The document discusses the history and mechanisms of action of antimicrobial agents. It describes how early scientists like Paul Ehrlich and Alexander Fleming discovered antimicrobial compounds. It then covers the main mechanisms by which antimicrobial drugs work, including inhibiting cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, and metabolic pathways. The document explains how some drugs can disrupt cytoplasmic membranes or inhibit nucleic acid synthesis. While effective against microbes, some antimicrobial mechanisms can also harm humans if they affect similar host cell processes.
Microbiological Basics and Antimicrobial Susceptibility TastingsYazan Kherallah
Presents the basic concepts of microbiology including colony morphology, blood agar and hemolysis, Cellular Morphology and Arrangement, staining, Antibiotic Killing Curves, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. Prepared by Yazan Kherallah.
A protein synthesis inhibitor is a substance that stops or slows the growth or proliferation of cells by disrupting the processes that lead directly to the generation of new proteins. All of the antibiotics that target bacterial protein synthesis do so by interacting with the bacterial ribosome and inhibiting its function. The ribosome might not seem like a very good target for selective toxicity, because all cells, including our own, use ribosomes for protein synthesis.The good thing is that bacteria and eukaryotes have ribosomes that are structurally different. Bacteria have so-called 70S ribosomes and eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes. No, not '70s and '80s ribosomes, although that would be pretty entertaining. The S stands for 'Svedberg unit,' and it refers to the rate at which particles sediment down into the tube during high-speed ultracentrifugation. Basically, it tells us about the ribosome's molecular weight and shape.
70S and 80S ribosomes are different enough that antibiotics can specifically target one and not the other. Let's take a closer look at the bacterial 70S ribosome and see where some different kinds of antibiotics act on it. Remember that ribosomes are made of RNA and protein and that they have two subunits, one large and one small.
The bacterial 70S ribosome's subunits are the 50S subunit and the 30S subunit. Yes, I know, 50 + 30 = 80, not 70, but this is not a math mistake. Using the Svedberg unit to measure ribosomes means that things don't always add up perfectly, because rates of sedimentation are not additive like molecular weights are.
Before we get into the specifics of how antibiotics inhibit bacterial ribosomes, let's briefly review how ribosomes work. First, a tRNA loaded with a particular amino acid enters the ribosome at the A site. The tRNA's anticodon has to match the codon, or group of three nucleotides on the mRNA. Then, at the P site of the ribosome, a peptide bond forms between the previous amino acid and the new amino acid. Finally, the empty tRNA exits at the E site. This process repeats for the whole length of the mRNA, and the polypeptide chain continues to grow.
Mechanism of action of major antibiotic classes including betal lactam agents, aminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracyclines, quinolons, vancomycin, oxazolidionons. Detailed review and illustrations
Bacteria have their own enzymes for
1. Cell wall formation
2. Protein synthesis
3. DNA replication
4. RNA synthesis
5. Synthesis of essential metabolites
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
