Module-1_INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS.pptx

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING AND
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATRIALS
Prepared By: Prof. Silas Chaudhari
Civil Engineering Department
Pacific School of Engineering

Basic Civil Engineering
• Engineering is the intelligent application of knowledge gained from science, mathematics, economics, and practical
experience in various fields of practical interest. Engineering helps to invent, design, build, maintain, and improve all
types of structures, machines, devices, systems, materials, and processes.
• Civil engineering is the engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of public
works such as buildings, roads, bridges, water, and energy systems as well as public facilities like ports, railways, and
airports.
• Civil engineering is all about people. It is the work that civil engineers do to develop and improve the services and
facilities that general people use in their everyday life.
• Civil engineers deal with almost every aspect of our everyday lives. From the water you use to brush your teeth in
the morning to the road you drive on to work and the school where you take your children to the power that charges
your cell phone.

Contribution of Civil Engineers
• General people may not realize the huge contributions made by civil engineers to the society. By developing the
infrastructure for our society, civil engineers are basically giving shape to the history of a nation. Only by going deep into the
duties that civil engineers do, one can understand the importance of their job and their many responsibilities.
• Civil engineering has played a vital role in increasing the health and quality of life, from developing better water supplies,
municipal sewer systems, waste water treatment plants, to the design of buildings to protect us from natural hazards and
provide health care, to improved agriculture through water resource development and distribution projects to rapid and
dramatic changes in transportation systems, civil engineers have developed the basic infrastructure on which modern society
depends. Civil engineers were the first engineers and continue to be dedicated to technology development for the common
good and the public.

Civil Engineering Subdivisions/ Branches
Civil Engineering, the mother of all engineering, is the oldest, broadest, most
simple and useful of all engineering discipline. As Civil Engineering is related to
every aspect of human life, it deals with a very large field. To make it simplified
Civil Engineering is divided into the following sub-categories or fields.
Surveying and
Levelling
Building,
Planning, and
Construction
Advance
Construction
Structure
engineering
Geotechnical
Engineering
Water
Resources
Engineering
Transportation
Engineering
Environmental
Engineering
Town Planning

Role of Civil Engineers
1. Surveying and Levelling
2. Soil Investigation
3. Planning of the building
4. Analysis and Design of the Structures
5. Quantity Survey and Prepare Estimation
6. To invite tenders and selecting contractors
7. Supervise work and insure progress of the work
8. To implement management techniques
9. To carry out valuation of Land for purpose of finding its cell and purches
price.
10. Demolish Structures.

Scope of Civil Engineering
Scope
According to Field of
Work, Area of services,
type of structures
According to Function
Of Civil Engineering
Building Construction, Construction of Heavy
Structures, Geotechnical Engineering,
Transportation Engineering, Water Recourse,
Environmental Engineering, Town Planning
Surveying, Planning, Structure Analysis and
Design, Professional Practice(Estimating,
Costing, ,Construction, Contracts),Construction
Management, Planning, Scheduling, Execution,
Quality Control and Research, Maintenance of
Structure)

Cement
What is Cement
History Of Cement
Essential Components and Chemical Composition of Cement
Manufacturing of Cement
Criteria for selecting Good Cement
Properties of Cement
Types of Cement

What is Cement?
• Cement is a fine, soft, grey powdery-type
substance.
• It is made from a mixture of elements that are
found in natural materials such as limestone, clay,
sand and/or shale.
• When cement is mixed with water, it can bind
sand and aggregates into a hard, solid mass called
concrete.

History of Cement
• In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British stone mason,
heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and
clay in his kitchen stove and ground the mixture
into a powder to create a hydraulic cement-one
that hardens with the addition of water.
• A variety of sandstone is found in very large
quantity in Portland in England. Thus, cement is
also called as Portland cement.
• In India, the first cement factory was installed at
Tamil Nadu (1904) by South India Industry Limited.

Essential Components and Chemical Composition
of cements

There are two processes depending upon whether the mixing and
grinding of raw materials is done in wet or dry conditions
1. Dry Process
2. Wet Process

In this process the following operations are involved
1. Mixing of raw materials
2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Packing and Distribution

Criteria for selecting Good Cement
Colour should be uniform and greenish
grey.
Should feel smooth when touched or
rubbed between the fingers.
Should feel cool when insert hand into the
dry cement bag.
Should free from hard lumps
Should not be moist
Should not contain excess amount of silica,
lime, alumina, alkalies, clay and silt.

Properties of Cement
1. Physical
2. Mechanical
3. Chemical

Physical Properties of Cement
1. Fineness
2. Soundness
3. Consistency
4. Setting Time

Fineness Test
• The Fineness test of cement is done by sieving cement
sample through standard IS sieve.
• The weight cement particle whose size greater than 90
microns is determined and the percentage of retained
cement particle are calculated. This is known as
Fineness of cement.
PROCEDURE:
1. Take 100 gm of cement sample and note its weight as
W₁.
2. Drop 100 gm of cement in 90 um sieve and close it
with the lid.
3. Now, shake the sieve with your hands by agitating the
sieve for 15 minutes.
4. After that take weight the retained cement on the 90
μm sieve as W₂.
Fineness : w1*w2/100

Soundness Test
• Soundness of cement can be defined as its
ability to retain its volume after it gets
hardened.
• This means that a properly sound cement will
undergo minimum volume change after it
converts into the hardened state.
• Expansion by le chatelier apparatus should
not be more than 10 mm.

Consistency Test
The standard consistency of cement
is that consistency, which permit the
vicat plunger to penetrate to a point
5 to 7mm from the bottom of the
vicat mould when tested.
By Consistency test, we can find
optimum amount of water to make
cement paste or mortar.

Setting Time Test
• Initial setting time of concrete is the time when
cement paste starts hardening (1 mm needle
inserted till 5 to 7 mm from bottom of vicat
apparatus).
• Initial setting time should not be less that 30 mins
for OPC.
• Final setting time is the time when cement paste
has hardened sufficiently in such a way that 1 mm
needle makes an impression on the paste in the
mould but 5 mm needle does not make any
impression.
• Final setting time should not be greater than 600
mins (10 hours) for OPC.

Compressive Strength of
Cement
(i) The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The
proportion is 1:3
(ii) The water is added to the mortar. The water cement
ratio is kept as 0.4
(iii) The mortar is placed in moulds & the moulds are placed
in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
(iv) The specimens are removed from the moulds and
submerged in clean water for curing.
(v) The cubes are then tested in compression testing
machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days.
Compressive Strength = Max. Compression Load / Area of
cube
70.6 mm x 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm Cube Moulds

Tensile Strength of Cement
i. The mortar of cement and sand is
prepared. The proportion is 1:3
ii. The water is added to the mortar. The
water cement ratio is kept as 0.4
iii. The mortar is placed in moulds & the
moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 24
hours.
iv. The specimens are removed from the
moulds and submerged in clean water for
curing.
v. The briquettes are then tested in
compression testing machine at the end
of 3 days and 7 days.
Tensile Strength = Failing load / Cross section
area

Chemical Properties
Ratio of Lime/Silica, alumina, iron oxide > 1
Ratio of Alumina/iron oxide >0.66
Magnesia <5%
Insoluble Residue <1.5%
Sulphur Content < 2.75%
Loss on ignition <4%

Types of Cement
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Quick Setting Cement
4. Rapid Hardening Cement
5. High Alumina Cement
6. Blast Furnace Cement
7. Low Heat Cement

Types of Cement
8. White Cement
9. Colored Cement
10. Sulphate Cement
11. Expanding Cement
12. Hydrophobic Cement
13. Water Proofing Cement
14. Acid Resistant Cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
It is a common variety of cement.
It is suitable for the construction of all civil engineering works except under
water constructions
Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement
For preparing cement mortar for masonry work, plastering, pointing work.
For preparing Concrete for casting floors, roofs, beams, columns, lintels,
stairs.
For Construction of heavy structures like dams, bridges, tunnels, etc.
For Construction of roads, water tanks, septic tanks.
For manufacturing precast concrete blocks, pipes, piles, fencing posts.
For construction of foundations, footpaths, watertight floors.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
It is manufactured by intergrading of OPC clinkers & 15 to
35 % pozzolanic materials like Fly ash, Slag.
Pozzolanic materials are essentially silicious or aluminous
material which does not have cementitious properties.
But it is in very fine form & in the presence of water react
with calcium hydroxide to form cementitious properties.
PPC does not give higher strength at early age but it gives
later strength.
It is economical compared to OPC.
It gives good durability.
It gives more volume of mortar compared to OPC.
Slag
Fly Ash

Quick Setting Cement
As the name indicates, it sets very fast.
The early setting property is brought out by reducing the amount of
gypsum during the grinding process.
This cement is costlier than ordinary Portland cement.
Initial setting time starts within 5 minutes, after adding water.
Final setting time: within 30 minutes.
It ground much finer than OPC.
It is used for Under water construction & Grouting Operations.

Rapid Hardening Cement
Also known as early gain in strength of cement.
This cement contains more percentage of CS and less percentage of
C₂S.
The high strength at early stage is due to finer grinding, as fineness of
cement will expose greater surface area for the action of water.
The strength obtained by this cement in 3 days = Strength obtained
by O.P.C in 7 days.
Initial and final setting times are same as OPC.ie. 30 mins and 10 hrs.

High Alumina Cement
It is manufactured by using raw materials limestone and bauxite.
Characterized by its dark colour, high heat of hydration and resistance
to chemical attack.
It is useful against corrosive action of sea water.
It is used for construction near & along sea-shores.

Blast Furnace Cement
For this cement slag which is obtained from blast furnace from steel
making industries.
It has slow rate of hardening & less heat of hydration.
It is not affected by sea water & used for marine structures

Low Heat Cement
Low percentage of tri-calcium aluminates (C3A) and silicate (C3S) and
high percentage of di-calcium silicate (C2S) is used to manufacture
this cement.
It has very low heat of hydration during setting & hardening.
Very slow rate of developing strength as rate of C3S Content is low.
It is used for massive concrete structures like dams where excessive
amount of concrete is used which can produce excessive amount of
heat which can develop cracks in structure.

White Cement
It is produced by mixing OPC with pure white
color produced with white chalk or clay free from
iron oxide.
As iron oxide gives the grey colour to cement, it is
therefore necessary for white cement to keep the
content of iron oxide as low as possible.
White cement gives milky or snow white
appearance.
It is costly & only used for interior decoration &
finishing work.
It is not used for normal construction work.

Colored Cement
It is produced by adding
pigments in regular cement.
Pigments used should be
durable under light, sun or
weather.
It is used for making top layer
in flooring, paver blocks &
other decorative purposes.

Sulphate Cement
Sulphate Cement = Ground blast furnace slag + OPC + CASO4.
Heat of hydration is considerably lower.
It is also resistant to Sulphate attack.
Used in a) Marine Structures, b) Mass concrete works

Expanding Cement
This cement is produced by adding an expanding agent
like sulpho-aluminate.
This cement expands & volume increases whereas other
cement shrinks & volume decreases while setting &
hardening.
Used to neutralize shrinkage of concrete made from
ordinary cement so as to eliminate cracks. A small
percentage of this cement with concrete will not let it
crack.
It is specially desirable for hydraulic structures to make
structures water tight.
In repair work, it is essential that the new concrete
should be tight fitting in the old concrete. This can be
done by using this cement.

Hydrophobic Cement
As the name of the cement denotes, hydro
means water and phobic means against.
Hydrophobic cement is obtained by grinding
Portland cement clinker with a film-forming
substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid.
These chemicals form a layer on the cement
particle and does not allow water to mix and start
hydration process in the transportation or storage
stage. Anyhow during the mixing process, due to
great agitation, this layer of water repellent break
and allows the hydration to take place.
Uses in longer storage periods and extremely wet
climatic conditions.

Acid Resistant Cement
It has high silicates and thus has high resistance to acids.
It is used for lining of acid storage tanks & joining acid proof bricks
and tiles.
It is also used for construction of acid resistant industrial flooring.

What is Concrete?
• Ingredients of Concrete
• Concrete
• Types of Concrete
• Grade of Concrete

What is Concrete?
It is plastic mixture of binding materials (like cement, lime) with sand
& aggregate in the presence of water.
Mixture when allowed to set becomes as hard as stone.
Other materials called admixtures are also added to obtain specific
effect.
By adjusting proportion of various ingredients, compressive strength
required for different purpose can be produced.
It can be used in gravity dams, roads, foundations etc.

Ingredients of Concrete
1. Cement
2. Coarse Aggregate(Gravel)
3. Fine Aggregate(Sand)
4. Water
5. Admixture

Types of Concrete
Lime Concrete
Main ingredient of concrete is Lime.
A concrete made from a mixture of lime,
sand, and gravel is said to be as lime
concrete.
It was widely used before the lime was
replaced by Portland cement.

Types of Concrete
Cement Concrete
Cement concrete is a type of concrete mix in which we use cement as
a binding material.
This cement may be ordinary portland cement or may be other
special type of cement like high alumina cement, rapid hardening
cement, portland slag cement depending upon particular
requirement of the construction.

Types of Concrete
Properties of Cement Concrete
Higher compressive strength.
It can be molded into any designed shape in construction.
Higher abrasion resistance.
It is very strong in tension also.
It can be prepared at any time, any place with locally available materials.
Good appearance & finish can be possible.
Fresh concrete have good workability.
Economical material of construction.
Hardened concrete have good durability & capacity to withstand all forces.

Types of Concrete
Reinforce Cement Concrete
When steel provided in cement concrete it
becomes reinforced cement concrete.
The most popular reinforcement is steel.
This is due the fact that steel has high
tensile and the bond strength compare to
others and also provide strong with
concrete.

Prestress Cement
Concrete
• Prestressed concrete is a form of
concrete used in construction. It is
substantially "prestressed" during
production.
• In a manner that strengthens it
against tensile forces which will exist
when in service.

Prestress Cement Concrete
Example:-Force-fitting of metal bands on
wooden barrels
The metal bands induce a state of initial hoop
compression, to counteract the hoop tension
caused by filling of liquid in the barrels

Light Weight Concrete
Lightweight concrete mixture is made with a lightweight coarse aggregate
and sometimes a portion or entire fine aggregates may be lightweight
instead of normal aggregates.
Porous aggregate are most
commonly used in light
weight concrete.
It has an in-place density
(unit weight) on the order
of 1440-1840 kg/m³.

High density concrete
High density concrete is a concrete having a density in the range of
6000 to 6400 kg/m³.
It is also known as Heavy weight concrete.
It is mainly used for the purpose of radiation shielding, for
counterweights and other uses where high density is required.

Types of Concrete
Precast concrete is a form of concrete that is prepared, cast and
cured off-site, usually in a controlled factory environment, using
reusable moulds.
Precast concrete elements can be joined to other elements to form a
complete structure.
It is typically used for structural components such as; wall panels,
beams, columns, floors, staircases, pipes, tunnels, and so on.

Grade of Concrete
Grade of concrete denotes its
strength required for
construction.
For example, M30 grade
signifies that compressive
strength required for
construction is 30 MPa.
The first letter in grade "M" is
the mix and 30 (any number) is
compressive strength at 28 days
in N/mm².

Brick
• What is Brick?
• Manufacturing Process of Brick
• Composition of Good Brick Earth
• Types of Bricks
• Classification of Bricks

What is Brick?
Bricks are one of the oldest and most popular building materials.
The reasons for bricks being very popular and widely used construction material
are,
• Cheap
• Durable
• Easy to handle and work with
• Easy availability
• Lightweight
Brick can be defined as,
"Bricks are blocks of tampered clay molded to suitable shapes and sizes while it is
still in plastic condition, dried in the sun and burnt, if desired so as to make them
more strong, hard and durable."

Manufacturing Process of Brick
1. Preparation of Clay
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning

1. Preparation of Clay
Unsoiling Digging Cleaning Weathering Blending Tempering
a. Unsoiling:- Top layer of 20 cm depth is removed as it contains impurities.
b. Digging: Clay dug out from ground is spread on level ground about 60 cm to
120 cm heaps.
c. Cleaning: Stones, pebbles, vegetative matter etc. are removed.
d. Weathering: Clay is exposed to atmosphere from few weeks to full season.
e. Blending: Clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added & turning it up
and down in vertical direction.
f. Tempering: Water is added to clay and whole mass is pressed under the feet
of men or cattle for large scale.

Moulding
Hand Moulding
Ground Moulding
Table Moulding
Machine Moulding
Plastic Clay Machines
Dry Clay Machines

3.Drying
After molding process the bricks
contain some amount of moisture in
it. So, drying is to be done otherwise
they may cracked while burning. The
drying of raw bricks is done by
natural process.
The period of drying may be 3 to 10
days. It also depends upon the
weather conditions.

4.Burning
In the process of burning, the dried bricks are
burned either in clamps (small scale) or kilns
(large scale) up to certain degree temperature. In
this stage, the bricks will gain hardness and
strength so it is important stage in manufacturing
of bricks.
The temperature required for burning is about
1100°C. If they burnt beyond this limit they will
be brittle and easy to break. If they burnt under
this limit, they will not gain full strength and
there is a chance to absorb moisture from the
atmosphere.
Hence burning should be done properly to meet
the requirements of good brick.

Composition of Good Brick Earth
Alumina: 20-30%. It imparts the property of plasticity to the earth. An excess of alumina
causes shrinkage.
Silica: 50-60 %. The cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks are being prevented by
the presence of silica.
Lime: not exceeding 5%. Lime prevents shrinkage of raw brick.
Oxide of Iron: about 5 to 6%.It imparts red color to the bricks.
Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the bricks and
decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

Traditional Brick
These bricks have not been
standardized in size. Sizes are changed
according to location.
• Length= 20 to 25 cm
• Width=10 to 13 cm
• Height =5 to 10 cm
The commonly adopted size of
conventional brick is 23 cm x 11.4 cm x
7.6 cm.

Modular Brick
Bureau of Indian Standard Institution (BIS) has suggested a uniform
brick size.
19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm= Actual Brick Size
20 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm=Brick size with mortar layer
6 cm x 4 cm x 2 cm=Frog Size

Classification of Bricks
1. First Class Brick (Grade A)
 Table molded
 Well burnt in kilns
 Regular shape and size 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm
 Good uniform bright brick red colour
 Free from cracks
 Sharp & straight edges
 Uniform texture.
 No impression by a finger nail.
 The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
 Metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
 Water absorption should be 12-15% of its dry weight when immersed in water for 24 hours.
 The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm².
 Uses: Pointing, exposed face work in masonry structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

Classification of Bricks
2. Second Class Brick (Grade-B)
Ground moulded
Burnt in kilns
Slightly irregular shape and size
Irregular colour
Hair cracks
Not so sharp & straight edges as compared to first class bricks.
Metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
Water absorption is ablout 16-20% of its dry weight when immersed in water for 24
hours.
The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 7 N/mm².
Uses: All important or unimportant hidden masonry works where brickwork is provided
with a coat of plaster.

Third Class Bricks (Grade-C)
Ground moulded
Burnt in clamps
Under burnt bricks
Reddish yellow colour
Irregular size, shape & finish
Dull sound when two bricks stuck together
Distorted edges
Water absorption is about 25% of dry weight.
Uses: It is used for building unimportant & temporary structures.

Fourth Class Bricks (Grade-D)
Over burnt bricks
Badly distorted in size & shape
Dark red colour
Black spots on surface of the earth
Brittle in Nature
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used as metal or aggregates for concrete in foundation,
floors, roads, etc.

Stone
What is Stone?
Classification of Stone
Uses of Stone
Properties of Good Stone

What is Stone?
It is a natural engineering material.
It has been used as building material from very
early times in the construction of building.
Stones (also seen as rocks), by definition are
solid natural combination of minerals which
forms the earth's crust. They are formed
through different natural processes, depending
on their type.
It is available in variety of colours, form and
structures.
They are strong, durable and descent in
appearance.

1. Geological Classification
Igneous Rocks
It is formed by cooling & thus solidifying
from a molten state.
Igneous rocks form when magma
(molten rock) cools and
crystallizes, either at volcanoes on
the surface of the Earth or while the
melted rock is still inside the crust.
Ex: Granite, Basalt

Sedimentary Rocks
It is formed by a process of
cementation of small particles that
result from the disintegration of rocks.
Ex: Limestone, Sandstone

Metamorphic Rocks
It is formed by gradual changes in
the structures of either igneous or
sedimentary rocks caused by heat,
water, pressure.
Ex: Marble, Slate, Gneiss

2. Physical Classification
Stratified Rocks
• They are derived from Sedimentary
rocks.
• These stones are found in layers
deposited one above the other.
• Ex: Limestone, Sandstone

Unstratified Rocks
• They do not show any type of layer
formation.
• Ex: Granite, Marble

Foliated Rocks
• They have tendency to split away
in a definite direction only.
• This type of structure is commonly
found in metamorphic rocks.

3. Chemical Classification
Siliceous Rocks
• In this type of rocks, Silica is principle
constituent.
• They are hard, durable & not affected
by weathering agencies.
• Ex: Granites, Quartzites

Argillaceous Rocks
• In this type of rocks, Clay is principle
constituent.
• They are moderately hard, durable but brittle
in nature.
• Ex: Slates, Laterites

Calcareous Rocks
In this type of rocks, Calcium Carbonate
is principle constituent.
Ex: Limestone, Marble, Dolomite

Uses of Stone
Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and
arches.
Stones are used for flooring.
Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished
marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the
buildings.
Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges,
dams and retaining walls.
Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads.
Crushed stones are used in the following works also:
(a) As a basic inert material in concrete mix.
(b) For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c) As railway ballast

1. Durability
• Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural
forces like wind, rain and heat.
2. Dressing
• Stones should be easily carved, moulded, cut & dressed to any desirable
shape.
3. Color
• Sone should have uniform and attractive colour.
• Stones with much iron should be discouraged as the formation of iron
oxides disfigures them and brings about disintegration. Marble and granite
get very good appearance, when polished.

4. Resistance to Heat & Fire
Resistance to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of
expansion due to large increase in temperature. Sand stones resist fire better.
5. Specific Gravity
Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining
walls, docks and harbors.
The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
6. Strength
Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as
building block.
Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm²
for any building block.

7. Structure
• The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified.
• Stratified stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure.
• Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
8. Texture
• Good stone should have compact fine crystalline structure, free from cavities, cracks or patches of
soft or loose material.
9. Water Absorption
• Good stone should not absorb more than 5% of its weight of water when immersed for 16 hours.
10. Hardness
Good stone should have better resistance to abrasion when stones are subjected to very heavy
loading.

Aggregate
What is Aggregate?
Classification of Aggregate
Uses of Aggregate
Properties of Aggregate

What is Aggregate?
It is an inert material mixed in fixed proportion with cementing material to
produce concrete.
It is used as a filler material and used for increasing volume of concrete.
It is responsible for strength, hardness & durability of concrete

Based on Grain Size
Fine Aggregate
Passed through B.I.S. Test sieve
No. 480
Size less than 4.75 mm
Ex. River Sand

Based on Grain Size
Coarse Aggregate
Retained on B.I.S. Test sieve No. 480
Size more than 4.75 mm
Ex. Gravel, Broken Stone

Based on Origin
Natural Aggregate
Available Naturally
Ex. River Sand, Gravels

Classification of Aggregates
Based on Origin
Artificial Aggregate
Made artificially
Ex. Broken bricks, Broken Stone, Crushed Blast Furnace slag

Based on Density
Normal Aggregate
Density around 2300-2500 kg/m³
Ex. River Sand, Gravels, Broken Bricks,
Sandstone, Quartzite

Based on Density
High Density Aggregate
Density above 4000 kg/m³
Ex. Barite, Magnetite, Limonite, Hematite

Based on Density
Low Density Aggregate
Density around 350-750 kg/m³
Ex. Pumice, Scoria, Sintered Fly ash, Rice husk, Saw dust

Uses of Aggregate
It is used to make concrete.
It is used as filler material to decrease the porosity and increase the strength.
It is act as main load bearing component of concrete.
It is used for making lightweight concrete which is used for soundproofing and heat proofing.
It is used to make heavy weight concrete which is used against X-rays radiation.
It is used as road metal, ballast for Railway sleepers, etc.

Properties of Aggregate
It should be chemically inert.
It should be sufficiently strong to withstand stresses.
It should be tough to withstand impact, vibratory loads.
It should be hard to resist actions of abrasion and attrition.
It should be strong to bear compressive and tensile loads.
It should be free from impurities & inorganic in nature.
It should be capable of producing workable concrete.
Its shape should be rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated.

Steel
What is Steel?
Types of Steel
Uses of Steel
Market Forms of Steel

What is Steel?
Steels are essentially alloys of iron and carbon but they always contain other
elements, either as impurities or alloying elements.
Steel is man made metal containing 95% or more iron and 0.1 - 1.5% carbon, smaller
amounts (around 1.6%) of manganese, nickel to improve certain properties.
Carbon improves strength/hardness but reduces ductility and toughness.
It is an intermediate stage of cast iron and wrought iron.
Cast iron can take compressive stress while wrought iron can take tensile stress.
Steel is suitable for all construction processes.
It is highly elastic, ductile, malleable and weldable.
It has high tensile and compressive strength and resist wear & tear much better.

Types of Steel
Mild Steel
Carbon content is 0.1 to 0.25%
Properties of Mild Steel
• Ductile and malleable
• It corrodes quickly
• It can be permanently magnetized
• It is tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron
and withstands shocks and impacts well
• It is equally strong in tension, compression and shear
• Its specific gravity is 7.8
• It is not much affected by Saline water
Used in Nails, Screws, Car bodies, Structural Steel

Types of Steel
Medium Carbon Steel
Properties of Medium steel
• Welding is difficult
• More elastic in comparison to mild steel
• More tougher in comparison to mild steel
• Withstand shocks and vibration
• Permanently magnetized
• Stronger in compression than in tension
• Compressive strength is 80-120 KN/cm²
Used in Structural steel, rails and garden tools

Types of Steel
High Carbon Steel
Properties of High-carbon Steel
• Its structure is granular
• It is more tough and elastic than mild steel
• It is easier to harden and then to weld
• It is more difficult to forge and then to weld
• It can be permanently magnetized
• Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in shear
• it withstands vibration and shocks better
Used in Hand tools (chisels, punches) Saw blades

Uses of Steel
It is used as reinforcement for concrete.
It is used in steel pipe, tank, etc.
It is used as structural material in trusses and beams.
It is used in sanitary and sewer fittings.
It is used as non-structural material like grills, doors, windows, etc.
It is used as corrugated sheets.

Mortar
What is Mortar?
Types of Mortar
Functions of Mortar
Qualities of Good Mortar

What is Mortar?
Mortar is a material used in masonry construction to fill the gaps between the bricks and
blocks used in construction.
Mortar binds bricks and blocks together to give strength and stability to a wall.
A mortar joint ensure the bond between the compressed earth blocks, and this bond gives
the masonry its cohesion.
Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water and is applied as a
paste which then sets hard.
Mortar is a workable paste which is prepared by adding required amount of water to a
mixture of binding material and fine aggregate. This plastic paste is useful to hold building
materials such as stone or brick together.

Types of Mortar
Lime Mortar
Cement Mortar
Gypsum Mortar
Surkhi Mortar

Lime Mortar
In case of lime mortar, lime is used as binding material. There are two types
of limes namely fat lime and hydraulic lime.
Fat lime in lime mortar requires 2 to 3 times of sand and it is used for dry
work.
Hydraulic lime and sand in 1:2 ratios will give good results in damp conditions
and also suitable for water logged areas.
The lime mortar has a high plasticity so; it can be placed easily.

Cement Mortar
In this type, cement is used as binding material and sand is used as
fine aggregate.
The proportion of cement and sand is decided based on the specified
durability and working conditions.
Cement mortar will give high strength and resistivity against water.
The proportion of cement to sand may varies from 1:2 to 1:6.

Gypsum Mortar
Gypsum mortar consists of plaster and soft sand as binding material
and fine aggregate.
In the Egyptian ancient structures called as pyramids, gypsum mortar
is used.
Gypsum mortar will have low durability in damp conditions.

Surkhi Mortar
Surkhi is finely powdered burnt clay which is free from any
admixtures, impurities.
It will give more strength than sand and cheaply available in the
market.
Surkhi mortar consists lime, surkhi and water.
Surkhi is used as adulterant or fine aggregate. Sometimes half
amount of sand and half amount of surkhi also used.

Functions of Mortar
It provides binding force or cohesion between the structural units.
It act as a medium for distributing the forces throughout the structure uniformly.
Additional strength and resistance against rain penetration and other such weathering agencies
In stone or brick masonry, it fills up empty joints; a thin liquid mortar used for such purposes is
termed as grout.
It does pointing or plastering to the structure,

Qualities of Good Mortar
It should be easily workable
It should set & harden quickly so that construction could be done with speed.
it should not develop any cracks on drying
It should be durable
It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.
It should be cheap and economical.

Plastic
What is Plastic?
Types of Plastic
Uses of Plastic
Properties of Plastic

Plastic
It is a recent engineering material used all over the world.
Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic
polymers such as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc. that can be moulded
into shape while soft, and then set into a rigid or slightly elastic form.
It is an organic substance consists natural or synthetic binders or
resins with or without moulding compounds.
Plastics are polymers having higher carbon compounds with higher
molecular weights.
Plastic Organic Polymers + Carbon + Oxygen + Nitrogen + Sulphur

Types of Plastic
Thermo Plastics
It becomes soft & melt on
heating.
It becomes hard on setting.
It can be remoulded again &
again.
It can be moulded in any shape.
Ex. Nylon, Polystyrene,
Polyethylene, Acrylic, PVC, etc.

Types of Plastic
Thermo Setting Plastic
This plastic when heated will melt & will become
hard after prolonged heating.
This is due to polymerization reaction.
After setting or curing, they do not become soft
by further heating.
Hardness is permanent does not change on
heating.
It is hard, strong, resistant to heat & electricity &
cheap.
Ex. Bakelite, Polyester, Epoxy, Melamine, Silicones

Uses of Plastic
There are more than 10000 different kinds of plastics available in the market and their performance
abilities span those of every other known material from soft rubber to steel.
The typical uses of plastics in building are summarized as follows:
Bath and sink units Cistern ball floats
Corrugated and plain
sheets
Decorative laminates
and mouldings
Electrical conduits
Electrical Insulators
Films for water
proofing, damp
proofing and concrete
curing Floor tiles
Foams for thermal
insulation
Jointless flooring Lighting fixtures
Overhead water tanks Paints and varnishes
Pipes to carry cold
water
Roof lights Safety glass
Wall tiles
Water resistance
adhesives

Properties of Plastic
They have good
resistance to most
of the chemical.
They are light in
weight.
They have good
corrosive
resistance.
They are cheap
compared to
metals.
The plastics posses
excellent electric
insulating
properties.
Plastics can be
molded to any
desired shape and
size.
All operations like
drilling, sawing,
punching can be
done on plastics.
They have high
electrical strength.
They can be made
transparent or
color.
Painting and
polishing is not
necessary.
The plastics, have
low specific gravity,
the average being
1.3 to 1.4.

Smart Materials
• Classification of Smart Materials
• Applications of Smart Materials

Smart
Materials
Smart or intelligent materials are materials that have to respond to
stimuli and environmental changes and to activate their functions
according to these changes.
The stimuli like temperature, pressure, electric flow, magnetic flow,
light, mechanical, etc. can originate internally or externally.

Classification of Smart Materials
1. Piezoelectric Materials
2. Electrostrictive Materials
3. Magnetostrictive Materials
4. Shape Memory Alloys
5. Thermo Chromic Materials

When subjected to an electric
charge or a variation in voltage,
piezoelectric material will
undergo some mechanical
change, and vice versa.
These events are called the
direct and converse effects.

• This material has the same properties as
piezoelectric material, but the mechanical
change is proportional to the square of
the electric field.
• This characteristic will always produce
displacements in the same direction.

When subjected to a magnetic field, and
vice versa (direct and converse effects),
this material will undergo an induced
mechanical strain.

➤ Metallic materials demonstrating the
ability to return to some previously
defined shape or size when subjected to
appropriate thermal changes belong to
this category of smart materials.

5. Thermo Chromic Materials
These are the materials which change their colour in response to changes
in temperature.
They have been used in bathplugs that changes colour when the water is
too hot.

Application of Smart Materials
Smart Material in Aerospace
•The aircraft/spacecraft which make use of smart materials are
known as smart structures.
• Thus, Smart materials are used in an aircraft construction.
Smart Material in Civil Engineering Applications
• Smart Materials can be used in the monitoring of civil engineering
structures to assess durability.
Structural Applications of Smart Material
• Smart Materials are used for the development of durable and cost
effective high performance construction materials.

Epoxy
What is Epoxy?
Properties of Epoxy
Uses of Epoxy

What is Epoxy?
Epoxy Resin + Hardener
Epoxy is polymer
Polymerization process takes place when two materials (Resin & Hardener)
come in contact by thoroughly mixing.
Properties of epoxy comes from resin material.
Hardener is a curing agent which converts resin from liquid to solid state.
Epoxy Resin
+ Epoxy
Hardener
Liquid Gel Soft Solid Hard Solid

Properties of Epoxy
Good
Mechanical
Strength
Excellent
Binding Agent
Good
Chemical
Resistance
Mixed just
prior to
application
Ease of
Working
Low Viscosity

Uses of Epoxy
Used to make laminated woods for decks, walls, roofs, etc.
To make durable outdoor coating as well as sealer for concrete floors.
Used in high performance and decorative flooring.
Water based epoxy paint dry quickly and provides tough and protective coating.
Used in plumbing as bonding adhesives.
Waterproof epoxy coating is used to protect structures from corrosion.
It is also used in fiberglass repairs, carpentry, woodworking, metal fillers reinforced bolts, jewellery making,
etc.

Fly ash
What is Fly ash?
Why to Use Fly
ash?
Uses of Fly ash
Problems Behind
using of Fly ash

What is Fly ash?
Fly ash is a finely divided byproduct resulting from the
combustion of coal in power plants.
It contains large amounts of silica, alumina and small
amount of unburned carbon, which pollutes
environment.
It is grey in color and alkaline in nature.
The particle size ranges between 1-100 microns.
The specific gravity of FA lies between 1.9 and 2.8
(generally 3.15 for Cement).
It is the most widely used pozzolan siliceous or alumino-
siliceous in nature in a finely divided form.
They are spherical shaped "balls" finer than cement
particles.

Why to Use Fly ash?
1. Being a pozzolanic, it can actually replace a part of Portland cement
results in more durable concrete.
2. High ultimate strength
3. Improves workability
4. Improves cost, economy of concrete
5. Reduction in heat of hydration
6. Decreases density of concrete
7. More environment friendly concrete.

Uses of Fly ash
Typically used for
embankment
construction.
Used in the
manufacture of
Portland cement.
Fly ash is also used
as a component in
the production of
flowable fill.
Used in Roller
compacted
concrete dams.
Used as the filler
mineral in asphalt
road laying to fill
the voids.
Used in the
manufacture of fly
ash bricks
Used as a soil
stabilization
material.
Fly ash is used as
component in
geopolymers.
When fly ash is
treated with silicon
hydroxide, it acts
as a catalyst.

Problems Behind using of Fly ash
1. Problems of Disposal
2. Slower strength gain
3. Seasonal Limitation
4. Increased Need of Air Entraining Admixtures
5. Increase of salt scaling produced by using higher proportion of Fly ash
In India alone, we produce 75 million tons of fly ash every year, the disposal
of which has become a serious environmental problem. The effective use of
fly ash in concrete making is therefore attracting serious considerations of
concrete technologists and government departments.

Steel Slag
What is Steel Slag?
Production Process of Steel Slag
Types of Steel Slag
Uses of Steel Slag

What is Steel Slag?
Steel slag is a by-product of molten iron processing, and
different types of steel slag are formed depending on a specific
type or grade of steel and the furnace used during steel
production.
Steel slag is an industrial byproduct obtained from the steel
manufacturing industry. It is produced in large quantities during
steel-making operations that use electric arc furnaces.
Steel slag can also be produced by smelting iron ore in a basic
oxygen furnace.
Color is off white.
Bulk density is about 1200 kg/m³
Specific Gravity = 2.9
Surface area = 425-470 m²/kg

Production Process of Steel Slag
1. Heating of iron ore, coke and limestone at temperature about
1500°c in blast furnace.
2. Iron ore is reduced to iron.
3. Remaining materials form of slag that float on top of iron.
4. This slag is collected as molten liquid in large volume of water,
5. It produces granules of size less than 5 mm in diameter,
6. Granules are then dried.
7. Grinding this granules in rotating ball mill to form fine powder
which is called as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS).

Types of Slag
Blast Furnace Slag Steel Slag
Basic-oxygen-furnace slag
(BOF)
Electric-arc-furnace slag
(EAF)
Ladle Slag

Uses of Steel Slag
It is used in production
of slag cement in which
cement is replaced by
GGBFS around 30 to
70%.
It is used in soil
stabilization it
increases strength and
bearing capacity of
soil.
It is used in production
of ready mix concrete,
site batched concrete.
It is used as binder in
road pavement and
foundation
construction.
It is used as base
course of road.
It is used as an
aggregate for asphalt
concrete.

What is Copper Slag?
The Copper Slag is of fine textured glossy sand like material and also called
as Granulated Copper slag
It is a waste material, produced during the smelting and refining process of
copper ore.
Copper slag is black in color, a glassy, granular material and shiny
appearance.

Production Process of Copper Slag
It is by product of manufacture of copper.
Large amount of copper slag are generated as waste worldwide during the
copper smelting process.
This slag is quenched in water produces angular granules. The granulated
copper slag are below 4.75 mm in size.
Then this granules crushed in mill to smaller particles and stockpiled after
the refining process.

Disposal of Copper Slag
Each ton of copper produced 2.2 tons of
copper slag.
It is used for several purpose, mainly for the
manufacture of abrasive tools and grid
blasting.
This process consumes about 15% to 20% of
the slag generated.
The remaining quantity is disposed of without
any further reuse or reclamation.

Uses of Copper Slag
Used in manufacture of
cement clinker.
Used for surface blast
cleaning.
Used as pozzolanic material
in ordinary Portland
cement.
Used in concrete production
as a partial replacement for
sand.
Used for abrasive tools,
roofing granules, cutting
tools, abrasive tiles, glass,
road base construction,
railroad ballast, asphalt
pavement.

Bitumen
Introduction to Bitumen
Classification of Bitumen
Functions of Bituminous Materials
Properties of bitumen Materials

Introduction of Bitumen
• Bituminous material (or bitumen) is a solid,
semisolid, or viscous cementitious material (i.e.,
binder) natural or manufactured, and composed of
“hydrocarbons”.
• Bitumen are usually fairly hard at normal
temperatures. When heated, they soften and flow.
• Bitumen is possess a number of properties that
make them useful in the construction industry.
• When mixed with aggregates in their hot fluid state,
and then allowed to cool, they solidify and bind the
aggregates together, forming a pavement surface.

Classification of Bitumen
1. Asphalt
 It is defined as natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter.
 It is black or brownish-black in color.
2. Tar
 Tar is also one of the important bituminous material which is produced by destructive distillation of
organic material such as coal, oil, lignite, peat and wood.
 It is black to dark brown in colour.
3. Cut-Back
 For cold application as in case of repairing cracks in roofs, floors etc asphalt mixed with a liquid
solvents and then it is called as cut-back asphalt.
 It is obtained by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in presence of some suitable liquid distillates of coal, tar
or petroleum.
4. Emulsion
 For cold application asphalt is available in the form of emulsion.
 It is a liquid product containing bitumen to a great extent in an aqueous medium.

Functions of Bituminous materials
1. Binding Effect : The bitumen binds the surface particles together.
2. Cushion : It act as a cushioning material on the surface and absorbs
impact, friction, etc. due to movements of wheels of vehicles on
road.
3. Sealing of Surface : when used with the dense-graded angular
material, it seals the surface of the road against ingress of water.
4. Resisting to weathering agents: if the bituminous material is
selected properly and is used in road construction can resist
effectively the actions of weathering agents like the wind and the
sun.

Properties of bitumen Materials
The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
It should possess sufficient adhesion with the aggregate in the mix in presence of water.
The presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the aggregates.
The bituminous material should not be highly temperature susceptible.
It should maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface.
It should also maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions.

Optical Fiber
What is Optical Fiber?
Structure of Optical fiber
Working Principal of Optical Fiber
Classification of Optical Fiber
Application of Optical Fiber

What is Optical Fiber?
 An optical fiber is a hair thin cylindrical fiber of glass or any
transparent dielectric medium.
 The fiber which are used for optical communication are wave
guides made of transparent dielectrics.
 Its function is to guide visible and infrared light over long distance.
 It is the medium in which communication signals are transmitted
from one end to the other end in the form of light.
 The signals are digital pulses of light representing information.
 Information can be voice information, data information, computer
information, video information.
Advantages
 It can transport information to long distances in less time.
 It is unaffected by interference of electromagnetic radiation.

Structure of Optical Fiber
It is long thin strand of clear material.
Its shape is similar to cylinder.
In the center, it has core.
Around the core are there is called as cladding.
Light can travel inside the core and bounce off from the
cladding.
Plastic coating called buffer coating covers the cladding to
protect it.
Buffered fiber is put inside at even tougher layer which is called
as jacket.

Working Principal of Optical Fiber
• Total Internal Reflection(TIR) is the principle of Optical Fiber.
• When an ray of light travels from a denser to a rarer medium such that the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects back into the same
medium this phenomena is called TIR.
• In the optical fiber the rays undergo repeated total number of reflections until it
emerges out of the other end of the fiber, even if fiber is bend.

1. Single mode optical Fiber
 It transmits only one mode of light.
 It has smaller core diameter.
 Ex. Telecom And Community
antenna television

2. Multimode Optical Fiber
 It transmits multiple modes of light.
 It has thicker core diameter.
 Ex. Local Area Network.
a) Stepped Index
b) Graded Index

Application of Optical Fiber
It used in the long
distance
communication to send
telephones and internet
signal between cites.
It is used to carry light
for humans to see like
fiber optic Christmas
tree.
It is used in shorter links
also to carry sound
signals between a
compact disc player and
a stereo receiver.
It is used to make
endoscope or
fiberscope.
It is used in mechanical,
surgical, military and
industrial applications.
It is used as sensors.
It is used as optical
amplifiers.

Pipes
• It is a circular closed conduit through which the water may flow either
under gravity or under pressure.
• When pipes do not run full, they run partially under gravity, such as in
sewer lines.
• However, in full supply, pipes mostly run under pressure.

Types of Pipes
1. Cast Iron Pipes (C.I. Pipes)
Most commonly used in water distribution system.
Cheaper in cost.
High Corrosion Resistance.
High Durability.
Can damage during transportation.
Available in 3 to 6 m.
Drawbacks: Rust & Corrode very fast.

Types of Pipes
2. Wrought Iron Pipes
• Manufactured by rolling flat plates of wrought iron & welding the edges.
• Lighter that C.I. pipes.
• Can be easily cut, threaded & worked.
• Corrode quickly.
• Used within buildings.

Types of Pipes
3. Galvanized Iron Pipes (G.I. Pipes)
• When wrought iron pipes are protected
by coating with thin film of molten zinc,
it is called as G.I. pipes.
• They are jointed by screwed & socketed
joints.
• Available in light, medium & heavy
grades depends on thickness of metal.

Types of Pipes
4. Steel Pipes
• Steel pipes are made from solid in small
diameter.
• Larger sizes are made by riveting or
welding edges of suitably curved plates.
• Can not resist high external pressure.
• Steel pipes are more useful above
ground.

Types of Pipes
5. Copper Pipes
• Used in hot water installation.
• High tensile strength.
• They have thin walls & can be bent easily.
• Very costly.

Types of Pipes
6. Plastic Pipes
• Used for supply of cold water in external
& plumbing work.
• Light weight
• Non-corrosive
• Lower in cost
• Do not require threading in connections.
• Made of synthetic resins of high
molecular weight polymerized by heat,
pressure & catalysts.

Types of Pipes
7. Concrete Pipes
• Made of reinforced, unreinforced or prestressed concrete.
• Unreinforced pipes are for small diameter.
• Reinforced pipes & Prestressed pipes are for large diameter.
• Used in water supply & drainage of rain water.
• Jointed by butt end joint.
• Made by spinning process.

Types of Pipes
8. Asbestos Pipes
• Manufactured from asbestos fiber and
Portland cement.
• It is manufactured under pressure to
form homogeneous structure.
• Joint in this pipes are of simplex type.
• Used for drainage of rain water from
roofs, soil, waste & also for ventilations.

Types of Pipes
9. Lead Pipes
• Not used in water supply because
lead is poisonous content.
• Not suitable for conveying acid
water.
• High Hydraulic Coefficient of Flow.
• Used for apparatus required for
alum & chlorine.
• Soft & easily bent
• High Corrosion Resistance
• High Flexibility

Difference Between Wire and Cable

F.R.P
What Is F.R.P.?
Characteristics Of F.R.P.
Uses of F.R.P.

What Is F.R.P.?
It also called as fiber reinforcement plastic or fiber
reinforced polymer.
It is a composite of polymer matrix reinforced with fibers.
Examples:
• GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer)
• CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer)
• Aramid
• Basalt
It consists thermosetting resins and fiberglass.
Raisin is used for environmental and chemical resistance
to the product.
It is also used to bind glass fiber in structural laminate.

Characteristics Of F.R.P.
Good
mechanical
strength
Excellent
temperature
resistant
Corrosion
resistant
Offers thermal
insulation
Lightweight
Can be formed
in complex
shapes
Easy to repair
and require less
maintenance
Ideal for onsite
installation
High tensile
strength
High heat
stability

Uses of F.R.P.
• It is used to strengthen the beams, columns
and slabs of building and bridges.
• It is used in roof sheets, doors, window
frames, internal partition, wall paneling,
concrete shuttering, structural sections, water
storage tanks, temporary shelters etc.
• It is used to prepare FRP chairs and benches
used for auditoriums, theatres, hotels,
restaurants, lounges, waiting rooms etc.
• FRP products of plasticon used in industries
for processing of chemicals.

Water and Waste Water
Introduction Of Water
• It is the natural resource which forms basis of all
life. It is the key resource in all economic activity
ranging from agriculture to industry.
• Water is an essential commodity to all life.
Without water, there can be no life. Every living
thing--plants, animals, and people--must have
water to live.
• Earth has tremendous amount of water. Three
fourth of the earth surface is covered by water.
• 97% of world water is in the seas and oceans. This
water is saline.
• Only 3% is present on the continents. This water
is fresh.

Type of Water
1. Surface Water
• It contains lot of silt and clay as water in a surface water source is mostly collected from the surface
run off.
• The quality of surface water changes with climate and type of the catchment area.
• Before using it as a drinking water it should be given proper treatment.

Type of Water
2. Ground Water
• Water dissolve a large number of
salt in it as it percolates down.
Some groundwater contained
higher iron content it is harder
than the surface water.
• The quality of groundwater is
generally uniform.
• It contrast to the surface water is
relatively free from suspended
impurities because they are
filtered as the water moves down
the different layers of soil.
• For using groundwater as a
drinking water almost no
treatment is required.

Introduction Of Waste Water
• Water after use is disposed off into the sea, or a stream.
Such water which was used for domestic or industrial
purposes is considered useless from the point of further use
and is therefore disposed off. Such disposable water is called
as Waste Water.
• Wastewater is 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. The main task in
treating the wastewater is simply to remove most or all of
this 0.1% of solids.

Types of waste water
1. Domestic Water
• It is the liquid waste from the community.
• It includes sullage, discharge from latrines, urinals, stables, residential
buildings, office buildings, theatres, etc.
2. Industrial Water
• It is the liquid waste from the industry.

Potable Water (Drinking Water)
Water which is fit or suitable for drinking purpose or which is not
injurious to human health is called portable water.
The portable water should have the following properties
• It should be colourless
• It should be odourless
• It should have good taste
• It should not contain any harmful microorganism.

Characteristics Of Water
Physical
Chemical
Biological

Physical Characteristics
1. Temperature.
For Drinking Purpose: Temperature
around 10°c
If Temperature > 25°c : Water is
objectional
2. Color
Pure water is colourless.
Colour is due to presence of foreign
substances.
Colour is measured in Hazen using
Tintometer

3. Taste and Odour
Pure water is odourless and
Tasteless.
Taste and odour is due to
presence of dissolved gases,
dissolved organic matter, mineral
salts, iron compounds, chemicals,
industrial waste, etc.
Odour is measured in terms of
Threshold odour number by
Osmoscope instrument.

4. Turbidity
It is the dirtiness of water due to
presence of suspended materials like
clay, silt, fine organic materials, etc.
It depends on the fineness &
concentration of particles present in
water.
It is measured in NTU.
It is measured by.
• Turbidity Rod
• Jackson's Turbidimeter
• Baylis Turbidimeter
• Nephelometer

5. Conductivity
• Conductivity means ability to pass electricity.
• Pure water has zero conductivity.
• If Conductivity of water is not zero means presence of dissolved solids
in it.
• Greater the dissolved solids means higher conductivity.

Chemical Characteristics
1. Total Dissolved Solids
2. Chlorides
3. Hardness
4. pH
5. Alkalinity
6. Acidity
7. Nitrogen and its Compounds
8. Metals
9. Dissolved Gases

1. Total Dissolved Solids
They are composed of inorganic salts mainly the chlorides, sulphates
and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium.
ITDS of water can be measured by evaporation method for TDS metre.
It's desirable limit is 500 mg/l.

2. Chlorides
It is in water in the form of calcium, magnesium and sodium chloride
Concentration about 250 mg/l gives a salty taste in drinking water
which is not preferable.

3. Hardness
• Hardness of water may be defined as the soap in destroying property of water.
• It may be of two types temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
• Temporary hardness is due to the presence of carbonate and bicarbonate of calcium and
magnesium. It is also called as carbonate hardness. It can be easily removed by either boiling of
water for adding lime into the water.
• The permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. It cannot be removed by boiling and requires special methods of water softening like
zeolite or soda lime process. the permanent hardness is also called as non carbonate hardness.
• The hardness is measured in mg/l of calcium carbonate.
• EDTA method is used to measure hardness of water.
• Hard water cause excessive consumption of soap in laundries.
• IT forms deposits in the boilers.
• Groundwater is comparatively Harder compared to surface water.

4. pH
• It indicates logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration
present in water.
• It indicates acidity or alkalinity of water.
• Drinking water pH is around 6.5 to 8.
• At pH = 7. Water is Neutral
• At pH = 0 to 7. Water is Acidic
• At pH = 7 to 14, Water is Alkaline

5. Alkalinity
• Alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids for
example to absorb hydrogen ions without significant pH change.
• The alkalinity of water is due to presence of carbonates, bicarbonates
and hydroxides of sodium, calcium and magnesium.
• It causes bitter taste.
• It is expressed in mg/L of calcium carbonate.

6. Acidity
• It is the capacity of substances to neutralize Hydroxyl ions.
• It is due to the presence of minerals and dissolution of carbon
dioxide.
• It is measured in milligrams per litre of calcium carbonate.
• Presence of acidity causes the corrosion of metals and pipelines.
• Interferes in treatment of water (softening).

7. Nitrogen and its Compounds
• Presence of nitrogen means presence of organic matter in the
following forms
• Free ammonia
• Albuminoid or Organic nitrogen
• Nitrites
• Nitrates

8. Metals
• Iron, copper, lead, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, fluorine etc. present
in water which are toxic in nature.
• It should be limited to 0.3 permissible amounts as per IS 10500:2012.
9. Dissolved Gases
• Dissolved gases like dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphine should be removed by aeration process.

Biological Characteristics
The Natural water contains organisms like bacteria viruses in Protozoa but pathogens organisms
which cause diseases are most important.
The bacteria may be of two types,
1. Pathogenic bacteria
2. Non Pathogenic bacteria.
The pathogenic bacteria are more harmful. It causes diseases like cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, etc.
The non pathogenic Bacteria is not harmful.
But it is difficult to isolate this two types.
Combined (Pathogenic & Non Pathogenic) bacteria in this group is known as E-coli.
The presence of pathogens in water can be detected by following techniques.
1. E-coli Test
2. Membrane Filter Technique

Characteristics of Waste Water

Physical Characteristics of Waste Water
1. Color
• The colour of sewage can normally be detected by naked eye.
• It indicates the freshness of sewage.
• If its colour is yellowish, grey or light brown, it indicates fresh sewage.
• If the colour is black or dark brown, it indicates stale or septic sewage.
2. Odour
• Initially normal fresh Sewage is odourless.
• Within 3 to 4 hours all the oxygen present in sewage gets exhausted
and it starts a emitting offensive odours.

Physical Characteristics of Waste Water
3. Temperature
• Temperature has an effect on the biological activity of bacteria present in
sewage.
• Temperature of water in India is about 20°C which is ideal for biological
activities.
4. Turbidity
• Turbidity of water is due to suspension of fine particles.
• Turbidity is the measure of light emitting properties of waste water.
• It depends upon the strength of sewage or wastewater.
• It increases as sewage becomes stronger.

Chemical Characteristics of Waste Water
1. Total Solids
2. pH Value
3. Chloride Contents
4. Nitrogen Contents
5. Presence of fats, Oil and Greases
6. Sulphides, sulphates and H2S Gas
7. Toxic Compounds
8. Dissolved Oxygen
9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
10. Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD)

1. Total Solids
• Sewage contains 99.9 % Water 0.1 % Total Solids.
• It is defined as all the matter that remains as residue upon evaporation to
103 c to 105 c.
• Solids are of four types.
1. Suspended Solids → which remains floating in sewage.
2. Dissolved Solids → which remains dissolved in sewage just as salt in water.
3. Colloidal Solids → which remains either in solution or in suspension in
finely divided form.
4. Settable Solids → which settles if sewage is allowed to remain
undisturbed for 2 hours.

2. pH Value
• Fresh sewage is generally alkaline in nature (pH value between 7.3 to 7.5).
• As the time passes, its pH value tends to fall due to production of acids by
bacterial action.
• However after oxidation when it is relatively stable, it becomes alkaline
again.

3. Chloride Contents
• Chlorides are generally found in municipal sewage & derived from
kitchen waste, human faeces and urinary discharges, etc.
• Normal Chloride content of domestic sewage is 120 mg/l.
• Desirable chloride content for water supplies is 250 mg/l.

4. Nitrogen Contents
The presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence of organic
matter in the form of
1. Free ammonia: Indicates very first stage of decomposition.
2. Nitrites: Indicates the presence of partly decomposed organic
matter.
3. Nitrates: Indicates the presence of fully oxidised organic matter.
4. Organic Nitrogen: Indicates presence of nitrog started.

5. Presence of fats, Oil and Greases
• It is derived from discharges of animals. vegetable matter from the garages,
kitchen, hotels or restaurants.
6. Sulphides, sulphates and H2S Gas
• They are formed due to the decomposition of various sulphur containing
substances present in waste water.
• It causes bad odour & corrosion of concrete sewer pipes.
7. Toxic Compounds
• Copper, lead, silver, chromium, arsenic & boron are some of the toxic
metals present in waste water.
• They are derived from industrial waste water.

8. Dissolved Oxygen
• Sewage generally does not have dissolved oxygen but if present, it
indicates waste water is fresh.
• While discharging treated wate water in to water body, it is essential
to ensure that at least 4 ppm of dissolved oxygen is present in it.
• If D.O. is less, aquatic animals like fish are likely to be killed near the
vicinity of disposal.
• Presence of D.O. also reduces bad odour.

9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
10. Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD)

Biological Characteristics of Waste Water
It is related to the presence of bacteria & microorganisms in waste water.
1. Bacteria
• Aerobic
• Anaerobic
• Pathogenic
• Non Pathogenic
2. Microorganisms
• Algae
• Fungi
• Protozoa
Bacteria & microorganism in waste water help in decomposition of sewage.
But presence of pathogenic bacteria indicates the degree of pollution in sewage.so it is necessary
to kill pathogenic bacteria before discharging into the water body.

Introduction Of Traffic Engineering
What is Traffic?
What is Traffic Engineering?
Objective of Traffic Engineering
Scope of Traffic Engineering

Traffic Studies and Analysis
1. Traffic volume Study
2. Spot Speed Study
3. Speed and Delay Study
4. Origin and Destination Study
5. Traffic Flow Study
6. Traffic Capacity Study
7. Parking Study
8. Accident Study

Traffic Regulation
• Vehicular Regulations
• Driver Regulations
• Road user Regulations

Vehicular Regulations
• Registration
• Weight, size, Design
• Construction And Insurance

Scope of Traffic Engineering
Traffic
Characteristics
Administration
and
management
Geometric
Design
Planning and
Analysis
Traffic operation
control and
regulation
Traffic Studies
and Analysis
Traffic
Characteristics

Module-1_INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS.pptx

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