This document provides an overview of global contact between 1450-1600 by summarizing key developments in several regions:
- The Indian Ocean trade world connected China, India, Southeast Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Peoples of Southeast Asia shared Austronesian languages and women had relatively high status.
- The trans-Saharan gold and slave trades linked Africa to North Africa and the Middle East. Arab and African merchants exported African slaves.
- European voyages of discovery were spurred by desires for luxury goods, religion, knowledge, and competition. Advances in navigation enabled Portuguese and Spanish exploration of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
- Spanish conquests of the Aztec and Inca Empires led
Tema 3 las grandes unidades del relieve. las meseta y sus unidades interiores...Miguel Romero Jurado
Tema 3 las grandes unidades del relieve. las meseta y sus unidades interiores. los rebordes montañosos de la meseta. los sistemas y unidades exteriores. los relieves insulares.
Tema 3 las grandes unidades del relieve. las meseta y sus unidades interiores...Miguel Romero Jurado
Tema 3 las grandes unidades del relieve. las meseta y sus unidades interiores. los rebordes montañosos de la meseta. los sistemas y unidades exteriores. los relieves insulares.
CHAPTER 2Early Globalization The AtlanticWorld, 1492–16.docxcravennichole326
CHAPTER 2
Early Globalization: The Atlantic
World, 1492–1650
Figure 2.1 After Christopher Columbus “discovered” the New World, he sent letters home to Spain describing the
wonders he beheld. These letters were quickly circulated throughout Europe and translated into Italian, German, and
Latin. This woodcut is from the first Italian verse translation of the letter Columbus sent to the Spanish court after his
first voyage, Lettera delle isole novamente trovata by Giuliano Dati.
Chapter Outline
2.1 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest
2.2 Religious Upheavals in the Developing Atlantic World
2.3 Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy
2.4 New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange
Introduction
The story of the Atlantic World is the story of global migration, a migration driven in large part by the
actions and aspirations of the ruling heads of Europe. Columbus is hardly visible in this illustration of his
ships making landfall on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola (Figure 2.1). Instead, Ferdinand II of Spain (in
the foreground) sits on his throne and points toward Columbus’s landing. As the ships arrive, the Arawak
people tower over the Spanish, suggesting the native population density of the islands.
This historic moment in 1492 sparked new rivalries among European powers as they scrambled to create
New World colonies, fueled by the quest for wealth and power as well as by religious passions. Almost
continuous war resulted. Spain achieved early preeminence, creating a far-flung empire and growing
rich with treasures from the Americas. Native Americans who confronted the newcomers from Europe
suffered unprecedented losses of life, however, as previously unknown diseases sliced through their
populations. They also were victims of the arrogance of the Europeans, who viewed themselves as
uncontested masters of the New World, sent by God to bring Christianity to the “Indians.” The Spanish
enslaved Native Americans, forcing them to bring whatever gold could be found to fill Spanish coffers.
Chapter 2 Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 39
2.1 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic and Spanish exploration of the
Americas, and the importance of these voyages to the developing Atlantic World
• Explain the importance of Spanish exploration of the Americas in the expansion of
Spain’s empire and the development of Spanish Renaissance culture
Portuguese colonization of Atlantic islands in the 1400s inaugurated an era of aggressive European
expansion across the Atlantic. In the 1500s, Spain surpassed Portugal as the dominant European power.
This age of exploration and the subsequent creation of an Atlantic World marked the earliest phase of
globalization, in which previously isolated groups—Africans, Native Americans, and Europeans—first
came into contact with each other, sometimes with disastrous resu ...
W7L3European Age of ExplorationA World Map from Alberto Cantin.docxmelbruce90096
W7L3
European Age of Exploration
A World Map from Alberto Cantino, 1502
When we last left Europe, the Islamic trading influences had sparked a revolution of ideas in Italy that began to spread across the cultural centers of European kingdoms. The Italian Renaissance slowly spread across Europe, bringing new innovations in technology, art, music, scientific understanding, mathematics, and medicine. In turn these ideas had sparked the Reformation. However, by the sixteenth century, as the Reformation picked up steam and began spreading radical religious ideas throughout Christendom, already some European kingdoms had begun applying Renaissance inventions to new economic opportunities: Exploration.
The presence of patronage throughout royal courts had encouraged a stability of economies. This stability was called mercantilism – the economic doctrine that assumes government control of foreign trade is the most important element of ensuring prosperity for a given state. The idea is that trading partners need each other to prosper, so trading states are less likely to war with each other over minor details, lest that diminishes trade. The downside to mercantilism is that it can foster an atmosphere of such extreme competition between two or more states that other states end up falling prey to that intense rivalry. This is exactly what happened with cultures in Africa, North America, the Caribbean, and Mesoamerica. But the immediacy of stability caused by mercantilism contributed to the standing atmosphere of intellectual curiosity and increasing centralized governments to lead expeditions outside of European domains.
Portugal
The Portuguese had regained control over the Kingdom of Portugal in 1415, when conquering Christian forces had expelled the occupying Moors. Spain still had some years of fighting left to regain control over the remaining Iberian Peninsula, but Portugal began to set its affairs in order and set its sights on increased trade. Playing a key role in this development was Prince Henry the Navigator.
Prince Henry the Navigator extended Portuguese trade ports throughout the coasts of Africa and into India
Prince Henry was very religious and thought that exploring the African coastline might benefit Portugal in economic glory while benefitting African through conversion from mostly Islamic beliefs to Christian ideas. He established a navigation school to increase the knowledge of sailors. New techniques in ship-building allowed for longer journeys with more gods on board. He also spread the idea that courtly chivalrous honor could be achieved through behaviors off the battle-field. In addition to military glory, he thought, knightly behavior could be earned through intellectual exploration, religious piety and missionary work, and the adventure of journeying to places unknown. In the early 1400s, Portuguese sailors began sailing into ports along the African coast. They were there not as conquerors, but as traders.
And so, Portugues.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
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Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
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3. I. The Afroeurasian Trade World
A.The Trade World of the Indian Ocean
1. The South China Sea trade was the most
developed part of the Indian Ocean sea trade.
Chinese goods heading east had to travel through
the South China Sea ports.
2. China was heavily involved in overseas trade.
Admiral Zheng He’s journeys took him as far as
Egypt, but the voyages came to an end following
the admiral’s death and the death of the emperor
who had initiated the voyages.
3. India became another important link in the flow of
trade. Indian ports became the link between China
and the Persian Gulf.
4. B.Peoples and Cultures of the Indian Ocean
1. The peoples throughout the eastern rim of the
Pacific Ocean all spoke languages of the
Austronesian family. These peoples included the
populations of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the
Philippines.
2. Women in these cultures enjoyed a higher status
than most other women throughout the world. In
Southeast Asia, a groom paid his bride’s family a
sum of money at the time of marriage. This was
identified as “bride wealth.”
5.
6.
7. The Afroeurasian Trade World Before Columbus
C. Trade with Africa and the Middle East
1. Africa became the source of gold and slaves.
Gold was transported across the Sahara Desert to
North African ports. Slavery was practiced in
Africa before the Europeans arrived.
2. Arabic and African merchants had marketed
slaves from Africa to European and Middle
Eastern markets for years.
8. D.Genoese and Venetian Middlemen
1. Italian merchants dominated the European trade
following the end of the Crusades. When the
Atlantic Ocean explorations began, the Italian
merchants, navigators, and financiers advised the
Spanish and Portuguese monarchs.
2. Ancient Roman slave markets were based in the
Black Sea areas. Many of the Roman slaves were
from the Balkans or other eastern regions. With
new slave markets opening in the West, the trade
shifted focus to the African continent.
9.
10. II. The European Voyages of Discovery
A. Causes of European Expansion
1. Luxury goods: Rebounding from the devastating
Black Death, Europeans developed a taste for
enjoyment and comfort. The philosophy that life
was short and needed to be enjoyed created a
market for luxury items.
2. Religious fervor: The desire to spread Christianity helped
to fuel the explorations of distant lands. There also was
concern about the Islamic religion spreading unchecked
throughout the uncharted regions of the world
11. 3. Inquisitive minds: . Many explorers simply wanted
answers to questions that had annoyed people for
generations. This tied in with their desire to gain glory
and name recognition.
4. Royal competition: The growth of government
power and competition among monarchs helped
propel the voyages of discovery. Once the exploration
business began, monarchs throughout western
Europe immediately showed interest and offered
financial support.
5. Employment opportunities: For many who were
not in the elite social class, job opportunities were
slim. Sailing on an ocean vessel and charting unknown
seas was an opportunity for ordinary men to escape
poverty and improve their quality of life.
12. II. The European Voyages of Discovery
B.Technology and the Rise of Exploration
1. The magnetic compass assisted sailors in
determining their direction and sea position.
2. The astrolabe identified the altitude of the sun
and enabled mariners to plot their position
relative to the equator.
13. C. The Portuguese in Africa and Asia
1. Portuguese explorers hoped to gain military glory,
and defeat the Muslim powers. They also hoped to
find gold and develop a trade in the slave and spice
markets.
2. Prince Henry was dubbed “the Navigator” because
he supported the study of geography and navigation
and sponsored expeditions to West Africa.
3. The Portuguese understood the need for friendly
ports along the trade routes. A string of trading posts
and forts were built along the African coast for
Portuguese vessels.
4. The Portuguese fought for and won control of the
Indian spice trade from Muslim defenders.
14.
15.
16. II. The European Voyages of Discovery
D. Spain’s Voyages to the Americas
1. Christopher Columbus’s proposed westward voyage was
first rejected by Portugal. He finally received financing for
his voyage from the Spanish monarchs.
2. Initially thinking he had landed in the Indies, Columbus
continued south and found a large island. What he thought
was Japan was to be identified later as Cuba. He did find
gold ornaments worn by some native groups, which he
reported to the Spanish rulers.
3. In the following decades, Spain developed colonies
throughout the New World. Columbus made several
journeys to the New World but was never interested in
governing the region.
17.
18.
19. II. The European Voyages of Discovery
E. Spain “Discovers” the Pacific
1. Amerigo Vespucci was the first to describe
America as a continent separate from Asia.
2. The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas gave Spain
everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn
down the Atlantic and Portugal everything to the
east.
3. Ferdinand Magellan also sailed for the Spanish
crown. Although his crew was the first to
circumnavigate the globe, what started as a fleet
of five ships finished with a crew of eighteen
survivors returning to Spain with one ship.
Magellan was killed in a battle in the Philippines.
20.
21. F. Early Exploration by Northern European
Powers
1. John Cabot discovered Newfoundland and
explored the New England coast.
2. French explorer Jacques Cartier made
exploratory trips into the St. Lawrence region of
Canada, looking for a passageway to Asia.
22.
23. III. Conquest and Settlement
A. Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca
Empires
1. The vast Aztec Empire, also known as the Mexica
Empire, was a sophisticated civilization with a
capital larger than any European city of the time.
After landing on the Mexican coast, Hernan
Cortés ignored orders to limit his activities to
trade and exploration and established a
settlement. From the coast, he moved inland and
conquered the native populations, claiming the
land for Spain.
2. The Aztec leader, Moctezuma, was killed in
battle, opening the entire region for the
conquistadors.
24. 3. The Inca Empire was located in the South
American region of Peru. The Incas were an isolated
population living more than 9,800 feet above sea
level.
4. Following five years of war, Francisco Pizarro
defeated the Incas. The Inca leader, Atahualpa,
planned a trap for the Spanish, but the Spaniards
ambushed and captured him and later executed
him.
5. With the Inca leader gone, Spanish forces moved
in and ransacked Cuzco, the capital of the Inca
Empire.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29. III. Conquest and Settlement
B.Portuguese Brazil
1. In 1500 the Portuguese crown named Pedro Alvares Cabral
commander of a fleet headed for the spice trade of the
Indies. The fleet accidentally landed on the coast of Brazil,
which Cabral claimed for Portugal under the terms of the
Treaty of Tordesillas.
2. In the 1520s Portuguese settlers brought sugarcane
production to Brazil.
3. The settlers initially used enslaved indigenous laborers on
the plantation, but when the indigenous populations started
to die out they turned to forcibly transported African slaves.
This model of slave-worked sugar plantations would spread
throughout the Caribbean in the seventeenth century.
30. C. Colonial Administration
1. Spanish holdings in the New World were divided
into viceroyalties or administrative divisions: New
Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata. Each
viceroyalty had an imperial governor or viceroy.
2. Each viceroy was advised by an audiencia, a panel
of judges. Other colonial officials included
intendants and corregidores.
31. III. Conquest and Settlement
D. Indigenous Population Loss and Economic
Exploitation
1. The Spanish emperor granted conquerors the
right to use the indigenous people for the
betterment of the colony. The encomienda system
reflected the efforts of the Spanish to exploit the
labor of Native Americans.
2. Europeans introduced natives to new and
unknown diseases. A large portion of the native
population died from European diseases such as
smallpox.
32. E. Patterns of Settlement
1. Although the first Iberian migrants were men—
conquistadors, priests, and colonial officials—soon whole
families began to cross the Atlantic, and the European
population began to increase through natural reproduction.
2. Spaniards settled into former Aztec and Inca towns and
cities and also established new cities such as Santo
Domingo on Hispaniola and Vera Cruz in Mexico.
3. Despite their growing population, Europeans remained a
minority of the total inhabitants of the Americas. European
men often took native women as wives and concubines,
leading to a substantial population of mixed Iberian and
Indian descent known as mestizos.
33. IV. The Era of Global Contact
A.The Columbian Exchange
1. A transatlantic exchange of crops occurred after
the Europeans colonized the New World. Corn
became an important crop in Europe, as did
tomatoes and a variety of beans, squash, and other
types of vegetables. This increased the nutritional
value of the European diet and over time improved
Europeans’ health.
2. Potatoes spread throughout the world as a major
food staple for humans and for livestock as well.
34. B. Sugar and Early Transatlantic Slavery
1. Sugar was initially considered a luxury that few could
afford. Sugarcane was difficult to raise because it was
labor intensive and had to be marketed quickly or else
it would spoil. Yet, if it could get to a market, it would
bring in large amounts of profits.
2. Using slaves from Africa, Europeans developed
sugarcane plantations on the islands. Large fields
would be planted and harvested, producing large
quantities of sugarcane.
3. The production of sugarcane influenced the
transatlantic slave trade. Portuguese ships brought
the first shipment of African slaves to Brazil around
1550. By 1700, large numbers of slaves were used in
sugarcane production.
35.
36.
37. IV. The Era of Global Contact
C. The Birth of the Global Economy
1. While overland routes could only link trade from
continent to continent, sea routes linked the entire
world. States that had access to the open seas now
found themselves in prime locations on the global map.
2. Most nations became addicted to commodities from
faraway places. The world wanted silk and porcelain
from Asia, slaves from Africa, and riches from the New
World.
3. As more European states became involved in global
trading, some had the ability to maintain large empires,
while others found their resources were seriously
stretched to the limit. Those who were stretched to the
limit would become targets for the stronger states.
38.
39. V. Changing Attitudes and Beliefs
A.Religious Conversion
1. European missionaries took on the task of
converting native peoples to the Christian Church.
Catholic friars sought to understand native
cultures so that they might make Christianity
more comprehensible to indigenous people.
2. The Virgin of Guadalupe became an icon for
Catholics in Central and South America.
40. B.European Debates About Indigenous Peoples
– 1. Denunciations of Iberian exploitation of the
native population of the Americas by Catholic
missionaries in Spain led King Charles V to
assemble a group of churchmen and lawyers to
debate the issue in 1550 in the city of Valladolid.
– 2. Elsewhere in Europe, others debated these
same questions. Those who read denunciations of
Spanish abuses derived the Black Legend of
Spanish colonialism, the idea that the Spanish were
uniquely brutal and cruel in their conquest and
settlement of the Americas.
41. C. New Ideas About Race
1. Ideas about the inferiority of certain races were
needed to justify the institution of slavery. Some
Europeans claimed that Africans lived like beasts,
lacked rational thought, and were extremely
ignorant.
2. Other views supporting black enslavement were
biblical in origin. Ham was the cursed son of Noah
who was exiled in Africa; therefore, Africans were
the cursed sons of Ham.
42.
43. • Mixed Races (p. 477)
• 1. Can you see how these pictures show an imagined “racial” hierarchy?
• (Answer: The top two rows present mixed marriages involving one “white” Spanish
partner. The bottom two rows seem to involve marriages with partners of African
descent. Supposedly lighter skinned people are at the top of the hierarchy, darker
skinned toward the bottom.
• 2. Is there any suggestion that the social hierarchy (of occupation, social status)
parallels the racial hierarchy?
• (Answer: The pattern is not completely clear, but the “darker” families toward the
bottom of the page tend to have more simple clothes and humble occupations. For
example, the women in the third row down are carrying baskets of goods they
might be selling at a market or bringing home after purchase. The women at the top
are not laden and have clothes that appear more expensive. )
• 3. Who do you suppose the audience for a painting like this might have been?
• (Answer: It seems unlikely that the people living in the mixed-race societies of Latin
America and the Caribbean would have needed a guide to the various “mixes” and
their social ranks – they grew up acutely aware of these things. More likely this set
of images was to satisfy the curiosity of educated Europeans about societies in the
New World and the intermarriage of Europeans, Africans, and indigenous
Americans.)
Editor's Notes
The Afroeurasian Trade World Before Columbus
The Trade World of the Indian Ocean
1. The South China Sea trade was the most developed part of the Indian Ocean sea trade. Chinese goods heading east had to travel through the South China Sea ports.
2. China was heavily involved in overseas trade. Admiral Zheng He’s journeys took him as far as Egypt, but the voyages came to an end following the admiral’s death and the death of the emperor who had initiated the voyages.
3. India became another important link in the flow of trade. Indian ports became the link between China and the Persian Gulf.
Peoples and Cultures of the Indian Ocean
1. The peoples throughout the eastern rim of the Pacific Ocean all spoke languages of the Austronesian family. These peoples included the populations of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
2. Women in these cultures enjoyed a higher status than most other women throughout the world. In Southeast Asia, a groom paid his bride’s family a sum of money at the time of marriage. This was identified as “bride wealth.”
Trade with Africa and the Middle East
1. Africa became the source of gold and slaves. Gold was transported across the Sahara Desert to North African ports. Slavery was practiced in Africa before the Europeans arrived.
2. Arabic and African merchants had marketed slaves from Africa to European and Middle Eastern markets for years.
Genoese and Venetian Middlemen
1. Italian merchants dominated the European trade following the end of the Crusades. When the Atlantic Ocean explorations began, the Italian merchants, navigators, and financiers advised the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs.
2. Ancient Roman slave markets were based in the Black Sea areas. Many of the Roman slaves were from the Balkans or other eastern regions. With new slave markets opening in the West, the trade shifted focus to the African continent.
The European Voyages of Discovery
Causes of European Expansion
1. Rebounding from the devastating Black Death, Europeans developed a taste for enjoyment and comfort. The philosophy that life was short and needed to be enjoyed created a market for luxury items.
2. The desire to spread Christianity helped to fuel the explorations of distant lands. There also was concern about the Islamic religion spreading unchecked throughout the uncharted regions of the world.
3. Many explorers simply wanted answers to questions that had annoyed people for generations. This tied in with their desire to gain glory and name recognition.
4. The growth of government power and competition among monarchs helped propel the voyages of discovery. Once the exploration business began, monarchs throughout western Europe immediately showed interest and offered financial support.
5. For many who were not in the elite social class, job opportunities were slim. Sailing on an ocean vessel and charting unknown seas was an opportunity for ordinary men to escape poverty and improve their quality of life.
The European Voyages of Discovery
Technology and the Rise of Exploration
1. Long forgotten, Ptolemy’s Geography was reintroduced to the West by Arab scholars. Flaws in the work included the absence of the Americas and the depiction of China as being much closer to Europe than it actually was.
2. The magnetic compass assisted sailors in determining their direction and sea position.
3. The astrolabe identified the altitude of the sun and enabled mariners to plot their position relative to the equator.
The Portuguese in Africa and Asia
1. Portuguese explorers hoped to gain military glory, find the mythical Prester John, and defeat the Muslim powers. They also hoped to find gold and develop a trade in the slave and spice markets.
2. Prince Henry was dubbed “the Navigator” because he supported the study of geography and navigation and sponsored expeditions to West Africa.
3. The Portuguese understood the need for friendly ports along the trade routes. A string of trading posts and forts were built along the African coast for Portuguese vessels.
4. The Portuguese fought for and won control of the Indian spice trade from Muslim defenders.
The European Voyages of Discovery
Spain’s Voyages to the Americas
1. Christopher Columbus’s proposed westward voyage was first rejected by Portugal. He finally received financing for his voyage from the Spanish monarchs.
2. Initially thinking he had landed in the Indies, Columbus continued south and found a large island. What he thought was Japan was to be identified later as Cuba. He did find gold ornaments worn by some native groups, which he reported to the Spanish rulers.
3. In the following decades, Spain developed colonies throughout the New World. Columbus made several journeys to the New World but was never interested in governing the region.
The European Voyages of Discovery
Early Exploration by Northern European Powers
1. John Cabot discovered Newfoundland and explored the New England coast.
2. French explorer Jacques Cartier made exploratory trips into the St. Lawrence region of Canada, looking for a passageway to Asia.
Conquest and Settlement
Spanish Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires
1. The vast Aztec Empire, also known as the Mexica Empire, was a sophisticated civilization with a capital larger than any European city of the time. After landing on the Mexican coast, Hernan Cortés ignored orders to limit his activities to trade and exploration and established a settlement. From the coast, he moved inland and conquered the native populations, claiming the land for Spain.
2. The Aztec leader, Moctezuma, was killed in battle, opening the entire region for the conquistadors.
3. The Inca Empire was located in the South American region of Peru. The Incas were an isolated population living more than 9,800 feet above sea level.
4. Following five years of war, Francisco Pizarro defeated the Incas. The Inca leader, Atahualpa, planned a trap for the Spanish, but the Spaniards ambushed and captured him and later executed him.
5. With the Inca leader gone, Spanish forces moved in and ransacked Cuzco, the capital of the Inca Empire.
Conquest and Settlement
Portuguese Brazil
1. In 1500 the Portuguese crown named Pedro Alvares Cabral commander of a fleet headed for the spice trade of the Indies. The fleet accidentally landed on the coast of Brazil, which Cabral claimed for Portugal under the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas.
2. In the 1520s Portuguese settlers brought sugarcane production to Brazil.
3. The settlers initially used enslaved indigenous laborers on the plantation, but when the indigenous populations started to die out they turned to forcibly transported African slaves. This model of slave-worked sugar plantations would spread throughout the Caribbean in the seventeenth century.
Colonial Administration
1. Spanish holdings in the New World were divided into viceroyalties or administrative divisions: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata. Each viceroyalty had an imperial governor or viceroy.
2. Each viceroy was advised by an audiencia, a panel of judges. Other colonial officials included intendants and corregidores.
Conquest and Settlement
Indigenous Population Loss and Economic Exploitation
1. The Spanish emperor granted conquerors the right to use the indigenous people for the betterment of the colony. The encomienda system reflected the efforts of the Spanish to exploit the labor of Native Americans.
2. Europeans introduced natives to new and unknown diseases. A large portion of the native population died from European diseases such as smallpox.
Patterns of Settlement
1. Although the first Iberian migrants were men—conquistadors, priests, and colonial officials—soon whole families began to cross the Atlantic, and the European population began to increase through natural reproduction.
2. Spaniards settled into former Aztec and Inca towns and cities and also established new cities such as Santo Domingo on Hispaniola and Vera Cruz in Mexico.
3. Despite their growing population, Europeans remained a minority of the total inhabitants of the Americas. European men often took native women as wives and concubines, leading to a substantial population of mixed Iberian and Indian descent known as mestizos.
The Era of Global Contact
The Columbian Exchange
1. A transatlantic exchange of crops occurred after the Europeans colonized the New World. Corn became an important crop in Europe, as did tomatoes and a variety of beans, squash, and other types of vegetables. This increased the nutritional value of the European diet and over time improved Europeans’ health.
2. Potatoes spread throughout the world as a major food staple for humans and for livestock as well.
Sugar and Early Transatlantic Slavery
1. Sugar was initially considered a luxury that few could afford. Sugarcane was difficult to raise because it was labor intensive and had to be marketed quickly or else it would spoil. Yet, if it could get to a market, it would bring in large amounts of profits.
2. Using slaves from Africa, Europeans developed sugarcane plantations on the islands. Large fields would be planted and harvested, producing large quantities of sugarcane.
3. The production of sugarcane influenced the transatlantic slave trade. Portuguese ships brought the first shipment of African slaves to Brazil around 1550. By 1700, large numbers of slaves were used in sugarcane production.
The Era of Global Contact
The Birth of the Global Economy
1. While overland routes could only link trade from continent to continent, sea routes linked the entire world. States that had access to the open seas now found themselves in prime locations on the global map.
2. Most nations became addicted to commodities from faraway places. The world wanted silk and porcelain from Asia, slaves from Africa, and riches from the New World.
3. As more European states became involved in global trading, some had the ability to maintain large empires, while others found their resources were seriously stretched to the limit. Those who were stretched to the limit would become targets for the stronger states.
Changing Attitudes and Beliefs
Religious Conversion
1. European missionaries took on the task of converting native peoples to the Christian Church. Catholic friars sought to understand native cultures so that they might make Christianity more comprehensible to indigenous people.
2. The Virgin of Guadalupe became an icon for Catholics in Central and South America.
European Debates About Indigenous Peoples
1. Denunciations of Iberian exploitation of the native population of the Americas by Catholic missionaries in Spain led King Charles V to assemble a group of churchmen and lawyers to debate the issue in 1550 in the city of Valladolid.
2. Elsewhere in Europe, others debated these same questions. Those who read denunciations of Spanish abuses derived the Black Legend of Spanish colonialism, the idea that the Spanish were uniquely brutal and cruel in their conquest and settlement of the Americas.
New Ideas About Race
1. Ideas about the inferiority of certain races were needed to justify the institution of slavery. Some Europeans claimed that Africans lived like beasts, lacked rational thought, and were extremely ignorant.
2. Other views supporting black enslavement were biblical in origin. Ham was the cursed son of Noah who was exiled in Africa; therefore, Africans were the cursed sons of Ham.
Mixed Races (p. 477)
1. Can you see how these pictures show an imagined “racial” hierarchy?
(Answer: The top two rows present mixed marriages involving one “white” Spanish partner. The bottom two rows seem to involve marriages with partners of African descent. Supposedly lighter skinned people are at the top of the hierarchy, darker skinned toward the bottom.
2. Is there any suggestion that the social hierarchy (of occupation, social status) parallels the racial hierarchy?
(Answer: The pattern is not completely clear, but the “darker” families toward the bottom of the page tend to have more simple clothes and humble occupations. For example, the women in the third row down are carrying baskets of goods they might be selling at a market or bringing home after purchase. The women at the top are not laden and have clothes that appear more expensive. )
3. Who do you suppose the audience for a painting like this might have been?
(Answer: It seems unlikely that the people living in the mixed-race societies of Latin America and the Caribbean would have needed a guide to the various “mixes” and their social ranks – they grew up acutely aware of these things. More likely this set of images was to satisfy the curiosity of educated Europeans about societies in the New World and the intermarriage of Europeans, Africans, and indigenous Americans.)
Dona Marina Translating for Hernan Cortes During His Meeting with Montezuma (p. 475)
1. Why are the caged birds and the tied-up animal (a deer?) in the scene?
(Answer: These probably are gifts that Moctezuma offered his guest Cortes. In both the Spanish and Mexica cultures, such gifts could be understood as a form of tribute, suggesting that the giver pledged allegiance to the receiver. )
2. How does the painter try to show that Cortes has superior status?
(Answer: Cortes is larger than Moctezuma, and he sits upon a dais. Behind Moctezuma a line of Aztec notables stand, and it seems as if they are waiting to pay homage to Cortes. Both Dona Marina and Cortes are making gestures of command or instruction. )
3. The artist who painted this picture was from Tlaxcala, one of the earliest cities to ally itself with Cortes against Tenochtitlan and Moctezuma. Why might a Tlaxcalan artist have shown Moctezuma offering tribute to Cortes and listening to his instructions?
(Answer: In the years after the conquest, it was in the Tlaxcalans’ interest to emphasize their early military support of the Spanish, and the Spaniards’ “right” to rule central Mexico. The painting presents Cortes as the natural overlord of central Mexico and Moctezuma as his vassal, to support Spanish claims to rule. )
