This document discusses the key methods used in sociological research, including the scientific method, various research designs, and data collection techniques. It outlines the typical steps in conducting research such as formulating hypotheses, reviewing literature, collecting and analyzing data. Specific methods covered include experiments, surveys, participant observation, secondary data analysis. An example is given of the famous Stanford Prison Experiment which investigated how social roles and situations can influence human behavior.

1. Sociology
Methods of Sociological Research

2. Overview
 Introduction
 What is the scientific method?
 Steps in conducting a research
 Introduction
 Formulating the hypothesis
 Reviewing the literature
 Sociological theories
 Research designs and methods
 Collecting and analyzing data
 Conclusion and Ethics of research
 Limitations
 Elements of a sociological research

5. Introduction
 How do sociologists study human behavior and
institutions?
 Is it accurate to categorize sociology as a science?
 What ethical standards guide sociologists in conducting
research?

6. Scientific Sociology
 Science- a logical system that bases knowledge on
direct, systematic observation.
 Scientific Sociology- the study of society based on
systematic observation of social behavior.
 It rests on empirical evidence- the information we can
verify with our senses.

7. Scientific method
 It is a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures
objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.
 A key element in the scientific method is planning.
 The basic requirements of sociological investigation:
 Look at the world using the sociological perspective.
 Be curious and ask questions.

8. Steps in conducting a research
1. Introduction
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Determining research design
4. Collecting the data
5. Coding and Data Analysis
6. Developing the conclusion

9. 1. Introduction
 Research Questions: an answerable inquiry into a
specific concern or issue. It is the initial step in a
research project.
 Why is the origin of criminal behavior a relevant issue?
 What is criminal behavior?
 What are the theories about why people engage in
criminal behavior?

10.  You must state what you hope to investigate as clearly
as possible.
 Purpose: It refers to the goal or objective of your research.
 The purpose statement should answer questions. . ."What are
the objectives of my research?" and
 "What do I expect to discover or learn from this research?"

11. 1. Formulating the Hypothesis
 A Hypothesis essentially tells us what we are looking for
in our research.
 It is a speculative statement about the relationship
between two or more variables.

12.  A hypothesis must be testable.
 A hypothesis has two variables;
 Independent Variable - the variable in a model (causal
relationship) which, when altered, causes or influences a change
in a second variable. It provides the "input" which is modified by
the model to change the "output."
 Dependent Variable: the variable in a model (causal relationship)
which is subject to the influence of another variable.

14. 2. Literature Review
 A careful review of previous literature allows
sociologists to gain insights as well as mistakes.
 Each study or experiment adds a bit more to our
knowledge of the social and physical environment.

15. 2. Sociological Theories
 The main function of sociological theories is to develop and
motivate us to conduct sociological research.
 Summarized the research results.
 Foundation to our predictions and explanation.
 Example: Stimulus-Response Theory. (Stimulus is defined as
the influence which brings about or evokes an identifiable
response. A response is that human behaviour which is
caused or evoked by an identifiable stimulus)

16. 3. Research Designs and Methods

17. 3. Research Designs and Methods
 A Research Method is a detailed and systematic plan
for obtaining data scientifically.
 Sociologists regularly use these methods to generate
data for their research:
 experiments
 participant observations
 surveys
secondary analysis

18. Sample selection
 Population: the people who are the focus of research
 Selecting the sample: A sample is a selection from a
larger population which is statistically found to be
representative of the entire population.
 A random sample is frequently used by social scientists.
Every element in the population has an equal chance
to be selected.

19. Experiments
 A research method for investigating cause and effect
under highly controlled conditions.
 It is explanatory- it asks not just what happens but why.
 A researcher devises an experiment to test a hypothesis.
 Hypothesis in an “if-then” form: If one thing were to
happen, then something else would result.
 Using experimental and control groups to test the
change.
 The experimental group is exposed to an independent
variable, the control group is not.

20.  An Experiments consists of three steps:
1) The experimenter measures the dependent variable.
2) The investigator exposes the dependent variable to the
independent variable. (the treatment)
3) The researcher again measures the dependent variable
to see if the intended change took change.
If expected change occurred, the ex supports the
hypothesis. If not, the hypothesis must be modified.

21. What happens when you put good
people in an evil place?

22. Prison Experiment

23. Social experiments – Stanford
Prison Experiment 1971
 In the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment, a two-week investigation
to respond to the following question:
"What happens when you put good people in an evil place?”
 24 undergraduates were selected to play the roles of both guards
and prisoners and live in a mock prison.
 The guards took great pleasure in exercising violence, humiliating
and torturing the prisoners.
 The prisoners, too, lost their ability to distinguish what was real
and what was simulated.
 After six days, Philip Zimbardo was forced to end the experiment.

24.  The Experiment discovered a few significant but disturbing
social-psychological behaviours.
 In post-experiment interviews it was found that participants
given authoritative roles were beginning to relish their new-
found authority over their prisoners.
 The participants who were given prison inmate roles began to
hate their situation and the treatment they got from the prison
guards. They began to react and rebel against the prison
authority.

25. Sociological significance
 Individual personalities could change due to positions of authority.
 Social and ideological factors determine how both groups behaved,
individuals act thinking what was required, not own judgement. Situation-
based.
 Institutional forces have impact on behavior of normal, healthy participants.
 Normal, healthy mock prisoners suffered intense emotional stress reactions,
other prisoners acted like zombies. This distress was caused by their sense of
powerlessness induced by guards who acted in cruel, dehumanizing and
sadistic ways.
 Good people can be transformed into evil, healthy people experience
pathological reactions due to situational forces. The system causes corruption
in prison environment. We act as we think we are expected to act.

26. Criticisms
 Ethical issues; no strict controls.
 Pose genuine risk to people disposed towards mental &
emotional imbalances.
 Is the result valid? This is a field experiment, so only
observational results and no scientific evaluation. Hard to
replicate the conditions.
 Real-life application?

27. 3. Participant Observation

28.  The investigators systematically observe people while joining
them in their routine activities
 It is a research technique in which an investigator collects
information through direct participation in and observation of a
group, tribe or community under study.
 Researchers playing the ‘participant’ or ‘observer’.

29.  It allows researchers an inside look at social life. (night club or religious ceremony)
 It is exploratory and descriptive: no hypothesis, and no assumption, exploring the
unexpected and unfamiliarity.
 It discovers people’s lives, what they think about themselves and the world around
them. Qualitative.
 It is lacking of scientific rigor (heavy personal judgment), but it can gain considerable
insight into people’s natural behavior.
 Hawthorne effect is also likely to occur.
 Hawthorne effect: refers to a change in a subject’s behavior caused simply by the
awareness of being studied – e.g. paying attention to overall worker needs would
improve productivity.
 Case study: Western Electric Company- worker productivity and the available
lightning – (The Hawthorne Works had commissioned a study to see if its workers
would become more productive in higher or lower levels of light).

30. Hawthorne effect
 1. Researcher measured worker productivity (DV)
 2. Researcher increased the lighting (IV)
 3. Researcher turned the lighting down (IV)

31. 3. Surveys

32.  It is a study, generally in the form of an interview or
questionnaire, which provides sociologists with information
concerning how people think and act.
 Disad of interview: costly and time consuming. Telephone
interview gets more reach, but low response.
 Some are unable to answer: children, patients, illiterate people.
 Questionnaire: Series of written questions that a researcher
presents to subjects.
- Close ended format
- Open ended format
 Interview: A series of questions a researcher administers in
person to respondents.
 Survey: The question must be simple, specific and clear enough
for people to understand it.
 Use self administered survey, mailing or e-mailing
questionnaires.

33. 4. Secondary Analysis

34. 4. Secondary Analysis
 A research method in which a researcher uses data
collected by others.
 It can save time and money. It has special appeal to
sociologist with low budget.
 Data available: Government, Statistics, United Nations,
the World Bank, other sociological research.
 Problem: the data may not exist in the needed form.
 Problem: The questions about the meaning and accuracy
of work done by others.

35. 5. Coding and Data Analysis
 Quantitative Research: the use of sampling
techniques (such as consumer surveys) whose findings
may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to
mathematical manipulation enabling the researcher to
estimate future events.
 Qualitative Research: the investigator gathers
impressionistic and not numerical data like in
quantitative research. Example is observation.

36. Ensuring validity and reliability:
Validity: refers to the degree to which a measure or
scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study.
Reliability: refers to the extent to which a measure
provides consistently accurate results.

37. 6. Developing the conclusion
 The Basic Principles:
 Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.
 Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity.
 Protect subjects from personal harm.
 Preserve confidentiality.
 Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.
 Disclose all sources of financial support.

38. Limitations of Research
 Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists
to predict precisely any individual’s actions.
 Human respond to their surroundings, presence of
researcher may affect the behavior being studied. ( ?
Effect)
 Social patterns change constantly. What is true in 1
place/time may change.
 Being value free is difficult, we live in the ‘test tube’.

39. So..questions to ask in order to do a
Sociological Research
 What is your topic?
 What have others already learned?
 What- exactly- are your questions?
 What will you need to carry out research?
 Are there ethical concerns?
 What method will you use?
 How will you record the data?
 What do the data tell you?
 What are your conclusions?
 How can you share what you have learned?