The document provides an overview of adaptive immunity and its key components. It discusses:
1) The two main types of lymphocytes (B and T cells) that are central to adaptive immunity. T cells mature in the thymus and B cells mature in the bone marrow.
2) The two main types of adaptive immune responses - cell-mediated and antibody responses. Cell-mediated responses involve T cells attacking infected or abnormal body cells, while antibody responses involve B cells producing antibodies.
3) The specificity of B and T cell receptors that allow them to recognize distinct pathogens and epitopes. B cells produce antibodies with the same specificity as their cell surface receptors.
The document discusses symbiotic relationships between microbes and their hosts. It describes different types of symbiosis like mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. It also discusses normal microbiota that colonize the body without causing disease, including resident and transient microbiota. Resident microbiota are established throughout life and are mostly commensal, while transient microbiota only remain in the body for short periods. The document outlines how normal microbiota can sometimes become opportunistic pathogens under certain conditions in the body.
The document discusses the history and mechanisms of action of antimicrobial agents. It describes how early scientists like Paul Ehrlich and Alexander Fleming discovered antimicrobial compounds. It then covers the main mechanisms by which antimicrobial drugs work, including inhibiting cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, and metabolic pathways. The document explains how some drugs can disrupt cytoplasmic membranes or inhibit nucleic acid synthesis. While effective against microbes, some antimicrobial mechanisms can also harm humans if they affect similar host cell processes.
Recombinant DNA technology involves intentionally modifying the genomes of organisms for practical purposes such as eliminating undesirable traits, combining beneficial traits from different organisms, and creating organisms that synthesize useful products. It utilizes tools such as restriction enzymes, vectors, gene libraries, PCR, gel electrophoresis and Southern blots. Applications include genetic mapping, environmental studies, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and more. However, long-term effects are unknown and there are safety concerns about natural gene transfers and unintended consequences.
This document describes characteristics of viruses. Key points include:
- Viruses are acellular infectious agents that contain either DNA or RNA and require host cells to replicate.
- They have an extracellular state as a virion containing a protein capsid and nucleic acid, and an intracellular state after entry into a host cell.
- Viruses infect a wide range of organisms from humans to plants to bacteria. They cause many common diseases.
- Viruses replicate by either a lytic cycle that destroys the host cell or a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome remains dormant in the host.
The document summarizes the early history and development of microbiology. It discusses key figures like Antoni van Leeuwenhoek who first observed microorganisms under a microscope. Later scientists like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch helped establish germ theory and methods of scientific investigation. Their work answered questions about spontaneous generation and the role of microbes in fermentation and disease. Modern microbiology applies genetic and molecular techniques to study microbial functions, interactions, and applications in areas like biotechnology and medicine.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on cell structure and function. It begins by defining the basic processes of life in cells, including growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and metabolism. It then distinguishes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, noting that prokaryotes lack nuclei and membrane-bound organelles while eukaryotes have these structures. The presentation goes on to describe the various external structures of bacterial cells, including glycocalyces, flagella, fimbriae, and pili. It also explains bacterial cell walls, membranes, and cytoplasmic structures. In addition, it covers similar structures in archaea like glycocalyces and flagella.
The document provides an overview of the history of microbiology from its early beginnings to modern developments. It discusses key figures like van Leeuwenhoek who first observed microbes under microscopes and Pasteur and Koch who experimentally disproved spontaneous generation and established germ theory of disease. Major developments included classification of microbes, understanding fermentation and disease causation, and advances in preventing infection. Modern microbiology focuses on genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, bioremediation, and using microbes to develop medicines and manipulate genes.
The document discusses several bacterial and viral diseases that affect the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems. It describes key pathogens like bacteria and viruses that cause diseases like sepsis, endocarditis, tularemia, plague, Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus disease, yellow fever, dengue fever, and African viral hemorrhagic fevers. For each disease, it covers signs and symptoms, pathogens and virulence factors, pathogenesis and epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. The document contains several figures illustrating concepts discussed in the text.
The document discusses symbiotic relationships between microbes and their hosts. It describes different types of symbiosis like mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. It also discusses normal microbiota that colonize the body without causing disease, including resident and transient microbiota. Resident microbiota are established throughout life and are mostly commensal, while transient microbiota only remain in the body for short periods. The document outlines how normal microbiota can sometimes become opportunistic pathogens under certain conditions in the body.
The document discusses the history and mechanisms of action of antimicrobial agents. It describes how early scientists like Paul Ehrlich and Alexander Fleming discovered antimicrobial compounds. It then covers the main mechanisms by which antimicrobial drugs work, including inhibiting cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, and metabolic pathways. The document explains how some drugs can disrupt cytoplasmic membranes or inhibit nucleic acid synthesis. While effective against microbes, some antimicrobial mechanisms can also harm humans if they affect similar host cell processes.
Recombinant DNA technology involves intentionally modifying the genomes of organisms for practical purposes such as eliminating undesirable traits, combining beneficial traits from different organisms, and creating organisms that synthesize useful products. It utilizes tools such as restriction enzymes, vectors, gene libraries, PCR, gel electrophoresis and Southern blots. Applications include genetic mapping, environmental studies, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and more. However, long-term effects are unknown and there are safety concerns about natural gene transfers and unintended consequences.
This document describes characteristics of viruses. Key points include:
- Viruses are acellular infectious agents that contain either DNA or RNA and require host cells to replicate.
- They have an extracellular state as a virion containing a protein capsid and nucleic acid, and an intracellular state after entry into a host cell.
- Viruses infect a wide range of organisms from humans to plants to bacteria. They cause many common diseases.
- Viruses replicate by either a lytic cycle that destroys the host cell or a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome remains dormant in the host.
The document summarizes the early history and development of microbiology. It discusses key figures like Antoni van Leeuwenhoek who first observed microorganisms under a microscope. Later scientists like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch helped establish germ theory and methods of scientific investigation. Their work answered questions about spontaneous generation and the role of microbes in fermentation and disease. Modern microbiology applies genetic and molecular techniques to study microbial functions, interactions, and applications in areas like biotechnology and medicine.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on cell structure and function. It begins by defining the basic processes of life in cells, including growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and metabolism. It then distinguishes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, noting that prokaryotes lack nuclei and membrane-bound organelles while eukaryotes have these structures. The presentation goes on to describe the various external structures of bacterial cells, including glycocalyces, flagella, fimbriae, and pili. It also explains bacterial cell walls, membranes, and cytoplasmic structures. In addition, it covers similar structures in archaea like glycocalyces and flagella.
The document provides an overview of the history of microbiology from its early beginnings to modern developments. It discusses key figures like van Leeuwenhoek who first observed microbes under microscopes and Pasteur and Koch who experimentally disproved spontaneous generation and established germ theory of disease. Major developments included classification of microbes, understanding fermentation and disease causation, and advances in preventing infection. Modern microbiology focuses on genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, bioremediation, and using microbes to develop medicines and manipulate genes.
The document discusses several bacterial and viral diseases that affect the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems. It describes key pathogens like bacteria and viruses that cause diseases like sepsis, endocarditis, tularemia, plague, Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus disease, yellow fever, dengue fever, and African viral hemorrhagic fevers. For each disease, it covers signs and symptoms, pathogens and virulence factors, pathogenesis and epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. The document contains several figures illustrating concepts discussed in the text.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system, including key parts like the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. It also summarizes bacterial diseases that can affect the nervous system, like meningitis caused by bacteria like Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae, leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae, and botulism caused by a toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum. Bacterial meningitis is usually transmitted through respiratory droplets while leprosy spreads through prolonged contact and botulism occurs through ingestion of contaminated food.
This document discusses the structures and normal microbiota of the urinary and reproductive systems. It describes how the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra make up the urinary system and remove waste from the blood. It also outlines the structures of the male and female reproductive systems, including how the testes, ovaries, uterus and other organs function. Microorganisms normally inhabit parts of the urinary and reproductive tracts in both males and females. The document then examines several bacterial and viral diseases that can infect the urinary and reproductive systems, including urinary tract infections, gonorrhea, chlamydia, herpes, and others.
The document summarizes the structures and functions of the respiratory system. It describes that the respiratory system is divided into an upper and lower portion. The upper respiratory system includes structures like the nose, sinuses and pharynx. The lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. It then discusses several bacterial and viral diseases that can infect the upper and lower respiratory tract, including streptococcal infections, diphtheria, pneumonia and the common cold. It provides details on the symptoms, causes, transmission and treatment of these respiratory diseases.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on microbiology. It covers several key topics:
- Microbes affect our lives in both beneficial and harmful ways, such as decomposing waste, producing foods and chemicals, and causing disease.
- Scientific naming of microbes uses binomial nomenclature with the genus and specific epithet. Major groups of microbes include bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
- Landmark discoveries in microbiology included Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek's early observations of cells and microorganisms under microscopes. Pasteur and Koch helped establish the germ theory of disease and methods to prove microbe-disease connections. Jen
This document contains a PowerPoint presentation on viruses, viroids, and prions. It discusses the general characteristics of viruses, including that they are obligate intracellular parasites that require a living host cell to multiply. It also covers viral structure, taxonomy, isolation/cultivation methods, and viral multiplication cycles. Specifically, it describes the lytic and lysogenic cycles of bacteriophages, as well as the replication cycles of DNA and RNA containing animal viruses. Key aspects of viral structure and replication are illustrated with diagrams.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on microbial mechanisms of pathogenicity. It discusses how microorganisms enter the host through various portals of entry like mucous membranes or skin. It defines terms like infectious dose 50 (ID50) and lethal dose 50 (LD50). It also explains how microbes adhere to host cells using adhesins and how they penetrate host defenses using things like capsules, cell wall components, and enzymes. Finally, it covers how pathogens damage host cells through production of exotoxins and endotoxins, and use of toxins, siderophores, and direct damage of host cells.
This document discusses primary and secondary immunodeficiency diseases. Primary immunodeficiencies are caused by inherited genetic defects affecting the innate or adaptive immune system. They can involve defects in phagocytic cells, complement pathways, pattern recognition receptors, or lymphocyte development/activation. Examples discussed include leukocyte adhesion deficiency, chronic granulomatous disease, Chediak-Higashi syndrome, complement deficiencies, and defects causing SCID, XLA, DiGeorge syndrome, and others. Secondary immunodeficiencies are acquired and include those caused by infections, malnutrition, drugs, or radiation/chemotherapy. The document provides details on approaches to diagnosis and management of immunodeficiency patients.
This document summarizes key information about the genus Chlamydia. It describes Chlamydia as small, Gram-negative bacteria that are obligate intracellular parasites. It identifies the main Chlamydia species that can infect humans as C. trachomatis, C. psittaci, and C. pneumoniae. The document outlines how these species can cause ocular, genital, respiratory, and other infections in humans and discusses their laboratory diagnosis and treatment.
laboratory diagnosis of fungal inectionsAditi Kothari
This document provides an overview of laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections. It discusses classification of fungi, specimen collection and transport, processing including direct examination, culture, and other methods like immunologic tests and molecular methods. It covers topics like potassium hydroxide mount, calcofluor white stain, lactophenol cotton blue stain for examination of specimens. Culture media including sabouraud dextrose agar, cornmeal agar, chromagar are described. The document also discusses biochemical tests like tetrazolium reduction for identification of Candida species.
Louis Pasteur first proposed the germ theory of disease, which states that microorganisms cause infectious diseases. However, he was unsuccessful in proving this theory. Robert Koch provided the first proof by isolating anthrax bacteria in pure culture apart from other organisms, fulfilling Koch's postulates. Koch's postulates established criteria for proving that a specific microbe causes a specific disease. Other scientists like Edward Jenner, who discovered vaccination, Martinus Beijerinck, who discovered viruses, and Sergei Winogradsky, who discovered chemolithotrophy and studied nitrogen fixation, also made important contributions to microbiology.
The document discusses various methods of microbial control, including sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis. It defines key terms and describes the relative resistance of different microbial structures like bacterial endospores and vegetative cells. Physical methods like heat and radiation are described in detail, along with how they damage microbial cells. Chemical disinfectants and their modes of action are also discussed.
1. The document discusses four dimorphic fungi (Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidiodes braziliensis, Histoplasma capsulatum) that cause systemic mycoses through inhalation of spores and subsequent yeast formation in tissues.
2. It also covers four opportunistic fungi (Candida albicans, Aspergillus species, Rhizopus/Mucor species, Cryptococcus neoformans) that can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
3. For each fungus, the document describes characteristics, diseases caused, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention.
The immune system has two main lines of defense - innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific). The innate system provides immediate protection and involves physical and chemical barriers like skin and stomach acid. If pathogens breach these barriers, the second line uses phagocytes, natural killer cells, and inflammation to attack invaders. The adaptive system has a delayed but stronger response that involves lymphocytes. It distinguishes self from non-self and has immunological memory, providing lifelong protection against reinfection.
Bordetella pertussis is a Gram-negative coccobacillus that causes whooping cough (pertussis) in humans. It colonizes the respiratory tract and is transmitted through respiratory droplets. Its virulence factors include adhesins and toxins like pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase toxin. Expression of virulence factors is controlled by the bvg locus. Whooping cough was a major cause of childhood death before vaccination. While vaccination decreased cases, pertussis is reemerging as vaccine-induced immunity wanes and the bacteria adapts to vaccines through antigenic divergence. Improved vaccines are needed to address ongoing problems with pertussis vaccination and control.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on microbial growth. It discusses the physical, chemical, and environmental requirements for microbial growth, including temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, nutrients, and oxygen levels. It also covers topics like biofilm formation, culture media, obtaining pure cultures, and preserving bacterial cultures. The key growth phases of bacteria, including binary fission, are explained. Methods for isolating and culturing microbes under different conditions are presented.
General virology 4 - Laboratory diagnosis, by Dr. Himanshu KhatriDrHimanshuKhatri
Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections can be performed through several methods: (1) demonstrating characteristic cytopathic effects of viruses in cell cultures, (2) directly detecting viruses in clinical samples through electron or fluorescence microscopy, (3) isolating and culturing viruses in animals, eggs, or various cell culture systems, and (4) detecting viral antibodies through serological tests like ELISA, Western blot, or hemagglutination inhibition tests. Tissue culture using various cell lines is now the most widely used method for virus isolation. Laboratory diagnosis helps confirm viral infections, screen blood donations, and conduct epidemiological and research studies.
Dermatophytes are fungi that infect keratinized tissue like skin, hair, and nails. They include the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Trichophyton rubrum is a common cause of ringworm infections worldwide. It produces both microconidia and macroconidia. Microsporum species can infect humans and animals and are transmitted zoonotically. Laboratory diagnosis involves specimen collection, direct microscopic examination, culture, and identification of fungal elements and structures. Topical and oral antifungals are used to treat dermatophyte infections depending on their severity and location.
Integrated Dynamics of Innate & Adaptive ImmunityDeepender Kumar
1. The immune response to pathogens occurs in distinct phases as the infection progresses. Innate immune cells like ILCs respond rapidly to pathogens and direct the type of adaptive response generated based on the pathogen detected.
2. Different pathogens elicit specific cytokine responses from innate immune cells. These cytokines then activate distinct ILC subsets to amplify the innate response and guide the development of the adaptive response.
3. Adaptive immunity is triggered when the innate response cannot control the infection, and antigen-presenting cells carry pathogen antigens to lymph nodes to initiate antigen-specific adaptive responses.
This PowerPoint presentation covers the history and mechanisms of antimicrobial drugs. It discusses:
1) The contributions of Paul Ehrlich and Alexander Fleming to chemotherapy through the discovery of selective toxicity and penicillin.
2) The major classes of antimicrobial drugs like antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, and their mechanisms of action including inhibiting cell wall, protein, and nucleic acid synthesis.
3) Specific drugs for bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and helminths from each class and their targets in the microbe.
4) Issues with developing drugs given differences between microbial and human cells, and the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance.
The document describes the key components of the immune system, including cells, molecules, tissues and organs. It discusses how cells such as T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. It also outlines the major immune system molecules like cytokines, antibodies, and complement proteins. Key lymphoid organs that support immune responses are described, including the bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen and mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues. Both innate and adaptive immunity are summarized.
The document describes the key components of the immune system, including cells, molecules, tissues and organs. It discusses hematopoiesis and how immune cells are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The major immune cells are T cells and B cells, which develop in the thymus and bone marrow respectively. Other immune cells include dendritic cells, macrophages and neutrophils. The document also outlines the major lymphoid organs like the bone marrow, thymus, spleen and lymph nodes, as well as mucosal tissues involved in immune responses.
The document discusses the structure and function of the nervous system, including key parts like the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. It also summarizes bacterial diseases that can affect the nervous system, like meningitis caused by bacteria like Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae, leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae, and botulism caused by a toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum. Bacterial meningitis is usually transmitted through respiratory droplets while leprosy spreads through prolonged contact and botulism occurs through ingestion of contaminated food.
This document discusses the structures and normal microbiota of the urinary and reproductive systems. It describes how the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra make up the urinary system and remove waste from the blood. It also outlines the structures of the male and female reproductive systems, including how the testes, ovaries, uterus and other organs function. Microorganisms normally inhabit parts of the urinary and reproductive tracts in both males and females. The document then examines several bacterial and viral diseases that can infect the urinary and reproductive systems, including urinary tract infections, gonorrhea, chlamydia, herpes, and others.
The document summarizes the structures and functions of the respiratory system. It describes that the respiratory system is divided into an upper and lower portion. The upper respiratory system includes structures like the nose, sinuses and pharynx. The lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. It then discusses several bacterial and viral diseases that can infect the upper and lower respiratory tract, including streptococcal infections, diphtheria, pneumonia and the common cold. It provides details on the symptoms, causes, transmission and treatment of these respiratory diseases.
The document is a PowerPoint presentation on microbiology. It covers several key topics:
- Microbes affect our lives in both beneficial and harmful ways, such as decomposing waste, producing foods and chemicals, and causing disease.
- Scientific naming of microbes uses binomial nomenclature with the genus and specific epithet. Major groups of microbes include bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
- Landmark discoveries in microbiology included Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek's early observations of cells and microorganisms under microscopes. Pasteur and Koch helped establish the germ theory of disease and methods to prove microbe-disease connections. Jen
This document contains a PowerPoint presentation on viruses, viroids, and prions. It discusses the general characteristics of viruses, including that they are obligate intracellular parasites that require a living host cell to multiply. It also covers viral structure, taxonomy, isolation/cultivation methods, and viral multiplication cycles. Specifically, it describes the lytic and lysogenic cycles of bacteriophages, as well as the replication cycles of DNA and RNA containing animal viruses. Key aspects of viral structure and replication are illustrated with diagrams.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on microbial mechanisms of pathogenicity. It discusses how microorganisms enter the host through various portals of entry like mucous membranes or skin. It defines terms like infectious dose 50 (ID50) and lethal dose 50 (LD50). It also explains how microbes adhere to host cells using adhesins and how they penetrate host defenses using things like capsules, cell wall components, and enzymes. Finally, it covers how pathogens damage host cells through production of exotoxins and endotoxins, and use of toxins, siderophores, and direct damage of host cells.
This document discusses primary and secondary immunodeficiency diseases. Primary immunodeficiencies are caused by inherited genetic defects affecting the innate or adaptive immune system. They can involve defects in phagocytic cells, complement pathways, pattern recognition receptors, or lymphocyte development/activation. Examples discussed include leukocyte adhesion deficiency, chronic granulomatous disease, Chediak-Higashi syndrome, complement deficiencies, and defects causing SCID, XLA, DiGeorge syndrome, and others. Secondary immunodeficiencies are acquired and include those caused by infections, malnutrition, drugs, or radiation/chemotherapy. The document provides details on approaches to diagnosis and management of immunodeficiency patients.
This document summarizes key information about the genus Chlamydia. It describes Chlamydia as small, Gram-negative bacteria that are obligate intracellular parasites. It identifies the main Chlamydia species that can infect humans as C. trachomatis, C. psittaci, and C. pneumoniae. The document outlines how these species can cause ocular, genital, respiratory, and other infections in humans and discusses their laboratory diagnosis and treatment.
laboratory diagnosis of fungal inectionsAditi Kothari
This document provides an overview of laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections. It discusses classification of fungi, specimen collection and transport, processing including direct examination, culture, and other methods like immunologic tests and molecular methods. It covers topics like potassium hydroxide mount, calcofluor white stain, lactophenol cotton blue stain for examination of specimens. Culture media including sabouraud dextrose agar, cornmeal agar, chromagar are described. The document also discusses biochemical tests like tetrazolium reduction for identification of Candida species.
Louis Pasteur first proposed the germ theory of disease, which states that microorganisms cause infectious diseases. However, he was unsuccessful in proving this theory. Robert Koch provided the first proof by isolating anthrax bacteria in pure culture apart from other organisms, fulfilling Koch's postulates. Koch's postulates established criteria for proving that a specific microbe causes a specific disease. Other scientists like Edward Jenner, who discovered vaccination, Martinus Beijerinck, who discovered viruses, and Sergei Winogradsky, who discovered chemolithotrophy and studied nitrogen fixation, also made important contributions to microbiology.
The document discusses various methods of microbial control, including sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis. It defines key terms and describes the relative resistance of different microbial structures like bacterial endospores and vegetative cells. Physical methods like heat and radiation are described in detail, along with how they damage microbial cells. Chemical disinfectants and their modes of action are also discussed.
1. The document discusses four dimorphic fungi (Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidiodes immitis, Paracoccidiodes braziliensis, Histoplasma capsulatum) that cause systemic mycoses through inhalation of spores and subsequent yeast formation in tissues.
2. It also covers four opportunistic fungi (Candida albicans, Aspergillus species, Rhizopus/Mucor species, Cryptococcus neoformans) that can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
3. For each fungus, the document describes characteristics, diseases caused, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention.
The immune system has two main lines of defense - innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific). The innate system provides immediate protection and involves physical and chemical barriers like skin and stomach acid. If pathogens breach these barriers, the second line uses phagocytes, natural killer cells, and inflammation to attack invaders. The adaptive system has a delayed but stronger response that involves lymphocytes. It distinguishes self from non-self and has immunological memory, providing lifelong protection against reinfection.
Bordetella pertussis is a Gram-negative coccobacillus that causes whooping cough (pertussis) in humans. It colonizes the respiratory tract and is transmitted through respiratory droplets. Its virulence factors include adhesins and toxins like pertussis toxin and adenylate cyclase toxin. Expression of virulence factors is controlled by the bvg locus. Whooping cough was a major cause of childhood death before vaccination. While vaccination decreased cases, pertussis is reemerging as vaccine-induced immunity wanes and the bacteria adapts to vaccines through antigenic divergence. Improved vaccines are needed to address ongoing problems with pertussis vaccination and control.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on microbial growth. It discusses the physical, chemical, and environmental requirements for microbial growth, including temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, nutrients, and oxygen levels. It also covers topics like biofilm formation, culture media, obtaining pure cultures, and preserving bacterial cultures. The key growth phases of bacteria, including binary fission, are explained. Methods for isolating and culturing microbes under different conditions are presented.
General virology 4 - Laboratory diagnosis, by Dr. Himanshu KhatriDrHimanshuKhatri
Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections can be performed through several methods: (1) demonstrating characteristic cytopathic effects of viruses in cell cultures, (2) directly detecting viruses in clinical samples through electron or fluorescence microscopy, (3) isolating and culturing viruses in animals, eggs, or various cell culture systems, and (4) detecting viral antibodies through serological tests like ELISA, Western blot, or hemagglutination inhibition tests. Tissue culture using various cell lines is now the most widely used method for virus isolation. Laboratory diagnosis helps confirm viral infections, screen blood donations, and conduct epidemiological and research studies.
Dermatophytes are fungi that infect keratinized tissue like skin, hair, and nails. They include the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Trichophyton rubrum is a common cause of ringworm infections worldwide. It produces both microconidia and macroconidia. Microsporum species can infect humans and animals and are transmitted zoonotically. Laboratory diagnosis involves specimen collection, direct microscopic examination, culture, and identification of fungal elements and structures. Topical and oral antifungals are used to treat dermatophyte infections depending on their severity and location.
Integrated Dynamics of Innate & Adaptive ImmunityDeepender Kumar
1. The immune response to pathogens occurs in distinct phases as the infection progresses. Innate immune cells like ILCs respond rapidly to pathogens and direct the type of adaptive response generated based on the pathogen detected.
2. Different pathogens elicit specific cytokine responses from innate immune cells. These cytokines then activate distinct ILC subsets to amplify the innate response and guide the development of the adaptive response.
3. Adaptive immunity is triggered when the innate response cannot control the infection, and antigen-presenting cells carry pathogen antigens to lymph nodes to initiate antigen-specific adaptive responses.
This PowerPoint presentation covers the history and mechanisms of antimicrobial drugs. It discusses:
1) The contributions of Paul Ehrlich and Alexander Fleming to chemotherapy through the discovery of selective toxicity and penicillin.
2) The major classes of antimicrobial drugs like antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, and their mechanisms of action including inhibiting cell wall, protein, and nucleic acid synthesis.
3) Specific drugs for bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and helminths from each class and their targets in the microbe.
4) Issues with developing drugs given differences between microbial and human cells, and the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance.
The document describes the key components of the immune system, including cells, molecules, tissues and organs. It discusses how cells such as T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. It also outlines the major immune system molecules like cytokines, antibodies, and complement proteins. Key lymphoid organs that support immune responses are described, including the bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen and mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues. Both innate and adaptive immunity are summarized.
The document describes the key components of the immune system, including cells, molecules, tissues and organs. It discusses hematopoiesis and how immune cells are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The major immune cells are T cells and B cells, which develop in the thymus and bone marrow respectively. Other immune cells include dendritic cells, macrophages and neutrophils. The document also outlines the major lymphoid organs like the bone marrow, thymus, spleen and lymph nodes, as well as mucosal tissues involved in immune responses.
Lymphocytic cells involved in human immune systemAbhay jha
This slide share was basically based on the immune system of human regarding the cellular activity involve to save human body against any pathogenic attack and we are talking about the lymphatic cells wich are T cells B cells natural kills T cell (NKT) innate lymphatic cells and their functions in our body.
Immune System - The immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that defends the body against infection.
The immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated so it can recognize and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the body again.
Abnormalities of the immune system can lead to allergic disease, immunodeficiencies and autoimmune disorders.
Antigen - Any factors or agents that can enter the body and create an immune response are called antigen.
Formation of immune cells - Immune cells are produced by hematopoietic stem cell in bone marrow
Hematopoietic stem cells are self-renewing and reside in the medulla of the bone ( bone marrow ).
HSCs are divided into two main lineages, lymphoid progenitor cells or myeloid progenitor cells.
Myeloid cells - Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Mast cells, Monocyte, Macrophage, Dendritic Cell
Lymphoid cells - B Lymphocytes,
T Lymphocyte, NK Cells
Antigen presenting cells - Professional antigen presenting
cells : Macrophage, Dendritic cell, B Lymphocyte
Non professional antigen presenting cell: Non-professional antigen presenting cells include all nucleated cell types in the body.
Proteins of immune system - Set of serum proteins that co-operate with both Innate and adaptive immune system to eliminate blood and tissue pathogen.
Organs of immune cells - Spleen, Lymph node, Tonsils , MALT, Bone marrow, Thymus
Types of immunity -
Innate Immunity: Innate immune response is in born and is the first line of defense against pathogen
Adaptive immunity: Antigenic specificity. It have immunological memory
Immune Receptors - It is a specialized structures found in the cell membrane. They are mainly composed of proteins, which bind to pathogens and causes a response in immune system
The document summarizes the organization of the immune system. It describes the major components including lymphoid organs, lymphatic vessels, and immune cells. The primary lymphoid organs that support lymphocyte maturation are the bone marrow and thymus. Secondary lymphoid organs where lymphocytes interact with antigens include lymph nodes, spleen, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and skin-associated lymphoid tissue. Lymphatic vessels drain fluid from tissues to lymph nodes. The main immune cells are lymphocytes, antigen-presenting cells, and effector cells that eliminate microbes.
This document summarizes key aspects of adaptive immunity. It discusses how B and T lymphocytes recognize antigens through membrane-bound antibodies or T cell receptors, respectively. It describes the roles of antigen-presenting cells in capturing antigens and displaying them via MHC molecules to activate T lymphocytes. Major histocompatibility complex proteins display peptide fragments on antigen-presenting cells to trigger adaptive immune responses through T cell recognition.
This document provides an overview of basic immunology. It begins with an introduction to immunity, the immune system, and immunology. It then discusses the history of immunology, types of immunity including innate and acquired immunity. It describes the tissues and cells involved in immunity. It covers basic aspects like antigens, antibodies, antigen-antibody reactions, and the complement system. It also discusses major histocompatibility complex, cytokines, immune disorders, and immune responses in periodontal pathogenesis.
immunity, types,Innate immunity and Adaptive Immunity, primary and secondary immune response, structure and functions of antibodies, immunoglobulins, hypergammaglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, bence jones protein, electrophoretic pattern of multiple myeloma.
The immune system consists of lymphoid organs that produce and organize immune cells. The primary lymphoid organs, bone marrow and thymus, produce immune cell precursors and allow their maturation. The secondary lymphoid organs, lymph nodes and spleen, facilitate interactions between immune cells and initiate adaptive immune responses. All immune cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. T cells mature in the thymus, while B cells mature in the bone marrow. Natural killer cells do not require an organ for maturation. The immune cells, including T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, neutrophils, eosinophils and others, work together to provide protection from pathogens and other threats
This document provides an overview of immunology and the immune system. It describes the innate and adaptive immune responses, including the cells involved such as macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, B cells and T cells. Key concepts covered include phagocytosis, antigen presentation, clonal expansion, antibody production, cell-mediated immunity, and memory responses. Examples of immunological applications and diseases are also discussed, such as vaccines, HIV/AIDS, and pregnancy.
Immunology is the study of the immune system and how it protects us from infection and disease123. It is a branch of biology and medicine2. Are you looking for something specific about immunology?
This is a powerpoint presentation on the Topic of Diseases of the immune system, part 1 - Chapter 6, based on Robbin's textbook of pathology. Prepared by Dr. Ashish Jawarkar, who is Assistant professor at Parul institute of medical sciences and research, Vadodara. Please subscribe to our youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwjkzK-YnJ-ra4HMOqq3Fkw . Our facebook page: facebook.com/pathologybasics. Instagram handle @pathologybasics
This document provides an overview of specific immunity and the adaptive immune response. It discusses the third line of defense provided by adaptive immunity and the roles of B cells, T cells, antigens, and antibodies. The four main stages of the specific immune response are described: lymphocyte development, antigen presentation, challenge of lymphocytes by antigens, and the T cell and B cell responses. Key concepts like antigen processing, MHC presentation, and the structures of antibodies are also summarized.
This document discusses antigens, immunogens, and factors affecting immunogenicity. It then covers the cellular basis of the immune response, including the origin and differentiation of T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, and other immune cells from stem cells in the bone marrow and thymus. It describes the roles of macrophages, dendritic cells, and other immune cells in phagocytosis, antigen presentation, and immune responses.
L1B. Anatomy and biology of the Immune system-2023 ppt - Copy.pptxdanielmwandu
The document discusses the components of the immune system, including cells, molecules, tissues and organs. It describes how cells of the immune system originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The key cells discussed are T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. It also outlines the major immune system organs like the thymus, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, skin and mucosa. The innate and adaptive immune responses are briefly introduced.
The document discusses the structure and function of the immune system. It describes the cells of the innate immune system including phagocytes, eosinophils, natural killer cells, basophils, mast cells, and platelets. It also describes the cells of the acquired immune system including lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells. It provides details on the development and roles of lymphocytes, specifically T cells and B cells. It discusses primary and secondary lymphoid organs as well as secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.
The document provides an overview of basic immunology. It discusses the immune system and its components, including innate and acquired immunity. The innate immune system provides non-specific defenses and includes physical barriers, phagocytes, complement proteins, cytokines, and natural killer cells. Acquired immunity develops from exposure to antigens and provides long-lasting, pathogen-specific protection in the form of antibodies and T-cells. Key cellular responses include inflammation, antigen presentation, complement activation, and the roles of B-cells and T-cells in humoral and cellular immunity.
The document provides information about the lymphatic system and immune system. It defines 12 learning outcomes related to these topics, including describing the lymphatic system organs and pathways, different immune cell types and their functions, types of immunity and antibodies. It then covers the lymphatic system functions, organs like lymph nodes, thymus and spleen. It also explains innate immunity mechanisms, adaptive immune responses, B cells and T cells responses, antibody actions, and types of immunity.
The document summarizes adaptive immunity and compares humoral and cellular responses. It describes the origin of B and T lymphocytes in bone marrow and thymus, their maturation processes, and roles in immunity. B cells mediate humoral immunity through antibody production while T cells direct cellular immunity, including cytotoxic T cells that directly kill infected cells. Memory B and T cells provide faster responses upon reexposure to pathogens. Antigen-presenting cells also play key roles in activating lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes are key cells of the immune system that recognize and respond to pathogens. There are three main types: T cells and B cells which mediate adaptive immunity, and NK cells which provide innate immunity. T and B cells mature in central lymphoid organs like the thymus and bone marrow before circulating. Disorders can result from reactive changes in lymph nodes due to infection or malignancies such as lymphomas arising from lymphocytes at different stages of development.
Similar to Microbiology Ch 16 lecture_presentation (20)
Based on the assessment findings provided, M.H. appears to have developed postoperative pneumonia and ileus.
The crackles heard on auscultation of her lungs along with a fever suggest she has a postoperative pulmonary infection like pneumonia.
Her abdominal tenderness, distension and absence of bowel sounds indicate she has developed an ileus, which is delayed return of normal bowel function and gas/stool movement after surgery. The brownish-green drainage from her NG tube is also consistent with ileus.
This document discusses perioperative nursing care. It describes the various areas of the surgical suite including restricted, semirestricted, and unrestricted areas. It then outlines the roles and responsibilities of the different members of the surgical team, including nurses, surgeons, anesthesiologists and other support staff. It provides details on preoperative preparation of the patient, room and equipment, intraoperative care and positioning of the patient, and postoperative recovery of the patient.
The document describes the presurgical assessment process for a patient undergoing breast lumpectomy. It outlines gathering information on the patient's medical history including cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, genitourinary, hepatic and musculoskeletal systems. It also describes assessing the patient's medications, allergies, psychosocial factors and ensuring informed consent is obtained. The document uses the example of a 45-year-old female with hypertension, diabetes and anxiety about her breast cancer surgery to demonstrate the presurgical assessment.
This document discusses how psychosocial, cultural, and genetic factors can influence pharmacotherapy outcomes. It notes that effective pharmacotherapy requires considering biological, psychological, social, cultural, and environmental variables that may impact drug response. Specific influences discussed include spiritual/religious beliefs, ethnicity, culture, literacy levels, and genetic polymorphisms. Gender differences are also outlined, such as varying responses, behaviors, and drug coverage based on sex. The holistic nursing approach of considering all these influences is emphasized for achieving successful pharmacotherapy.
The document discusses drug administration throughout the lifespan. It covers considerations for drug use during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and aging. Key factors that affect pharmacokinetics at different life stages are growth and development changes, organ system changes, and age-related changes in absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of drugs. The document emphasizes the importance of understanding life stage considerations and providing appropriate patient education for safe and effective pharmacotherapy.
This document discusses complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies, focusing on herbal supplements. It defines CAM as treatments considered outside mainstream healthcare. Major CAM characteristics include treating each person as an individual and emphasizing mind-body connections. The document reviews various CAM healing methods, common herbal supplements, dietary supplement regulations, and the nurse's role in educating patients about CAM therapies and potential herb-drug interactions. It emphasizes the need for rigorous research on herbal supplement effectiveness and standardization.
This document discusses key concepts in pharmacodynamics including:
1) Pharmacodynamics examines how medicines change the body and helps predict drug effects.
2) Frequency distribution and dose-response curves illustrate variability in individual drug responses.
3) The median effective dose is the dose that produces a therapeutic response in 50% of patients.
4) Drugs can act as agonists, partial agonists, or antagonists at receptor sites to stimulate or inhibit responses.
1. Medication errors are common and can harm patients, increasing costs and negatively impacting facilities. They are caused by factors involving healthcare providers, patients, and systems.
2. It is important to accurately document and report all medication errors to determine root causes and implement strategies to prevent future errors. Reducing distractions, cross-checking orders, and reconciling medications can help reduce errors.
3. Educating patients on their medications also helps reduce errors by empowering them to participate in the medication administration process. Automated systems, electronic records, and updated policies further aim to minimize medication errors.
The document discusses the nursing process as it relates to pharmacology and medication administration. It describes the 5 steps of the nursing process - assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Considerable detail is provided about properly assessing patients, identifying nursing diagnoses related to medication, setting goals and expected outcomes, implementing interventions like medication administration and monitoring, and evaluating the effectiveness of the care plan. The overarching goals of the nursing process in pharmacology are safe and effective medication administration and optimal patient wellness.
This document discusses the key principles of pharmacokinetics - how drugs move through the body. It describes the four main components of pharmacokinetics: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Absorption involves a drug moving from its site of administration through membranes and into circulation. Distribution is the transport of drugs throughout tissues, influenced by factors like blood flow and binding to plasma proteins. Metabolism biochemically alters drugs in the liver to make them more easily excreted. Excretion primarily occurs through the kidneys which filter drugs out of the bloodstream. Understanding pharmacokinetics helps explain how the body handles medications and any obstacles they may face.
Drugs are organized in two ways: by therapeutic classification based on their clinical effects, and by pharmacologic classification based on their mechanism of action. Drugs have three names - a chemical name assigned by IUPAC, a generic name assigned by the USAN Council, and one or more trade or brand names assigned by the marketing company. Drugs considered to have abuse or addiction potential are scheduled by the DEA into five categories, with Schedule I having the highest abuse potential and Schedule V the lowest. Drugs are also classified based on their teratogenic risk to a fetus from A to X.
1) Pharmacology has its origins in ancient times when various cultures used plants and herbs to treat medical issues. It developed into a distinct discipline in the 19th century with the isolation of active compounds from natural substances and study of their effects.
2) John Jacob Abel established the first pharmacology department in the United States in 1890, advancing the field of modern pharmacology. Regulations and standards for drug development, labeling, and safety have strengthened over time through organizations like the USP and laws.
3) Nurses play a key role in pharmacology due to their direct involvement in patient care across all settings. Understanding how different factors influence individual drug responses is important for safe administration.
This chapter discusses principles of drug administration for nurses. It outlines the nursing process for drug administration including nurse responsibilities such as understanding classifications, actions, side effects, and ensuring safe preparation and administration. Common medication errors are also reviewed. The chapter then covers allergic reactions, the five rights of administration, routes of administration including enteral, topical and parenteral, and special considerations for various types of drug delivery such as transdermal patches, ophthalmic drops, and otic drops. Measurement systems, abbreviations, and documentation requirements are also discussed.
This document summarizes various rheumatic disorders that can cause musculoskeletal dysfunction. It describes osteoarthritis as a local degenerative joint disorder associated with aging that causes joint pain and stiffness. Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory autoimmune disease that can cause joint destruction in multiple symmetrically involved joints. Other systemic disorders discussed include systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, ankylosing spondylitis, and gout, which involves uric acid crystal deposition in joints. Pediatric joint disorders like juvenile idiopathic arthritis are also reviewed.
This document discusses various types of musculoskeletal trauma, diseases, and alterations. It covers bone fractures, dislocations, infections, tumors, and soft tissue injuries. Specific conditions covered include osteoporosis, rickets, Paget's disease, osteomyelitis, tuberculosis, osteosarcoma, ligament injuries, tendon injuries, and muscle strains. Treatment options are provided for many conditions, which may include surgery, antibiotics, chemotherapy, calcium supplements, and physical therapy.
1. The document discusses the pathophysiology of pain, which involves transduction, transmission, perception, and modulation of pain signals in the body.
2. Pain signals are transmitted from nociceptors via the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord and brain. Various neurotransmitters are involved at different stages of transmission.
3. Pain perception is influenced by both physical and psychological factors and can be modulated in the brain using various pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments.
This document summarizes several chronic neurological disorders including seizure disorder, dementia, Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, hydrocephalus, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and Bell's palsy. It describes the key characteristics, causes, symptoms, diagnoses, and treatment approaches for each condition.
This document discusses mechanisms and manifestations of acute brain injury. It covers several topics:
1) Mechanisms of primary and secondary brain injury including ischemia, cellular energy failure, excitatory amino acids, reperfusion injury, abnormal autoregulation, increased intracranial pressure, and brain herniation.
2) Manifestations of brain injury including level of consciousness assessed by Glasgow Coma Scale, pupil reflexes, oculovestibular reflex, and corneal reflex.
3) Traumatic brain injury classifications including mild, moderate and severe injuries, as well as types of primary injuries like focal, polar and diffuse injuries, and intracranial hematomas.
This document discusses common gastrointestinal disorders and their manifestations. It describes different types of dysphagia, including problems with food delivery into the esophagus (Type I), transport down the esophagus (Type II), and entry into the stomach (Type III). Other manifestations covered include heartburn, abdominal pain, vomiting, changes in bowel habits like constipation and diarrhea, and intestinal gas. Causes and symptoms are provided for each manifestation.
1. The document discusses the structure, function, embryology and disorders of the gallbladder and exocrine pancreas.
2. It describes the anatomy of the pancreaticobiliary system including the gallbladder, cystic duct, common bile duct and pancreas.
3. Key disorders covered include cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, and acute pancreatitis. The causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of each are explained.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)