Mnemonics biochemistry lipids
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This document discusses several metabolic diseases and enzymes. Fabry's disease is caused by alpha galactosidase A deficiency and results in foam cells in the kidneys and extremities, fevers, and renal failure. Phenylketonuria is caused by a deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase. Pompe's disease is a lysosomal storage disease caused by a deficiency of alpha 1,4 glucosidase. Complete oxidation of pyruvate yields 4 NADH, FADH2, 3 CO2, and 1 GTP.
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Erythrocytes have a lifespan of 120 days before being removed from circulation and degraded by macrophages in the spleen and liver. Approximately 6 grams of hemoglobin is broken down per day in an adult human. Heme is broken down by the enzyme heme oxygenase into biliverdin, iron, and carbon monoxide. Biliverdin is further degraded by biliverdin reductase into bilirubin, which is transported bound to albumin in plasma and taken up by hepatocytes in the liver. In the liver, bilirubin is conjugated and excreted into bile as bilirubin diglucuronide.
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This document outlines the lecture objectives for a module on nucleic acids. It aims to teach students about the structure and types of nucleotides, the differences between purines and pyrimidines, and the most abundant nucleotides in nucleic acids. Additionally, it covers the chemistry of DNA and RNA, including defining nucleic acids, discussing their structures and the difference between DNA and RNA, and explaining how the central dogma relates to the living state.
39 objectives fm - genetics
This document outlines the learning objectives for a lecture series on genetics and related topics. It covers 7 main sections: 1) Replication of DNA, 2) DNA Damage and Repair, 3) Transcription, 4) Post Transcriptional Modification, 5) Translation & Post Translation Modification, 6) Control of Gene Expression, and 7) Recombinant DNA Technology. The objectives describe key concepts students should understand in each area, such as how DNA is replicated, the causes and consequences of DNA damage, the process of transcription, post-transcriptional modifications, translation and protein synthesis, gene regulation, and applications of recombinant DNA technology.
38 objectives fm - cell membrane
This lecture aims to teach students about the structure and components of cell membranes. It will cover the fluid mosaic structure of membranes and describe the different types of membrane lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins. Students will learn the functions of cell membranes and why phospholipids are well-suited for membrane structure. Finally, the lecture will provide fundamentals of membrane transport.
37 objectives fm - aa
This document outlines the lecture objectives for a foundation module on amino acids and peptides. The objectives include defining amino acids, classifying them by nutrition, R group, and solubility. It also covers explaining peptide bond formation, justifying the directionality of peptide bonds, defining peptides, enumerating biologically important peptides, and explaining their functions.
36 objectives b12-folic
This lecture objectives document outlines that students will be able to describe the chemical nature, dietary sources, recommended daily amounts, absorption, biochemical roles, and deficiency states of Vitamin B12 and Folic Acid. Students will also be able to differentiate between Pernicious anaemia caused by Vitamin B12 deficiency versus megaloblastic anaemia caused by a folate deficiency.
33 lec aminoacid peptide biological importance
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and peptides. They contain non-polar, polar, and charged R groups. Peptides are formed through condensation reactions between amino acids, linking them through peptide bonds. There are four levels of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The secondary structure involves folding into alpha helices or beta sheets. The alpha helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between residues four places apart in the sequence. Tertiary structure describes the three-dimensional folding of the polypeptide chain. Quaternary structure involves the interaction of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein.
28 vit k
Vitamin K exists in two naturally occurring forms, K1 and K2. It plays an essential role in blood clotting by allowing the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin through γ-carboxyglutamic acid residues on prothrombin that can bind calcium. Vitamin K is a cofactor for the enzyme γ-glutamyl carboxylase, which mediates the carboxylation of glutamate to γ-carboxyglutamate in clotting factors and osteocalcin. Vitamin K deficiency is rare in adults but dangerous in newborns, while the drug warfarin is an antagonist that blocks the activation and recycling of vitamin K to inhibit coagulation and bone mineralization
27 thalassemias
This document provides an overview of enzymes. It states that enzymes are proteins with catalytic properties due to their ability to specifically activate biological reactions. It notes that enzymes are responsible for metabolic processes in living organisms.
26 porphyria
The document discusses enzymes and porphyrias. It begins by defining enzymes as proteins with catalytic properties. It then provides objectives about understanding heme structure, identifying rate-limiting steps and effects of drugs in heme biosynthesis. The rest of the document details heme synthesis, the pathway of porphyrin synthesis, different types of porphyrias caused by deficiencies in specific enzymes in this pathway, and their associated symptoms. It highlights that porphyrias can be acquired from lead toxicity or inherited congenital disorders.
25 objectives
This document outlines the topics and learning objectives for a series of lectures on the blood module and inflammation and neoplasia module. The lectures will cover the composition of plasma and plasma proteins, the structure and synthesis of heme, abnormalities in heme synthesis including porphyrias, iron metabolism, heme degradation, hyperbilirubinemia and jaundice, variants of hemoglobin and hemoglobinopathies, thalassemia syndrome, and vitamin K. The lectures aim to provide students with an understanding of the structure and function of components of blood, abnormalities in blood and their clinical significance.
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51 pharmacologylecture outlines week 07 blood module sem i mbbs 2013 14
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Skin is the largest organ of the human body, serving crucial functions that include protection, sensation, regulation, and synthesis. Structurally, it consists of three main layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis (subcutaneous layer).
1. **Epidermis**: The outermost layer primarily composed of epithelial cells called keratinocytes. It provides a protective barrier against environmental factors, pathogens, and UV radiation.
2. **Dermis**: Located beneath the epidermis, the dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, hair follicles, and sweat glands. It plays a vital role in supporting and nourishing the epidermis, regulating body temperature, and housing sensory receptors for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
3. **Hypodermis**: Also known as the subcutaneous layer, it consists of fat and connective tissue that anchors the skin to underlying structures like muscles and bones. It provides insulation, cushioning, and energy storage.
Skin performs essential functions such as regulating body temperature through sweat production and blood flow control, synthesizing vitamin D when exposed to sunlight, and serving as a sensory interface with the external environment.
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Storyboard on Acne-Innovative Learning-M. pharm. (2nd sem.) Cosmetics
Acne is a common skin condition that occurs when hair follicles become clogged with oil and dead skin cells. It typically manifests as pimples, blackheads, or whiteheads, often on the face, chest, shoulders, or back. Acne can range from mild to severe and may cause emotional distress and scarring in some cases.
**Causes:**
1. **Excess Oil Production:** Hormonal changes during adolescence or certain times in adulthood can increase sebum (oil) production, leading to clogged pores.
2. **Clogged Pores:** When dead skin cells and oil block hair follicles, bacteria (usually Propionibacterium acnes) can thrive, causing inflammation and acne lesions.
3. **Hormonal Factors:** Fluctuations in hormone levels, such as during puberty, menstrual cycles, pregnancy, or certain medical conditions, can contribute to acne.
4. **Genetics:** A family history of acne can increase the likelihood of developing the condition.
**Types of Acne:**
- **Whiteheads:** Closed plugged pores.
- **Blackheads:** Open plugged pores with a dark surface.
- **Papules:** Small red, tender bumps.
- **Pustules:** Pimples with pus at their tips.
- **Nodules:** Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface.
- **Cysts:** Painful, pus-filled lumps beneath the surface that can cause scarring.
**Treatment:**
Treatment depends on the severity and type of acne but may include:
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- **Oral Medications:** Antibiotics or oral contraceptives for hormonal acne.
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Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
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Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
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