular basis of Inheritance
This document defines key terms related to biology and genetics. It describes the structure and packaging of DNA, the central dogma of molecular biology, and important experiments that determined DNA is the genetic material, including Griffith's experiment demonstrating transformation, Avery et al's identification of DNA as the transforming principle, Hershey and Chase's experiment using bacteriophage, and Meselson and Stahl's experiment demonstrating semi-conservative DNA replication. It also outlines DNA and RNA structure, the double helix model of DNA, and DNA replication.
The molecular basis of inheritance
1. The document discusses the discovery of DNA as the genetic material through experiments in the early 20th century. Key evidence came from studies showing that DNA from one bacteria could transform another harmless strain into a pathogenic one.
2. Further evidence came from studies of viruses that infect bacteria, which showed that only the DNA component of the viruses was able to enter bacterial cells and provide genetic information.
3. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by Watson and Crick through building physical models. They proposed the double helix structure with nucleotides on two spiraling backbones linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide pairs.
Similar to Biochemical Evidence For dna As Genetic Material (20)
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE -DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE -DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL
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genetic material in organization, Central dogma,transcription in prokaryotes ...
Basic concepts & scope of recombinant DNA technology
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Topological manupilation of DNA.pptx
The topology of DNA is defined by how the two complementary single strand are intertwined
DNA in a relax state usually assumes the B-Conformation with10.6 bp per turn
DNA is subjected to bends or opening of DNA over winding or unwinding, its base pair turn changes and the DNA is subjected to stress and strain
DNA Topology also encompasses super coiling
RNA – i PATHWAY
RNA interference [ RNAi] is a sequence mechanism , triggered by the introduction of ds RNA leading to mRNA degradation
It results in switching the targeted gene on and off at transcriptional or post transcriptional level3
The long double stranded RNAs enter a cellular pathway that is known as RNA interference pathway .
First ds RNAs get processed into 20-25 nucleotides small interfering RNAs [siRNAs] by an enzyme Dicer .
Small interfering RNAs assemble into RNA induced silencing complexes [RISCs] ,unwinding in the process.
The siRNAs strands subsequently guide the RISCs complementary RNA molecules , where they cleave and destroy the RNA .
Cleavage of RNA takes place near the middle of the region bound by siRNA strand .
This results into mRNA Degradation.
Gene knockdown
Double stranded RNA is synthesized with a sequence complementary to a gene of interest and introduced into a cell organism ,where it is recognized as exogenous genetic material and activates the RNAi pathway .
Using this mechanism, researchers can cause drastic decrease in the expresssion of targeted gene .
Since RNAi may not totally abolish expression of the gene , this technique is referred to as knockdown.
Morphology Of Viruses : Viruses, structure and characteristics
Viruses can be extremely simple in design, consisting of nuclei acid
surrounded by the protein coat as a capsid.
The capsid is composed of smaller protein components
referred to as capsomeres.
The capsid along with genome combination
is called a nucleocapsid.
The viruses can also posses additional components,
with most common being an additional membranous layer
that surrounds nucleocapsid called an envelope.
This envelope is actually acquired from the nuclear or
plasma membrane of the infected host cell and then
Modified with viral protein called peplomere.
A complete virus, with all the components needed for
host cell to cause infection is referred to as virions.
Viruses come in many shapes and sizes, but these are consistent
and distinct for each viral family.
The morphology of virus include size, shapes, genetic constituents,
and the nuclear envelope
An infective agent that typically consist of a nuclei acid molecule In protein coat, it is too small can not visible through naked eyes and even by light microscopy, and is able to multiply only within the living cells of a host.
These are about 100 times smaller than bacteria and can only be observed by electron microscope.
These are small obligate intracellular parasites, which Contain either a RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus protein coat.
These are acellular, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes because they lack the characters of living beings except the ability to replicate. And they infect all types of cells :- humans, animals, plants, bacteria, yeast, protozoa, etc.
VIRAL SIZE:-
These are much smaller than bacteria for a time
they were know as’filterable agents’ as they can pass through
filters that can hold back bacteria.
They can not be seen under light microscope hence
called as'ultramicroscopic‘. These viral particles seen in this
manner are know as ‘elementary bodies’.
The size ranges:- 5-300nanometer.
In recent years a number of viruses including mimivirus length of
virus up to 600nm,and Pandoravirus Ranges from 50-100nm
In length have been identified.
Most viruses vary in diameter from 250-400nm;the largest,
however measure about 500nm in diameter and are about 700-1,000nm in length.
Paramyxoviruses can be up to 14,000nm long, Rotavirus particles measures 76.5nm in diameter.
Viruses, VIRAL STRUCTURE, MORPHOLOGY
Glyoxylate cycle PATHWAYS REACTION
A series of metabolic reactions by which many different organism utilise fats for the synthesis of carbohydrate
Another Process Involving Glycolytic Enzymes and Metabolites
Anabolic metabolic pathway occurring in plants, and several
microorganisms , fungi not animals.
Occurs in glyoxysome
The enzymes common to the TCA cycle and the glyoxysomes are isoenzymes, one specific to mitochondria and the other to glyoxysomes.
The glyoxylate cycle allows plants to use acetyl-CoA derived from β-oxidation of fatty acids for carbohydrate synthesis (use fats for the synthesis of carbohydrates).
The glyoxylate cycle is a cyclic pathway that result in conversion of 2 carbon fragment of Acetyl CoA TO 4 carbon compound succinate then succinate is covert to oxaloacetate and then glucose involving the reaction of gluconeogenesis
VIRUSES CLASSIFICATION , LIFE CYCLE OF VIRUSES. CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES
VIRUSES
LIFE CYCLE OF BACTERIOPHAGES
The word virus is derived from Latin word venom which means poisonous fluid that causes infection.
The branch of science that deals with the study of viruses is called Virology. It is the branch of Microbiology.
They show living characters inside the host and non living characters outside the host.
They contain either DNA or RNA as genetic material.
They have different size and shape. They cause diseases in plants, animals and micro-organisms .
Not cellular
Cannot carry on metabolic activities independently.
Contain either DNA or RNA, not both ( true cells contain both ).
Lack ribosomes and enzymes necessary for protein synthesis.
Reproduce only within cells they infect.
CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
Holmes, in 1948, proposed a simple system of classifying viruses based on the type of cell (host) they infect:
Phytophagineae: They infect plants and they RNA as their genetic material. Eg: TMV,CaMV.
Zoophagineae: They infect animals and they have mostly DNA as their genetic material. Eg: Polio virus.
Pagineae: They infect bacterial cells, called bacteriophages they usually have DNA as genetic material.
Based on the viral envelope
Named after David Baltimore, a noble prize winning biologist n 1971.
1. dsDNA viruses Eg: Adenoviruses, Herpiviruses.
2. ssDNA viruses Eg: Paravoviruses.
3. dsRNA viruses Eg: Reoviruses.
4. (+)ssRNA viruses Eg: Picornaviruses.
5. (-)ssRNA viruses Eg: Orthomyxoviruses.
6. ssRNA-RT viruses Eg: Retroviruses.
7. dsDNA-RT viruses Eg: Hepadnaviruses.
Tobacco mosaic:
Causative agent: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
Symptoms: The leaves of infected plants develop mosaic patches ,it is due to destruction of chlorophyll or due to production of abnormal chlorophyll .blisters appear in the region of dark green spots these may be regular or irregular in advanced stages leaves curl and get distorted.
Adsorption of the virion to the bacterial cell.
Penetration and decoating of the nucleic acid .
Protein synthesis.
Breakdown of bacterial DNA.
Arrest of host cell development.
Replication of phage DNA.
Maturation of infective progeny.
Lysis and release of newly formed phages.
Holmes, in 1948, proposed a simple system of classifying viruses based on the type of cell (host) they infect:
Phytophagineae: They infect plants and they RNA as their genetic material. Eg: TMV,CaMV.
Zoophagineae: They infect animals and they have mostly DNA as their genetic material. Eg: Polio virus.
Pagineae: They infect bacterial cells, called bacteriophages they usually have DNA as genetic material.
SDS- Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis
SDS-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis
What is SDS?
Preparation of Gel
Process of SDS-PAGE
Visualization of protein bands
SDS-PAGE is differentiated into two systems.
*continuous sds-page
*discontinuous sds-page.
Polyacrylamide is used to form a gel, a matrix of a pores which allow the molecules migrate at different rates.
Negatively charged detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate.
Used to denature and linearize the proteins
Coated the proteins with negatively charged.
SDS-page is a technique that used to separate proteins according to their molecular size through the gel.
Proteins are unfolded and migrate from cathode to anode terminal at different rates.
Molecular weight is determined by compare the result with a standard curve of relative motility of standard proteins.
Visualizes the band under UV light.
Types of stains;
Coomassie Blue;
* Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining The Coomassie dyes R-250 and G-250 bind to proteins stoichiometrically through their sulfonic acid groups.
* . The interactions between dye and protein are Van der Waals and ionic. The sulfonic acid groups interact with positive amine groups. Therefore coomassie dye binds to wide range of proteins.
* Limited to ~100ng of protein.
Silver stain;
*most sensitive test
*detection limit 0.1-1.0ng of protein
The size of pores is determined by the concentration of acrylamide.
The higher the concentration, the smaller the size of pores.
Discontinuos sds-page consist of two different gels.
*stacking gel -4%of acrylamide
*separating gel-range from 5-15% of acrylamide.
SOLID WASTE AND MANAGEMENT BIO GAS PRODUCTION
Source And Management
Agriculture
Fisheries
Household
Commercial and Industry
MANAGEMENT :-
Storage
Collection
Transport and Handling
Recyling
Biogas production
Biogas production from biomass is an anaerobic process.
The anaerobic digestion is usually carried out by using are referred to as anaerobic digesters.
A digester may be made up of concrete bricks and cement or steel, usually built underground.
The digester has an inlet attached to a mixing tank feeding cow dung.
The methanogenic bacteria from another digester are also added with cow dung.
The digester is attached to a movable gas holding or storage tank with a gas outlet.
The used slurry comes out from the digester through an outlet. This can be used as a manure.
Process of Biogas production
By products of Sugar Industries
Molasses
Molasses is a viscous by product of refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar.
It contain solids, sucrose and reducing sugars.
Total sugar content is 45-55%. Hence it is a valuable raw material for the producton of many value added products.
India has the largest chemical industry in the world using sugarcane molasses to produce acetaldehyde, acetic acid, polyvinyl chloride, synthetic rubber etc.
Citric acid is produced easily from molasses by submerged fermentation.
Bagasse is the fibrous matter that remains after sugarcane stalks are crushed to extract their juice.
It is a dry pulpy residue left after the extraction of juice from sugarcane.
Bagasse is used as a biofuel and in manufacture of pulp and building materials.
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF PROTEINS
Primary structure of protein
Secondary structure of protein
Tertiary structure of protein
Quaternary structure of protein
Methods to determine protein structure
Conclusion
References
METHODS TO DETERMINE PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids.
The amino acids are held together in a protein by
covalent peptide bonds or linkages.
A peptide bond are formed when amino group of an
amino acid combines with the carboxyl group of another.
The conformation of polypeptide chain by twisting or folding is referred to as secondary structure.
Two types of secondary structures α-helix and β-sheet are mainly identified.
α-Helical structure was proposed by Pauling and Corey in 1951.
It occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds.
Each turn of α-helix contains 3.6 amino acids.
β-pleated sheets are composed of two or more segments of fully extended peptide chains.
β-Sheets may be arranged either in parallel or anti-parallel direction.
Many globular proteins contain combinations of α-helix and β-pleated sheet secondary structure, these patterns are called supersecondary structures also called motifs.
The three dimensional arrangement of protein structure is referred to as tertiary structure.
It is a compact structure with hydrophobic side chains held interior while the hydrophilic groups are on the surface.
This type of arrangement provide stability of the molecule.
Besides the H-bongs, disulfide bonds, ionic interactions, hydrophobic interactions also contribute to the tertiary structure.
PRIONS AND VIROIDS
PRIONS AND VIROIDS , Diseases caused by Prions General properties , REPLICATION OF VIROIDS , viorids is 2 types
Vitamine B1 Thaimine Pyrophosphate
This document summarizes information about vitamin B1 (thiamine) and its active coenzyme form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). It discusses the history of thiamine discovery and its chemical structure. Thiamine is converted to TPP in the liver and intestinal mucosa by the enzyme thiamine pyrophosphokinase using ATP. TPP acts as a coenzyme, transferring aldehyde groups in metabolic reactions. Sources of thiamine are mentioned and a deficiency can cause beriberi. Functions include roles in growth, nervous system maintenance, and metabolism.
STAINING TECHNIQUES AND TYPES PROCEDURE.
This document discusses various staining techniques used in microscopy to visualize bacteria and other microscopic organisms. It describes different types of stains including simple stains that color all structures the same and differential stains that color different structures differently. Specific staining techniques are explained, including Gram staining to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast staining for mycobacteria, and endospore staining. The document provides details on procedures, requirements, and results for common staining methods.
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This document summarizes a seminar presentation on carbon dioxide (CO2) capture. It discusses how CO2 emissions have rapidly increased due to population growth and energy consumption. There are three main options to reduce CO2 emissions: improving energy efficiency, switching to non-fossil fuel energy sources, and developing carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies. The document then describes the three main methods of CCS - pre-combustion, post-combustion, and oxyfuel combustion. It also discusses transporting the captured CO2 via pipelines and storing it underground through geo-sequestration in depleted oil fields, aquifers, and other rock formations. The advantages and disadvantages of CCS technologies are
FERMENTATION TYPES .
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HUMAN CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS AND KARYOTYPE ANALYSIS.
Chromosomal aberrations refer to changes in chromosome structure or number. The document discusses various types of structural aberrations like deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations, and numerical aberrations involving changes in ploidy. Karyotype analysis involves staining and arranging chromosomes to identify aberrations. Abnormal karyotypes can lead to diseases like Down syndrome, Patau syndrome, and Cri du chat syndrome. The normal human karyotype contains 22 pairs of autosomes and an XX or XY sex chromosome complement.
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(Work in progress.)
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Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
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Biochemical Evidence For dna As Genetic Material
- 1. PADMASHREE INSTITUTE OF MANEGMENT AND SCIENCE. Seminar topic on; • Biochemical Evidence For dna As Genetic Material Presented by; Shylesh murthy I .A 1st yr Msc biotechnology PIMS
- 2. The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation. What is genetic material?
- 3. Continue… DNAProtein RNA Protein,RNA and DNA were thought as genetic material. But many experiments suggest DNA as genetic material rather than protein and RNA
- 4. What is DNA? •DNA contains three main components (1) phosphate (PO4) groups;(2) five-carbon sugars; and (3) nitrogen-containing bases called purines (adenine,A,and guanine,G) and pyrimidines(thymine,T, and cytosine,C).nitrogen base and sugar make a nucleoside. Phosphate group and a nucleoside make a nucleotide. •DNA is composed of two strand of nucleotides. The two strands are held together by H-bonds. (complementary base pairing) •A pyrimidine in one chain is always paired with a purine in the other chain •DNA is deoxyribo nucleic acid. A German chemist,Friedrich Miescher, discovered DNA in 1869.
- 5. The genetic information in all cell is stored in DNA Stability of DNA Location of DNA The constant molecular composition of DNA. A relation between the DNA & chromosomes. These are strong evidence for the statement but these do not prove the statement
- 6. Discovery of Transformation in Bacteria: In 1928, discovered bacterial transformation. He worked on Streptococcus pneumonieae (Pneumococcus) Pneumococci have various strains which can be classified by- 1. The presence or absence of a polysaccharide capsule. 2. The molecular composition of the capsule. When grown on blood agar medium, pneumococci with capsules are virulent and form large, smooth colonies and designated as type S
- 7. s pneumococci mutate to an avirulent form that has no capsules. When grown on blood agar medium, these noncapsulated pnuemococci form small, rough-surfaced colonies and designated as type R Based on the molecular composition of the capsule, these pneumococci cells are type I, II, III, and so forth.
- 9. The transforming principle is DNA: In 1944, Oswald Avery,Colin Mcleod & Maclyn McCarty proved that the transforming material in pneumococci was DNA rather than RNA or Protein They concluded that “a nucleic acid of the deoxyribose type is the fundamental unit of the transforming principle of Pneumococcus”
- 10. Genetic information is transmitted by DNA only • The final evidence that DNA transmits genetic information was provided by Hershey and Chase in 1952 • They experimented with T2 bacteriophages, viruses that attack bacteria.
- 11. HERSHEY & CHASE (1952) EXPERIMENT WITH T2 BACTERIOPHAGE In culture I Bacteriophage was grown in medium containing Radioactive Phosphorus (32P))To make DNA Radioactive In culture II Bacteriophage was grown in medium containing radioactive Sulphur (35S) To make proteins Radioactive Both kinds of Bacteriophage particles were allowed to infect Bacteria The infected bacteria were observed for radioactivity Radioactive Phosphorus was found with bacterial cells Radioactive Sulphur was not traced in bacterial cells ( Only in Ghosts) Bacteriophage progeny carried only radioactive phosphorus and not radioactive sulphur
- 12. HERSHAY & CHASE CONCLUSION As ghosts or coat of Bacteriophage were not labelled with 32P and only with 35S. The results of experiment clearly indicate that only DNA and not the proteins enter the bacterial cell. Protein coat is left outside. The DNA entering the host cell carries all the genetic information for synthesis of new phage particle. This certainly proves that DNA is the genetic material in Bacteriophage and not proteins
- 13. - Bacteriophage DNA was labeled with radioactive phosphorus (32P) - Bacteriophage protein was labeled with radioactive sulphur (35S) - Radioactive molecules were tracked - only the bacteriophage DNA (as indicated by the 32P) entered the bacteria and was used to produce more bacteriophage Conclusion: DNA is the genetic material Summary of Hershey & Chase (1952 ) experiment
- 14. The End
- 15. References ; Biology 1. DR SUDAKAR RAO 2. V-k AGARWAL 3. Molecular biology by; George M, Malacinski