The document provides an overview of early civilizations in the Americas from 2500 BCE to 1500 CE. It describes how the first peoples migrated to the Americas across the Bering Strait land bridge. Early societies developed agriculture, with maize becoming a key crop. Notable early civilizations included the Olmec in Mesoamerica, known for pyramid building and trade networks. Later, the Maya developed advanced mathematics and astronomy, building large cities before their civilization declined. In North America, mound building cultures like the Hopewell and Mississippian peoples constructed earthworks for ceremonial and burial purposes.
Chapter 12 Ways of the World, Worlds of 15th century S Sandoval
AP World History / Ways of the World second edition by Robert W. Strayer. Summary of Chapter 12 An Age of Accelerating Connections 500-1500, The worlds of the fifteenth century.
Chapter 9 world of islam: Afro-Eurasian connections, Ways of the World bookS Sandoval
AP World History Book, Ways of the World, Second Edition by Robert W. Strayer, Summary of Chapter 11: The Worlds of Islam 600-1500. An age of Accelerating Connections. Study and Enjoy!
Chapter 1 The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 MaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 | The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
CHAPTER 1
The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Chapter Outline
1.1 The Americas
1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change
1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery
Introduction
Globalization, the ever-increasing interconnectedness of the world, is not a new phenomenon,
but it accelerated when western Europeans discovered the riches of the East. During the
Crusades (1095–1291), Europeans developed an appetite for spices, silk, porcelain, sugar, and
other luxury items from the East, for which they traded fur, timber, and Slavic people they
captured and sold (hence the word slave). But when the Silk Road, the long overland trading
route from China to the Mediterranean, became costlier and more dangerous to travel, Europeans
searched for a more efficient and inexpensive trade route over water, initiating the development
of what we now call the Atlantic World.
In pursuit of commerce in Asia, fifteenth-century traders unexpectedly encountered a “New
World” populated by millions and home to sophisticated and numerous peoples. Mistakenly
believing they had reached the East Indies, these early explorers called its inhabitants Indians.
West Africa, a diverse and culturally rich area, soon entered the stage as other nations exploited
its slave trade and brought its peoples to the New World in chains. Although Europeans would
come to dominate the New World, they could not have done so without Africans and native
peoples.
1.1 The Americas
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
● Locate on a map the major American civilizations before the arrival of the Spanish
● Discuss the cultural achievements of these civilizations
● Discuss the differences and similarities between lifestyles, religious practices, and
customs among the native peoples
Chapter 1 | The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Between nine and fifteen thousand years ago, some scholars believe that a land bridge existed
between Asia and North America that we now call Beringia . The first inhabitants of what would
be named the Americas migrated across this bridge in search of food. When the glaciers melted,
water engulfed Beringia, and the Bering Strait was formed. Later settlers came by boat across the
narrow strait. (The fact that Asians and American Indians share genetic markers on a Y
chromosome lends credibility to this migration theory.) Continually moving southward, the
settlers eventually populated both North and South America, creating unique cultures that ranged
from the highly complex and urban Aztec civilization in what is now Mexico City to the
woodland tribes of eastern North America. Recent research along the west coast of South
America suggests that migrant populations may have traveled down this coast by water as well
as by land.
Researchers believe that about ten thousand years ago, humans also began the domestication of
plants and animals, a ...
Chapter 12 Ways of the World, Worlds of 15th century S Sandoval
AP World History / Ways of the World second edition by Robert W. Strayer. Summary of Chapter 12 An Age of Accelerating Connections 500-1500, The worlds of the fifteenth century.
Chapter 9 world of islam: Afro-Eurasian connections, Ways of the World bookS Sandoval
AP World History Book, Ways of the World, Second Edition by Robert W. Strayer, Summary of Chapter 11: The Worlds of Islam 600-1500. An age of Accelerating Connections. Study and Enjoy!
Chapter 1 The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 MaximaSheffield592
Chapter 1 | The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
CHAPTER 1
The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Chapter Outline
1.1 The Americas
1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change
1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery
Introduction
Globalization, the ever-increasing interconnectedness of the world, is not a new phenomenon,
but it accelerated when western Europeans discovered the riches of the East. During the
Crusades (1095–1291), Europeans developed an appetite for spices, silk, porcelain, sugar, and
other luxury items from the East, for which they traded fur, timber, and Slavic people they
captured and sold (hence the word slave). But when the Silk Road, the long overland trading
route from China to the Mediterranean, became costlier and more dangerous to travel, Europeans
searched for a more efficient and inexpensive trade route over water, initiating the development
of what we now call the Atlantic World.
In pursuit of commerce in Asia, fifteenth-century traders unexpectedly encountered a “New
World” populated by millions and home to sophisticated and numerous peoples. Mistakenly
believing they had reached the East Indies, these early explorers called its inhabitants Indians.
West Africa, a diverse and culturally rich area, soon entered the stage as other nations exploited
its slave trade and brought its peoples to the New World in chains. Although Europeans would
come to dominate the New World, they could not have done so without Africans and native
peoples.
1.1 The Americas
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
● Locate on a map the major American civilizations before the arrival of the Spanish
● Discuss the cultural achievements of these civilizations
● Discuss the differences and similarities between lifestyles, religious practices, and
customs among the native peoples
Chapter 1 | The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492
Between nine and fifteen thousand years ago, some scholars believe that a land bridge existed
between Asia and North America that we now call Beringia . The first inhabitants of what would
be named the Americas migrated across this bridge in search of food. When the glaciers melted,
water engulfed Beringia, and the Bering Strait was formed. Later settlers came by boat across the
narrow strait. (The fact that Asians and American Indians share genetic markers on a Y
chromosome lends credibility to this migration theory.) Continually moving southward, the
settlers eventually populated both North and South America, creating unique cultures that ranged
from the highly complex and urban Aztec civilization in what is now Mexico City to the
woodland tribes of eastern North America. Recent research along the west coast of South
America suggests that migrant populations may have traveled down this coast by water as well
as by land.
Researchers believe that about ten thousand years ago, humans also began the domestication of
plants and animals, a ...
8/30/2015 IEB Wireframe
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Page 3
A CONTINENT OF CULTURES
Recent breakthroughs in archaeology and genetics have demonstrated that the first inhabitants of the
Americas arrived from Siberia at least 15,500 years ago BP.* Gradually these nomads filtered southward,
some likely following the Pacific coastline in small boats, others making their way down a narrow,
glacier–free corridor along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains and onto the northern Great Plains.
There they found and hunted a stunning array of huge mammals, so–called megafauna. These animals
included mammoths that were twice as heavy as elephants, giant bison, sloths that were taller than
giraffes, several kinds of camels, and terrifying, 8–foot–long lions. Within a few thousand years the
descendants of these Siberians, people whom Columbus would wishfully dub “Indians,” had spread
throughout the length and breadth of the Americas.
nomad a member of a group of people who have no fixed home and who move about, usually seasonally,
in pursuit of food, water, and other resources.
Opinion
If your outstretched arm represented North America's human history, contact with Europe would happen
around the second knuckle of your index finger, with the fingertips being the present. Why do you think
students learn so little about the Americas before 1492?
This first colonization of the Americas coincided with, and perhaps accelerated, profound changes in the
natural world. The last Ice Age literally melted away as warmer global temperatures freed the great
reservoirs of water once locked in glaciers. A rise in sea levels inundated the Bering Strait, submerging
the land bridge and creating new lakes and river systems. The emergence of new ecosystems—climates,
waterways, and land environments in which humans interacted with other animals and plants—made for
ever–greater diversity. The first human inhabitants of the Americas had fed, clothed, warmed, and armed
themselves in part by hunting megafauna, and some combination of overhunting and climate change
resulted in the extinction of most of these giants by the end of the Ice Age. As glaciers receded and
human populations increased, the first Americans had to adapt to changing conditions. They adjusted by
hunting smaller animals with new, more specialized kinds of stone tools and by learning to exploit
particular places more efficiently.
8/30/2015 IEB Wireframe
http://textflow.mheducation.com/parser.php?secload=1.1&fake&print 2/7
ecosystem a community and/or region studied as a system of functioning relationships between
organisms and their environments.
So it was that between 10,000 and 2,500 years ago distinctive regional cultures developed among the
peoples of the Americas. Those who remained in the Great Plains turned to hunting the much smaller
descendants of the now–extinct giant bison; those in the deserts of the Great Basin survived on small
game, seeds, and e.
Civilizations in Mesoamerica rose and fell repeatedly, leaving behind a distinctive worldview and some mysteries.
Register to explore the whole course here: https://school.bighistoryproject.com/bhplive?WT.mc_id=Slideshare12202017
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
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Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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2. Review Questions:Review Questions:
1. The early societies in the Americas were
quite diverse. What are some of the key
physical, social, and intellectual features you
can use to differentiate between cultures and
civilizations?
2. How did Mesoamerican and North American
peoples develop prosperous and stable
societies?
3. What were the geographic locations and
some of the key cultural features of the Olmec,
Mayan, Aztec, and Incan civilizations?
3. I. The First Peoples of the AmericasI. The First Peoples of the Americas
A. Describing the Americas and Their Peoples
1. The “Americas”= the geographic area that includes
North, South, and Central America, and the Caribbean
Islands. This area is also known as the “western
hemisphere”
2. c. 1502, A letter sent to the Medici rulers in Italy by
explorer Amerigo Vespucci described a “new world.”
After the letter was published in numerous languages,
the land was identified after this explorer and was
called America.
3. In 1492 Christopher Columbus had actually reached
the New World first but thought he was in the East
Indies. Thus, Columbus identified the native population
as “Indians.”
4. I. The First Peoples of the AmericasI. The First Peoples of the Americas
B. Settling the Americas
• 1. During the Ice Age, a natural land bridge joined Russia to North
America.The emergence of this formation across the Bering Strait
allowed people to migrate eastward onto the continent. The area of the
land bridge is known as Beringia
• Early populations followed migrating herds for survival. Eventually, the populations began to
migrate southward to warmer climates.
• As the ice melted c. 13,000 years ago people moved into the interior of N. America (see
map, next slide)
• II. Humans also traveled a coastal route down the Pacific coast
• ***Once humans moved into the Western Hemisphere—melting of ice
glaciers separated them from the Eastern Hemisphere and caused human
civilization to develop in isolation from Africa, Europe, and Asia
5.
6. I. The First Peoples of the AmericasI. The First Peoples of the Americas
C. The Development of Agriculture (Agricultural Revolution)-about
8000 BCE people began to plant crops
1. Although a variety of crops were produced by native peoples,
maize (Corn) was the most important. Maize emerged in Mexico
Different types of maize were bred for a variety of purposes. The
plant was considered to be the source of human life and had a
religious and symbolic meaning, being associated with the corn
god.
◦ It was the most important crop in the Americas! Maize cultivation spread
from Mesoamerica (present-day Mexico and Central America) into North
and South America.
.
2. Dogs were domesticated to assist in hunting. In the Andes
(modern Chile and Peru), llamas and alpacas were used as pack animals
carrying goods through the mountains. There were no native species of
animals that could be used as draft power—(no horses, cows, oxen were
on this side of the world before Columbus’ voyages in the 1490s)
7. ““Maize god”Maize god”
Miaze was often
associated with a corn
god in native
civilizations, with
regular ceremonies
honoring this god
during which people
asked for good
harvests
(Maya Maize God,
200-900 CE)
8. Early American SocietiesEarly American Societies
Advancements in agriculture had social &
political consequences
◦ Careful cultivation of food crops brought
steady and reliable sources of food & a high
fertility rate
◦ Population growth led to the creation of
urban societies
9. II. Early SocietiesII. Early Societies
A. Mounds, Towns, and Trade in North and South America
1. c. 2500 BCE Some North American tribes, mainly those along the Ohio
and Mississippi Rivers, constructed earthworks for a variety of reasons.
Many of the earthworks were in a serpentine form or in a pyramid shape.
2. c. 2500 BCE In a region of Peru called Norte Chico, stepped pyramids
more than ten stories high were built for religious & political purposes. The
region benefited from agricultural irrigation technology, which helped to
provide squash, beans, and many other types of crops. Caral, the largest city
in Norte Chico, became a major center for production and trade.
11. Khipu found at CaralKhipu found at Caral
Oldest known Khipu
found at Caral, Peru
—a collection of
knotted strings that
were used to collect
information such as
census and tax
records
12.
13. Questions for Incan Khipu (Quipu)Questions for Incan Khipu (Quipu)
Inca Khipu, ca. 1400 CE (p. 305)
1. The caption identifies a number of ways these strings and the knots in them could have encoded information
– form and position of knots, color and spin of the strings. Examining the photograph, can you find any
characteristics that might have been used to encode information?
(Answer: The strings are of different lengths and thicknesses. Both of the characteristics could have encoded
messages or information. They are also arranged around a central, semicircular string. Position around the
string could also have been used as a code. )
2. Why might cotton string have been a particularly good material for communicating data and messages in pre-
Colombian Peru?
(Answer: Cotton was an exceedingly common cultivated plant in the area, and had been so perhaps as far back
as 2500 BCE. Using it was economical, and the medium was more durable than some alternatives (leaves, bark).
3. Why were such complex methods of transmitting information necessary in the Andes at this time?
(Answer: The Inca Empire was huge, 350,000 square miles at its height, with a population of 16 million (see the
section on the Incas at the end of this chapter). Although the Incas constructed an excellent network of roads for
foot traffic, travel across the empire by messengers could take weeks. Moreover Inca administration was
complex. The Inca emperors extracted forced labor duties from the population which required a census; they
collected taxes throughout their lands; they had to keep records of the properties of the emperors and their
clans; and they engaged in the construction of large-scale irrigation projects, roads, and bridges. All of this
required complex record keeping. As the Incas did not have a writing system, some detailed system of
accounting was needed. The khipu provided that. )
14. B. Olmec Agriculture, Technology, and Religion
The Olmecs created the first cities in Mesoamerica,
1500-300 BCE
Olmec people cultivated maize, squash, and other types of
produce. They traded rubber, cacao (source of Chocolate), and
various crafted products such as pottery or figurines. Evidence
shows that Olmec trade reached as far away as Mexico.
They made weapons from obsidian (black, volcanic glass)
Most Olmecs lived in small villages. Rulers lived in lavish cities with
palaces, large water reservoirs, and sewage removal systems
The Great Pyramid was the center of their religion. Huge stone
slabs were used to construct the pyramid, which may have been an
attempt to gain closeness with the gods.
Olmec writing was deciphered in 1993—opening up the culture to
intense study by historians.
15.
16. Olmecs were the earliest known Pyramid
Builders
◦ Despite the towering reputation of Egypt’s Great
Pyramids at Giza, the Americas actually contain more
pyramid structures than the rest of the planet
combined.
◦ Civilizations like the Olmec, Maya, Aztec and Inca all
built pyramids to house their deities, as well as to
bury their kings.
◦ In many of their great city-states, temple-pyramids
formed the center of public life and were the site of
much holy ritual, including human sacrifice.
17. The earliest known pyramid
in the Americas now stands
at La Venta in Tobasco,
Mexico. Built by the Olmecs
between 1000-400 BCE.
18. The best known Latin American pyramids
include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid
of the Moon at Teotihuacán in central Mexico,
the Castillo at Chichén Itzá in the Yucatan, the
Great Pyramid in the Aztec capital of
Tenochtitlan, the Pyramid at Cholula and the
Inca’s great temple at Cuzco in Peru.
19. III. Classical Era MesoamericaIII. Classical Era Mesoamerica
and North America, 300–900and North America, 300–900 CC..EE..
A. Maya Agriculture and Trade
• 1. Maize and other vegetables were traditional crops,
but the Maya included groves of fruit trees in their
agricultural development.
• 2. In an effort to avoid crop failure, the Maya built
raised agricultural fields to avoid seasonal floods. The
raised-field system helped to support the Maya
population.
• 3. A network of waterways, including swamps, served
as transportation thoroughfares. Large canoes carried
cargoes to other populations.
• 4. agricultural achievements led to great population
increases—the entire Maya region held as many as 14
million inhabitants.
20.
21. III. Classical Era MesoamericaIII. Classical Era Mesoamerica
and North America, 300–900and North America, 300–900 CC..EE..
B. Maya Science and Religion
1. A book of mythological narratives survived the Spanish attempts to
destroy all records of the Maya religion. The Popul Vuh provides a view
of the Maya interpretation of world creation and the concepts of good
and evil.
2. Maya religious rituals included human sacrifice. Human sacrifice was
conducted to honor the gods and demonstrate the king’s military
strength.
3. Mathematics was based on the vigesimal (20) system and included the
use of the number zero—which allows for more complex calculations
4. The Maya mathematical system improved their system of astronomy
and the development of their calendar.
22. C. The Maya civilization lasted about
1,000 years
It collapsed between the 8-10th
centuries
as a result of agricultural failures, drought,
overpopulation, disease, and constant
warfare
23. Mayan PyramidsMayan Pyramids
The Maya made temple-pyramids in the center
of their cities.
The most famous is the carved Temple at
Palenque (Mexico)—a funerary monument of
King Hanab Pakal, 7th
century
The tallest Maya pyramid was at Tikal,
Guatemala, 8th
century
Pyramid of the Magician or Sorcerer, 9th
-10th
centuries, built by the god of magic, Itzamna, as
a training center for shamans, healers, and
priests.
26. Maya, Pyramid of the Magician, UxmalMaya, Pyramid of the Magician, Uxmal
27. III. Classical Era MesoamericaIII. Classical Era Mesoamerica
and North America, 300–900and North America, 300–900 CC..EE..
C. Growth and Assimilation of the Teotihuacán and Toltec
Cultures
1. Zapotecan-speaking peoples in southern Mexico developed a large
religious center that featured elaborate tombs and temples.
2. The city of Teotihuacán in central Mexico was a large urban center
(over 200,000 people) consisting of a variety of neighborhoods and
tradesmen. Agricultural laborers lived outside of the city. Inside the city
were several large pyramids at which people worshipped various deities.
3. The Toltec confederation was heir to Teotihuacan and existed as a
loose union of strong states. The Toltecs extended their power
throughout the region of Central America. Their capital city was Tula.
28.
29. Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan, 1-Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan, 1-
250 CE250 CE
31. III. Classical Era MesoamericaIII. Classical Era Mesoamerica
and North America, 300–900and North America, 300–900 CC..EE..
D. Hohokam, Hopewell, and Mississippian Societies
• 1.The Hohokam people used irrigation and terrace
agriculture.They also built platforms for ceremonial events.
(300 BCE)
• 2.Along the Ohio River, the Hopewell built extensive
mounds as tombs for priests, leaders, and other important
officials.They also built mounds shaped like animals or
geometric figures.
• 3.The settlement of Cahokia along the Mississippi River
included the largest mound of any of the mound-building
cultures.An agricultural society, Cahokia at its peak was the
largest city north of Mesoamerica. (present-day St. Louis)
32.
33.
34. Questions for Great Serpent MoundQuestions for Great Serpent Mound
Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio (p. 311)
1. The Hopewell Culture and other Mississippi valley cultures were
influenced by the Mesoamerican civilizations to the south. Do you see
any possible evidence of that influence in this photograph?
(Answer: The feathered serpent was a common deity in Mesoamerica. It
is possible, though hardly provable, that the serpent mound was
influenced by the cultural importance of the feathered serpent to the
south. )
2. Why might one conclude that this mound had a religious, ritual, or
artistic significance?
(Answer: Simply put, it is hard to imagine a “practical” use that the
mound could have had. )
35. IV. The AztecsIV. The Aztecs
A. Religion and War in Aztec Society
• 1. The creator deity Quetzalcoatl was one of many
gods worshipped by the Mexicas. Quetzalcoatl, a
feathered serpent god, was revered as a source of
knowledge.
• 2. The warrior god Huitzilopochtli symbolized the
sun, which needed precious fluids to keep moving. The
precious fluid usually was blood; human sacrifice was
an important part of Mexica religious identity.
• 3. Most of those sacrificed were war captives seized in
battle. Conquered states were forced to provide a
tribute of people to be used as human sacrifice.
36.
37. IV. The AztecsIV. The Aztecs
B. Social Distinctions Among Aztecs
• 1.The Aztec aristocracy included warriors who had
distinguished themselves on the battlefield. Generals, judges,
and governors were among the warrior aristocracy.
• 2.The macehualtin were the ordinary citizens and the largest
segment of the Aztec population.This class performed
agricultural, military, and other domestic services.This group
possessed certain rights of citizenship.
• 3.The poorest class of citizens was the tlalmaitl, meaning the
landless workers.These individuals depended on the security
provided by the upper classes and existed in a peasant-type
environment.
• 4. Slaves were the lowest social class. Many were prisoners of
war, but others were criminals from the Aztec society itself.
Most slaves eventually gained their freedom.
38.
39. Questions for Aztec AdolescentsQuestions for Aztec Adolescents
Aztec Adolescents (p. 317)
1. How does this scene reflect the importance of Tenochtitlan’s location in the middle of a
lake and the city’s extensive canal system?
(Answer: Boys are learning both to paddle or pole cargo canoes, and apparently to fish using
nets, indicating a close familiarity and use of waterways. )
2. What activities are the youths learning to do? Are they basic activities necessary for daily
life, or are they more specialized and arcane (for example manufacture of luxury items,
religious ritual, and so on)?
(Answer: The boys are learning to fish, to carry cargo on their backs, and to move cargo by
boat. Thus, they obtain food and transport goods. The girls pound corn kernels into meal and
weave cloth for clothing. Food, clothing, and simple transport of goods are all activities
integral to daily life, not arcane specialties. )
3. Based on your answer to question two above, what social class do these youths seem to be
from?
(Answer: The scene and the activities presented suggest that they are common people, not
from families of warrior aristocrats, merchants, or priests. )
40. IV. The AztecsIV. The Aztecs
C. The City of Tenochtitlán
1. Tenochtitlán included nearly 60,000 households and
a population of about 250,000. The Aztec Empire at
one point could claim a population of 5 million people.
2. The city was surrounded by stone and adobe walls.
Wide streets and canals crisscrossed the city.
3. Markets featured butchers, artisans, seamstresses,
and a wide variety of services and merchandise.
4. The great temple of Huitzilopochtli was located in
the central part of the city. It was approached by three
flights of stairs and rose nearly one hundred feet high.
41. V. The IncasV. The Incas
A. Earlier Peruvian Cultures
1. Located along the northern coast of Peru, the Moche people built cities around
large plazas with temples and stone masonry. The Moche agricultural system
provided enough food for the people and the military.
2. Moche civilization consisted of numerous small city-states that were not unified as
an identifiable group. Warfare was common among them.
B. Inca Imperialism and Its Religious Basis
1. Each ruler’s corpse was mummified and placed in a sacred chamber. His
descendants managed his land and income to pay for the upkeep of his mummified
remains and to support themselves and his cult.
2. A desire for conquest created an opportunity to gain new territories but also to
improve one’s place within society.
3. Conquered peoples were forced to adopt the Inca language. This created a level of
unity. Incas stressed government by means of imperial unification. Their religion was
also required to be accepted by the conquered populations. This was an effort to
prevent rebellion in subject territories.
4. Inca society enjoyed an infrastructure that included excellent roads, which were
built to ease military transportation and communication.
42.
43. V. The IncasV. The Incas
C. The Clan-Based Structure of Inca Society
• 1. Clans were granted lands by authorities, and individual
families worked those lands for generations.
• 2. Every family had to provide crops for the Inca elite. The
families were also expected to supply members for military
service.
• 3. The state required everyone to marry and at times
identified when and whom a person should marry. Marriage
was sometimes used as a symbol of conquest, as Inca elite
married the daughters of elite families of conquered states.
• 4. Ordinary people worked in the fields and mines to make
the life of the nobles comfortable.
Editor's Notes
I. The First Peoples of the Americas
A. Describing the Americas and Their Peoples
1. A letter sent to the Medici rulers in Italy by Amerigo Vespucci described a “new world.” After the letter was published in numerous languages, the land took on the identity of Vespucci and was called America.
2. Columbus had actually reached the New World first but thought he was in the East Indies. Thus, Columbus identified the native population as “Indians.”
I. The First Peoples of the Americas
B. Settling the Americas
1. During the Ice Age, a natural land bridge joined Russia to North America. The emergence of this formation across the Bering Strait allowed people to migrate eastward onto the continent.
2. Early populations followed migrating herds for survival. Eventually, the populations began to migrate southward to warmer climates.
I. The First Peoples of the Americas
C. The Development of Agriculture
1. Although a variety of crops were produced by native peoples, maize was the most important. Different types of maize were bred for a variety of purposes. The plant was considered to be the source of human life and had a religious and symbolic meaning, being associated with the corn god.
2. Corn was cultivated. Potatoes were raised on terraced slopes retained by stone walls. Some cultures freeze-dried potatoes.
3. Dogs were domesticated to assist in hunting. In the Andes, llamas and alpacas were used as pack animals carrying goods through the mountains. There were no native species of animals that could be used as draft power.
II. Early Societies
A. Mounds, Towns, and Trade in North and South America
1. Some North American tribes, mainly those along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, constructed earthworks for a variety of reasons. Many of the earthworks were in a serpentine form or in a pyramid shape.
2. In a region of Peru called Norte Chico, stepped pyramids more than ten stories high were built. The region benefited from agricultural irrigation technology, which helped to provide squash, beans, and many other types of crops. Caral, the largest city in Norte Chico, became a major center for production and trade.
B. Olmec Agriculture, Technology, and Religion
1. Olmec people cultivated maize, squash, and other types of produce. They traded rubber, cacao, and various crafted products such as pottery or figurines. Evidence shows that Olmec trade reached as far away as Mexico.
2. Olmec society was not based on class distinction. Most Olmecs lived in small villages. Cities contained large water reservoirs and stone drains.
3. The Great Pyramid was the center of their religion. Huge stone slabs were used to construct the pyramid, which may have been an attempt to gain closeness with the gods.
Inca Khipu, ca. 1400 CE (p. 305)
1. The caption identifies a number of ways these strings and the knots in them could have encoded information – form and position of knots, color and spin of the strings. Examining the photograph, can you find any characteristics that might have been used to encode information?
(Answer: The strings are of different lengths and thicknesses. Both of the characteristics could have encoded messages or information. They are also arranged around a central, semicircular string. Position around the string could also have been used as a code. )
2. Why might cotton string have been a particularly good material for communicating data and messages in pre-Colombian Peru?
(Answer: Cotton was an exceedingly common cultivated plant in the area, and had been so perhaps as far back as 2500 BCE. Using it was economical, and the medium was more durable than some alternatives (leaves, bark). )
3. Why were such complex methods of transmitting information necessary in the Andes at this time?
(Answer: The Inca Empire was huge, 350,000 square miles at its height, with a population of 16 million (see the section on the Incas at the end of this chapter). Although the Incas constructed an excellent network of roads for foot traffic, travel across the empire by messengers could take weeks. Moreover Inca administration was complex. The Inca emperors extracted forced labor duties from the population which required a census; they collected taxes throughout their lands; they had to keep records of the properties of the emperors and their clans; and they engaged in the construction of large-scale irrigation projects, roads, and bridges. All of this required complex record keeping. As the Incas did not have a writing system, some detailed system of accounting was needed. The khipu provided that. )
III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.
A. Maya Agriculture and Trade
1. Maize and other vegetables were traditional crops, but the Maya included groves of fruit trees in their agricultural development.
2. In an effort to avoid crop failure, the Maya built raised agricultural fields to avoid seasonal floods. The raised-field system helped to support the Maya population.
3. A network of waterways, including swamps, served as transportation thoroughfares. Large canoes carried cargoes to other populations.
III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.
B. Maya Science and Religion
1. A book of mythological narratives survived the Spanish attempts to destroy all records of the Maya religion. The Popul Vuh provides a view of the Maya interpretation of world creation and the concepts of good and evil.
2. Maya religious rituals included human sacrifice. Human sacrifice was conducted to honor the gods and demonstrate the king’s military strength.
3. Mathematics was based on the vigesimal system and included the use of the number zero.
4. The Maya mathematical system improved their system of astronomy and the development of their calendar.
III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.
C. Growth and Assimilation of the Teotihuacán and Toltec Cultures
1. Zapotecan-speaking peoples in southern Mexico developed a large religious center that featured elaborate tombs and temples.
2. The city of Teotihuacán in central Mexico was a large urban center consisting of a variety of neighborhoods and tradesmen. Agricultural laborers lived outside of the city. Inside the city were several large pyramids at which people worshipped various deities.
3. The Toltec confederation was a weak union of strong states. The Toltecs extended their power throughout the region of Central America. Their capital city was Tula.
III. Classical Era Mesoamerica and North America, 300–900 C.E.
D. Hohokam, Hopewell, and Mississippian Societies
1. The Hohokam people used irrigation and terrace agriculture. They also built platforms for ceremonial events.
2. Along the Ohio River, the Hopewell built extensive mounds as tombs for priests, leaders, and other important officials. They also built mounds shaped like animals or geometric figures.
3. The settlement of Cahokia along the Mississippi River included the largest mound of any of the mound-building cultures. An agricultural society, Cahokia at its peak was the largest city north of Mesoamerica.
Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio (p. 311)
1. The Hopewell Culture and other Mississippi valley cultures were influenced by the Mesoamerican civilizations to the south. Do you see any possible evidence of that influence in this photograph?
(Answer: The feathered serpent was a common deity in Mesoamerica. It is possible, though hardly provable, that the serpent mound was influenced by the cultural importance of the feathered serpent to the south. )
2. Why might one conclude that this mound had a religious, ritual, or artistic significance?
(Answer: Simply put, it is hard to imagine a “practical” use that the mound could have had. )
IV. The Aztecs
A. Religion and War in Aztec Society
1. The creator deity Quetzalcoatl was one of many gods worshipped by the Mexicas. Quetzalcoatl, a feathered serpent god, was revered as a source of knowledge.
2. The warrior god Huitzilopochtli symbolized the sun, which needed precious fluids to keep moving. The precious fluid usually was blood; human sacrifice was an important part of Mexica religious identity.
3. Most of those sacrificed were war captives seized in battle. Conquered states were forced to provide a tribute of people to be used as human sacrifice.
IV. The Aztecs
B. Social Distinctions Among Aztecs
1. The Aztec aristocracy included warriors who had distinguished themselves on the battlefield. Generals, judges, and governors were among the warrior aristocracy.
2. The macehualtin were the ordinary citizens and the largest segment of the Aztec population. This class performed agricultural, military, and other domestic services. This group possessed certain rights of citizenship.
3. The poorest class of citizens was the tlalmaitl, meaning the landless workers. These individuals depended on the security provided by the upper classes and existed in a peasant-type environment.
4. Slaves were the lowest social class. Many were prisoners of war, but others were criminals from the Aztec society itself. Most slaves eventually gained their freedom.
Aztec Adolescents (p. 317)
1. How does this scene reflect the importance of Tenochtitlan’s location in the middle of a lake and the city’s extensive canal system?
(Answer: Boys are learning both to paddle or pole cargo canoes, and apparently to fish using nets, indicating a close familiarity and use of waterways. )
2. What activities are the youths learning to do? Are they basic activities necessary for daily life, or are they more specialized and arcane (for example manufacture of luxury items, religious ritual, and so on)?
(Answer: The boys are learning to fish, to carry cargo on their backs, and to move cargo by boat. Thus, they obtain food and transport goods. The girls pound corn kernels into meal and weave cloth for clothing. Food, clothing, and simple transport of goods are all activities integral to daily life, not arcane specialties. )
3. Based on your answer to question two above, what social class do these youths seem to be from?
(Answer: The scene and the activities presented suggest that they are common people, not from families of warrior aristocrats, merchants, or priests. )
IV. The Aztecs
C. The City of Tenochtitlán
1. Tenochtitlán included nearly 60,000 households and a population of about 250,000. The Aztec Empire at one point could claim a population of 5 million people.
2. The city was surrounded by stone and adobe walls. Wide streets and canals crisscrossed the city.
3. Markets featured butchers, artisans, seamstresses, and a wide variety of services and merchandise.
4. The great temple of Huitzilopochtli was located in the central part of the city. It was approached by three flights of stairs and rose nearly one hundred feet high.
V. The Incas
A. Earlier Peruvian Cultures
1. Located along the northern coast of Peru, the Moche people built cities around large plazas with temples and stone masonry. The Moche agricultural system provided enough food for the people and the military.
2. Moche civilization consisted of numerous small city-states that were not unified as an identifiable group. Warfare was common among them.
B. Inca Imperialism and Its Religious Basis
1. Each ruler’s corpse was mummified and placed in a sacred chamber. His descendants managed his land and income to pay for the upkeep of his mummified remains and to support themselves and his cult.
2. A desire for conquest created an opportunity to gain new territories but also to improve one’s place within society.
3. Conquered peoples were forced to adopt the Inca language. This created a level of unity. Incas stressed government by means of imperial unification. Their religion was also required to be accepted by the conquered populations. This was an effort to prevent rebellion in subject territories.
4. Inca society enjoyed an infrastructure that included excellent roads, which were built to ease military transportation and communication.
V. The Incas
C. The Clan-Based Structure of Inca Society
1. Clans were granted lands by authorities, and individual families worked those lands for generations.
2. Every family had to provide crops for the Inca elite. The families were also expected to supply members for military service.
3. The state required everyone to marry and at times identified when and whom a person should marry. Marriage was sometimes used as a symbol of conquest, as Inca elite married the daughters of elite families of conquered states.
4. Ordinary people worked in the fields and mines to make the life of the nobles comfortable.