Preparing for MEF Olympiad: Understanding English Grammar Rules

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Materi Persiapan Olimpiade MEF

1. GRAMMAR
1.1. Concord
Concord is also called agreement. It is a relation between two elements such that
they match one another in terms of grammatical feature. In English, the most
important type of concord is number concord between subject and verb or subject-
verb agreement. The verb must agree with its subject in person (1st
, 2nd
, 3rd
) and
number (singular or plural). In addition to subject-verb concord, there is also noun-
pronoun concord or pronoun agreement. It is an agreement between pronoun and
its antecedents in terms of number, person, and gender.
1.1.1. Subject-Verb Agreement1

a) The General Rules
The verb agrees with its subject in number and person. The agreement
applies whenever the verb displays distinctions in person and number.
For all verbs other than be, the distinctions are found only in the present
tense, where the 3rd
person singular has the –s form and the 3rd
person
plural (like the 1st
and 2nd
persons) has the base form.
[1] The noise distracts them.
[2] The noises distract them.
b) And
The subject is plural if it consists of two or more phrases that are linked
by and, even if each is singular.
[1] Your kitchen, your living-room, and your dining-room are too small.
The subject is also plural if and is implied though not actually present.
[2] Your kitchen, your living-room, your dining-room are too small.
c) Or, nor
If the subject noun phrases are linked by or, either … or, or neither … nor,
the verb may be singular or plural. When both phrases are singular, the
verb is singular.
[1] No food or drink was provided.
[2] Either pollen or dust causes his allergy.
[3] Neither the time nor the place was appropriate.
When both phrases are plural, the verb is plural.
[4] Either the parents or the teachers have to make decisions.
When one phrase is singular and the other plural, usage guides prefer the
verb to agree in number with the phrase closest to it.
[5] Three short essays or one long essay is required.
[6] Neither your brother nor your sisters are responsible.
d) With
When a singular noun phrase is linked to a following noun phrase by a
preposition such as with, the subject is singular even though the
preposition is similar in meaning to and.

1
For exercises on Subject-Verb Agreement, please see Chapter 6 of Understanding and
Using English Grammar (3rd
Edition) by Betty S. Azar

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[1] His sister, together with her two youngest children, is staying with
them.
The subject is singular because the main noun is singular. Other
prepositions used in a similar way include as well as and in addition to.
[2] The teacher, as well as the students, was attending the meeting.
e) Collective nouns
A collective noun refers to a group of people or things. Some examples
are,
administration enemy herd
army firm jury
audience family mob
class fleet nation
committee gang public
crew government swarm
crowd group team
When members of the group are viewed as a unit, singular verbs and
singular pronouns are used.
[1] The audience was very noisy.
[2] The public has a right to know.
[3] The Olympic Committee has made its decision, and has awarded the
2020 Olympic Games to Tokyo.
When members of the group are viewed as individuals, plural verbs and
plural pronouns are used.
[4] The government are confused about what to do next.
[5] All the team are in their places.
f) Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are the largest group of pronouns. They refer to the
presence (or absence) of a quantity. Here are some examples.
none a few somebody
many several neither
something both the other
everybody no one anything
anyone anyone anybody
Numerals may be used as pronouns. Here are two examples of cardinal
numerals as pronouns.
Twenty-two were rescued from the tsunami wave.
Three of the children wandered off on their own.
Most of the indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.
[1] Everybody is now here.
[2] Someone has stolen my sandals.
Further, in formal writing, use singular verbs even when a plural phrase
follows the pronouns.
[3] Either of them is prepared to help you.
[4] Each of our friends has joined the Silat course.
Several indefinite pronouns (none, all, some, any) and the fractions may
be either singular or plural. If they refer to one thing, they take a singular
verb.

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[5] All (the fruit) has been eaten.
[6] Some (of the material) is not suitable for children.
[7] None (of the crop) was in danger.
If the indefinite pronouns refer to more than one person or thing, they
take a plural verb.
[8] All (my friends) are studying abroad.
[9] Some (of the pages) are missing.
[10] None (of us) have heard about the new regulation.
Note that none is also used with a singular verb.
[11] None (of us) has heard about the new regulation.
g) Quantity phrases
Plural phrases of quantity or extent take singular verbs when the quantity
or extent is viewed as a unit.
[1] Ten dollars is enough.
[2] Two years seems too long to wait.
[3] Six kilometers was as far as they would walk.
Otherwise, a plural is used.
[4] Twenty years have passed since I last saw her.
[5] Twenty-five dollars were stolen from his wallet.
h) Singular nouns ending in –s
Nouns ending is –ics are singular when they refer to a field of study, for
example economics, linguistics, physics, statistics.
[1] Statistics is one of the compulsory subjects at my school.
[2] Economics was my favorite subject at school.
Some of these nouns are often used in a different sense and may then be
plural.
[3] The statistics on the survey are inaccurate.
Names of diseases that end in –s are generally treated as singular, for
example measles, mumps, AIDS.
[4] Measles is particularly prevalent to children.
Names of games that end in –s are singular, for example billiards, darts,
draughts, dominoes.
[5] Dominoes is the only game I play with him.
Individual pieces have singular and plural forms.
[6] You’ve dropped a domino on the carpet.
[7] The dominoes are on the floor.
i) Who, which, that
The relative pronoun who, which, and that have the same number as the
nouns they refer to.
[1] I have written a letter for the student who is applying for an
internship in our department. (The student is applying …)
[2] People who live in apartments are prone to earthquake. (The people
live in apartments …)
The same rule of agreement applies when the relative pronoun refers to a
personal pronoun.
[3] You who are my closest friends know best what needs to be done.
(You are my closest friends.)

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[4] It is I who am to blame. (I am to blame.)
j) What
Either a singular verb or a plural verb may be used with the pronoun
what. The choice depends on the meaning.
[1] What worries them is that he has not yet made up his mind. (The
thing that worries them is …)
[2] They live in what are called ranch houses. (In houses that are called)
Similarly, use either the singular or the plural with what-clauses,
according to the meaning.
[3] What they need is a good rest. (The thing that they need is …)
[4] What were once painful ordeals are now routine examinations.
(Those things … are now …)
k) There is, there are
In speech it is common to use a singular verb after introductory there
even when the subject (which follows the verb) is plural.
[1] There’s two men waiting for you.
In formal writing, you must follow the general rule.
[2] There is somebody waiting for you.
[3] There are two men waiting for you.
l) Citations and titles
Citations and titles always take a singular verb, even though they consist
of plural phrases.
[1] ‘Children’ is an irregular plural.
[2] Star Wars is a very famous film.
[3] Oscar and Lucinda was awarded the Booker Prize in 1988.
1.1.2. Pronoun Agreement2

Pronouns should agree with their antecedents.
[1] When you get lost, get a map. It really helps.
[2] Managers should consider several factors when determining how they
will deal with inefficient employees.
Be consistent in the use of pronouns. Use the same pronouns to refer to the
same persons.
[3] Every day you are bombarded with advertisements. It is up to us to
decide what is worth buying. (inconsistent)
[4] Every day you are bombarded with advertisements. It is up to you to
decide what is worth buying. (consistent) or
[5] Every day we are bombarded with advertisements. It is up to us to
decide what is worth buying. (consistent)
The inconsistency in the following examples follows from the switch from
passive to active.
[6] A coordinating conjunction should be used to join two main clauses
when you want to give them equal emphasis. (inconsistent)
[7] You should use a coordinating conjunction to join two main clauses
when you want to give them equal emphasis. (consistent) or

2
For detailed explanations and exercises on Pronoun Agreement, please see Chapter 8 of
Understanding and Using English Grammar (3rd

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[8] A coordinating conjunction should be used to join two main clauses
when equal emphasis is required. (consistent)
1.2. Tense3

Tense is a grammatical category referring to the time of the situation. The tense is
indicated by the form of a verb. Essentially, there are two tense forms: present and
past. There are three persons: 1st
person (the person or persons speaking or
writing), 2nd
person (the person or persons addressed), and 3rd
person (others).
There are two numbers: singular and plural.
For all verbs except be, there are two forms for the present: the –s form and the
base form. The –s form is used for the 3rd
person singular, that is with he, she, it,
and singular noun phrases as subject.
[1] He plays football every day.
[2] The road seems narrower.
Be has three forms for the present tense, which are distinct from the base form be.
am – 1st
person singular
is – 3rd
person singular
are – others
For all verbs except be, there is only one past form.
[1a] He (or They) played football yesterday.
[2a] The road (or roads) seemed narrower.
Be has two forms for the past
was – 1st
and 3rd
person singular
were – others
The two tenses are related to distinctions in time, but they do not correspond
precisely to the difference between present and past in the real world. The present
tense generally refers to a time that includes the time of speaking but usually
extends backward and forward in time.
[3] Three and five make eight.
[4] We live in Surabaya.
[5] I work in the maritime industry.
[6] They are my neighbors.
Sometimes the present refers to an event that is simultaneous with the time of
speaking.
[7] Here comes your sister.
[8] I nominate Windi.
1.3. Passive4

Sentences are either active or passive. Passive is a type of verb construction in
which a form of be is followed by the –ed form (past participle) of the main verb, for
example is loved, was beaten, will be sent. Hence, a passive clause or sentence is
one in which the verb phrase is passive.
[1] Police have found the missing children. (active)
[1a] The missing children have been found by police. (passive)

3
For more detailed explanations and exercises on tenses, please study your favorite
grammar books.
4
For more detailed explanations and exercises on Passive, please see Chapter 11 of
Understanding and Using English Grammar (3rd

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Police and the missing children are at opposite ends of the two sentences. In the
passive sentence by comes before police, and the active have found corresponds to
the longer have been found.
Here are two further examples of pairs of active and passive sentences.
[2] Manchester United beat Liverpool at Old Trafford. (active)
[2a] Liverpool were beaten by Manchester United at Old Trafford.
(passive)
[3] Reza Rahadian won the country’s prestigious award, the Piala Citra.
(active)
[3a] The country’s prestigious award, the Piala Citra, was won by Reza
Rahadian. (passive)
Actives are far more numerous than passives. Their relative frequency varies with
register. For example, passive tend to be heavily used in formal scientific writing.
1.4. Adjective Clause5

Before discussing the adjective clause, let’s take a look at clause first. Clause is a
group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two main types of a
clause: an independent clause which can function independently as a sentence, and
a dependent clause, which depends on an independent clause to form a sentence.
Adjective clauses are also known as relative clauses. This kind of clauses are
dependent clauses. Adjective clauses provide descriptive information about a noun
by either describing, identifying or giving further information about a noun.
1.5. Comparison Degree
Adjectives describe a quality or characteristic of a noun or pronoun. The basic form
of an adjective is sometimes known as the positive degree. But adjectives can also
be inflected (changed in form) to compare a quality between two nouns. This form
is known as the comparative degree. Similarly, we can also inflect an adjective to
identify a noun with the highest (or lowest) degree of an attribute among a group.
This is known as the superlative degree.
There two ways of forming the comparative and superlative degree. The adjectives
with one syllable, we can add –er for the comparative or –est for the superlative
degree. The adjectives with more than one syllable, we can add more/less for the
comparative or the most/the least for the superlative degree.
[positive] [comparative] [superlative]
big bigger biggest
slim slimmer slimmest
weak weaker weakest
small smaller smallest
caring more/less caring the most/the least caring
gifted more/less gifted the most/the least gifted
The following adjectives can use both ways to form the comparison.
clever cleverer or cleverest or
more/less clever the most/the least clever
likely likelier or likeliest or

5
For more detailed explanations and exercises on Adjective Clauses, please see Chapter 13
of Understanding and Using English Grammar (3rd

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more/less likely the most/the least likely
simple simpler or simplest or
more/less simple the most/the least simple
quiet quieter quietest
more/less quiet the most/the least quiet
narrow narrower narrowest
more/less narrow the most/the least narrow
The followings are the exceptions
fun more/less fun the most/the least fun
bad worse worst
well better best
good better best
far farther/further farthest/furthest
1.6. Conditional Sentences6

Conditional sentences are in the conditional mood (a sub-category of the
subjunctive mood), which is used for hypothetical scenarios that are dependent on
a certain condition or conditions. They are usually constructed using if to identify
the conditions that must be met. There are four “degrees” of conditionals, all of
which vary in structure and meaning.
1.6.1. Zero Conditional
A zero conditional sentence uses the present simple tense to talk about
what is always or generally true. It is classified as a conditional because it
creates a hypothetical situation to describe what would be true each time
something happens.
The general structure for the zero conditional is: If + subject + present tense
of predicate verb, subject + present tense of main verb.
For examples:
[1] If you throw a ball in the air, it comes back down. (Always true: A ball
comes back down every time you throw it in the air.)
[2] If we get up early, we always go jogging.” (Generally true: We jog
every time we get up early.)
1.6.2. First Conditional
The first conditional is very similar in structure to the zero conditional. We
still use if plus the present simple to create the condition, except that we
now use the future simple tense (will + bare infinitive) to describe a probable
result of the condition.
Thus, the structure is: if + present simple tense, will + infinitive.
For examples:
[1] If I see him, I will tell him.
[2] If I win the lottery, I will buy a new car.
We can also create negative first conditionals by using the negative of the
present simple in the if clause, and the negative of will in the future simple
clause.

6
For exercises on Conditional Sentences, please see Chapter 20 of Understanding and Using
English Grammar (3rd

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For examples:
[3] If I do not go, I will not see him.
[4] If I don't see him, I won’t have to say goodbye.
We can also reorder the sentence to have the future tense clause at the
beginning of the sentence, and the if conditional clause at the end.
Additionally, we can use modal auxiliary verbs other than will (such as must,
can, could, may, might, or should) to create different shades of certainty in
the future simple tense.
Let’s study these examples:
[5] I will go if he calls me. (Will expresses a certainty.)
[6] I must go if he calls me. (Must expresses a personal obligation for the
speaker.)
[7] I can go if he calls me. (Can expresses either permission from a third
party or the fact that speaker is free from other commitments.)
[8] I might go if he calls me. (Might expresses a 50% possibility.)
[9] I may go if he calls me. (May is similar to might, but it is more formal
and the possibility is slightly less.)
[10] I should go if he calls me. (The speaker feels a mild obligation.)
[11] You should go if he calls you. (The speaker is recommending that you
go or is giving you a personal opinion.)
[12] I can’t go if he calls me. (The speaker is not able or does not have
permission.)
[13] I shouldn’t go if he calls me. (The speaker feels a mild obligation not
to.)
[14] I might/may not go if he calls me. (We very rarely contract might not
in modern English, and we almost never contract may not.)
Interrogative Sentences (Questions)
To form a question in the first conditional, we invert the subject with the
modal auxiliary verb.
[15] If he calls me, should I go?
[16] Could I leave early if Joko takes my night shift?
[17] If I finish my homework on time, may I go to the party?
[18] If I come with you, will you buy me a lunch?
1.6.3. Second Conditional
We use the second conditional to speak about a hypothetical situation or
outcome resulting from the condition. Unlike the first conditional, we use the
second conditional to talk about things that cannot or are unlikely to happen.
To create the second conditional, we use the past simple tense after the if
clause, followed by would + the bare infinitive for the result of the condition.
In addition to would (which we use to describe something we would
definitely do), we can also use could for what we would be able to do, as well
as might for what it is possible (but unlikely) we would do.
For examples:
[1] If I went to New York, I would visit the Empire State building.
[2] If I won the lottery, I could buy a new house.
[3] If you had a phone, you could call me every day.
[4] If I was/were*
older, I might stay up all night long.

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(*
Note that in more formal English, it is standard to use were in conditional
sentences using the past tense of be, irrespective of it having a singular or
plural subject. However, in everyday writing and speech, it is common to use
was for singular subjects.)
We can also put the second conditional in the negative to describe something
that would not be the case if something else were also not the case. To form
the negative, we use the negative of the past simple in the if clause, and
make would negative in the clause describing the result of the condition.
For examples:
[5] If our father didn’t work so hard, we wouldn’t be able to afford this
house.
[6] If I didn’t study at Nurul Jadid, I could never speak English so well.
To form questions in the second conditional, we invert would/could/might
with the subject.
For example:
[7] If you had a billion rupiahs, would you buy a Ferrari?
[8] Would you travel to China if you spoke Mandarin?
We can also put a question word before would in this form: 
[9] What would you do if your family wasn’t so wealthy?
[10] Where might you go if you won the lottery?
[11] If you could have dinner with a famous person, who would you
choose?
1.6.4. Third Conditional
Third conditionals are used to establish a hypothetical situation in the past,
followed by a hypothetical outcome that did not really happen, the outcome
is the opposite of what actually happened.
To form the third conditional, we use the past perfect tense for the if
conditional clause, and would have + the past participle of the verb for the
hypothetical outcome.
(As with the second conditional, we can also use could or might instead of
would. Additionally, we can use should have + the past participle to describe
an outcome that ought to have happened.)
For examples:
[1] If I had been more prepared, I would have passed that test.
In reality, the speaker was not prepared, and so they did not pass the
test. By creating a condition in the past using the past perfect tense,
they can articulate how they might have achieved a different outcome
if they were more prepared.
Here are more examples:
[2] She was not there and couldn’t help you. (truth)
[2a] If she had been there, she could have helped you. (conditional)
[3] I was late for work yesterday because I overslept. (truth)
[3a] If I hadn’t overslept, I wouldn’t have been late for work. (conditional)
[4] You knew you had a test today. (truth)
[4a] If you knew you had a test today, you should have studied harder.
(conditional)

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To form a question in the third conditional, we invert
would/could/might/should with the subject and add a question word before
it (if necessary).
For example:
[5] Would you have come to the party if you had known about it?
[6] What might you have done if you had known the truth?
[7] Where could you have gone if you hadn’t come here?
1.6.5. The Mixed Conditional
A very commonly used “fifth” conditional is what is known as the mixed
conditional, which is a cross between the third conditional and the second.
There are two ways to form a mixed conditional, depending on the meaning
we wish to achieve.
If it is being used to describe how an unreal situation in the past might have
affected an unreal outcome in the present, we use the past perfect tense in
the if conditional clause and would / could + the bare infinitive of the verb for
the result of the condition.
For examples:
[1] If I had studied more (the condition is in the past), I would be a doctor
(the result of the condition is in the present).
[2] If I had been born in Italy, I would be Italian.
[3] If he hadn’t lost his job, he wouldn’t be unemployed.
If the mixed conditional is being used to describe how an unreal condition in
the present might have affected an unreal outcome in the past, we use the
past simple tense in the if conditional clause and would have / could have +
the past participle of the verb for the result of the condition.
For examples:
[4] If I wasn’t/weren’t so shy (condition in the present), I would have
asked her on a date (unreal outcome in the past).
[5] If she was/were a better driver, she’d have gotten her license by now.
[6] If we worked a little harder, we could have finished this project
already.
1.7. Indirect Speech
Indirect speech is also known as reported speech. It is the language we use to
report what someone else said, using our own words. We use reporting verbs to
introduce the information that was spoken previously.
1.7.1. Reporting Verbs
The most common so-called “reporting verbs” are say and tell. When we use
tell, we need to use another person’s name, or a personal pronoun*
.
representing him or her, as an indirect object.
[1] She said me she was late for the appointment yesterday. (incorrect)
[1a] She said she was late for the appointment yesterday. (correct)
[2] She told she was late for the appointment yesterday. (incorrect)
[2a] She told me she was late for the appointment yesterday. (correct)
*
Personal pronouns are me, her, it, us, and them.
We can also change the indirect object and use a person’s name, as in “She
told Mark she late for the appointment yesterday.”

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Other reporting verbs include ask, instruct, explain, mention, suggest, claim,
think, hint, boast, demand, insist, and many more. Look at the examples
below.
[3] He asked if I could come in early tomorrow.
[4] She explained that she was only joking.
[5] I merely suggested that we should go home early.
1.7.2. Shifting grammatical tense in indirect speech
The conventional grammar rule is to go back a tense when you report to
another person what someone said to you. This is because we usually put the
reporting verb in the past tense (I asked, she said, they told us, he suggested,
etc.), and so the speech that is being reported must shift back as well.
In modern English, though, it is quite common to keep the verb tense the
same. This is especially true in cases where the reporting verb remains in the
present tense and/or that which is being reported is still currently true.
Let’s have a look at each verb tense and examine how the sentence changes
when speech is reported.
1.7.2.1.Simple Present Tense
Direct speech : I live in Jember.
Reported speech : He said he lived in Jember.
But because the reported speech is still true, it is often left in the
simple present tense.
Reported speech : He told them he lives in Jember.
1.7.2.2. Simple Past Tense
Direct speech : She was a carpenter before she moved to
Jakarta.
Reported speech : She said she had been a carpenter before she
moved to Jakarta.
With the simple past tense, the general rule is to move it back a tense
to the past perfect tense. However, for action verbs in the simple
past tense, it is much more common for the reported speech to
remain in the simple past tense.
Direct speech : She went to Pasar Tanjung this morning.
Reported speech : She said she had gone to Pasar Tanjung this
morning.
1.7.2.3.Present Continuous Tense
Direct speech : He is writing a letter to his girlfriend.
If he is writing the letter at the exact moment it is reported to another
person, we generally say either,
Reported speech : He says he is writing a letter to his girlfriend.
or
He said he is writing a letter to his girlfriend.
If the reported action happened some time before it was reported,
we shift the reported speech back one tense to the past continuous,
as in,
Reported speech : He told us he was writing a letter to his
girlfriend.

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1.7.2.4.Past Continuous Tense
Direct speech : You were sleeping when I called.
Reported speech : He said you were sleeping when he called.
In modern English, it is very common to maintain the past continuous
tense in the reported speech. However, the conventional grammar
rule is to change the reported tense to the past perfect continuous
tense, as in,
Reported speech : He told me you had been sleeping when he
called.
1.7.2.5.Present Perfect Tense
Direct speech : I have been to Bali four times.
Reported speech : She told me she has been / had been to Bali
four times.
When reporting an action in the present perfect, it is common to
either maintain the tense in reported speech, or to shift it back to
the past perfect. However, if the reported speech is used in contrast
to another event or action in the past, then the past perfect must be
used. For example,
Reported speech : She said she had been to Bali four times before
she studied at Nurul Jadid.
1.7.2.6.Past Perfect Tense
Direct speech : The film had ended when I turned on the TV.
Reported speech : He said the film had ended when he’d turned
on the TV.
Reported speech in the past perfect remains the same, as there is no
other tense beyond the past perfect. The other element of the
sentence (“when I turned on the TV”) conventionally goes into the
past perfect tense as well.
However, it is also common for this to remain in the past simple in
reported speech, as in,
Reported speech : He told me the film had ended when he turned
on the TV.
1.7.2.7.Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Direct speech : When she finally arrived, I had been waiting for
over two hours.
Reported speech remains the same, as there is no tense beyond past
perfect continuous.
Reported speech : He said he had been waiting for over two hours
when she finally arrived.
1.7.2.8.Simple Future Tense
Direct speech : I will meet you tomorrow.
In reported speech, will goes back one tense and becomes would.
Reported speech : He said he would meet me tomorrow.
It is also common for the simple future to remain in the same tense in
reported speech, especially if what was reported happened very
recently, for example,
Person A : What did Rifqi say just now?

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Person B : He said / says he will meet me tomorrow.
1.7.2.9.Special Cases
a) Can
Direct speech : I can swim.
In reported speech, as with will, can moves back one tense and
becomes could.
Reported speech : She told me she could swim.
b) Must
Direct speech : I must go.
In reported speech, must can either remain in the simple present,
or else take the past tense of have to in reported speech, as in,
Reported speech : She said she had to go.
or
She said she must go.
c) Modal auxiliary verbs
If we use the modal auxiliary verbs should, would, could, may,
might, or ought to, then direct speech and reported speech are
always the same.
Direct speech : You should take a rest.
Reported speech : She said I should take a rest.
Direct speech : I would phone her if I had her number.
Reported speech : He told me he would phone her if he had her
number.
Direct speech : You could stay another day if you want.
Reported speech : She said I could stay another day if I wanted.
Direct speech : I may / might be late.
Reported speech : I told them I may / might be late.
1.7.3. Reporting the negative
Where we put the negating not or never depends on what is negative in the
reported speech, the speech being reported or the report itself. Both cases
are simple to structure.
1.7.3.1.Reporting negative speech
When we report negative speech, we simply use the reporting verbs
and tense shifts that we’ve looked at already. For example,
Direct speech : I did not buy a new car. (negative past tense)
Reported speech : He said he hadn't bought a new car. (shifts to
the negative past perfect)
However, as with reporting speech in the positive past tense, it
common in modern English to leave the reported speech in the
negative past tense, as in,
Reported speech : He said he didn’t buy a new car.
1.7.3.2.Reporting negative commands
There are two general ways to report imperative speech that was in
the negative, we either use not to before the verb of a reported
clause without a subject, or else use was/were not to before the
verb of a reported clause with a subject. (We often contract
was/were with not in this construction.) For example,

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Direct speech : Don’t speak!
Reported speech : He said not to speak.
or
He said I wasn’t to speak.
1.7.3.3.Giving negative reports
When we are giving a negative report of quoted speech, we typically
use the negative past tense of the reporting verb:
Direct speech : She is studying for a test.
Reported speech : She didn’t say she was studying for a test.
If we want to put the report further in the past, we can also use the
negative past perfect, as in,
Reported speech : She hadn’t said she was studying for a test.
1.7.4. Using infinitives to report imperatives, requests, and advice
When we report orders, requests, or advice, we can use the infinitive form of
the verbs that the other person has said.
1.7.4.1.Imperatives (orders)
Direct speech : Stand up straight!
Reported speech : The teacher said to stand up straight.
1.7.4.2.Requests
Direct speech : Can you take me to the bus station, please?
Reported speech : He asked me to take him to the bus station.
1.7.4.3.Advice
Direct speech : You should study a bit harder next time.
Reported speech : She advised me to study a bit harder.
1.8. Subjunctive
Before talking about subjunctives, let’s see the mood. The verb phrase can express
mood. Mood refers to the factual or non-factual status or events. Non-factual here
means events which do not happen or are only desired. The moods of English are
indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
The indicative is a factual mood. It is by far the most frequent mood, and involves
all the choices of person, tense, number, aspect, modality and voice*
. The examples
of the indicative are,
[1] I’ll give you the handout after this session.
[2] We were talking about the gossip the other day.
*
Voice means information about the roles of different participants in an event, e.g.
active or passive voice
The imperative mood is a non-factual mood and is used to issue directives. The
imperatives involve the base form of the verb.
[3] Sign here, please.
[4] Just leave it on the table.
The subjunctive mood is a non-factual mood and is very rare in English. It refers to
wishes, desires, etc. It used after a very limited number of verbs. (e.g. suggest,
insist, recommend, demand), occasionally after conditional subordinators (e.g. if,
lest, on condition that, whether) and occasionally after expressions of necessity (e.g.
it is important/imperative/essential that).
Here are the most common verbs that can (but do not have to) use subjunctives in
object that clause.

- 15 -
ask insist recommend
beg instruct request
command move require
decide ordain resolve
decree order rule
demand pledge stipulate
desire pray suggest
determine pronounce urge
entreat propose vote
Here are the examples.
[5] I request (that) I be permitted to speak.
[6] They are recommending (that) you be promoted.
[7] I suggest (that) they be fully compensated for their losses.
[8] I insist (that) the motion be accepted.
The subjunctive occurs only in a very formal style. It is most likely to be found in
official meetings or legal proceedings. It involves the base form of the verb, with
no inflections.
[9] They insisted that she consult a psychiatrist and, fortunately, Laura had the
strength to insist that it be woman.
[10] I insist that he remain silent.
The subjunctive form of the verb be may occur as the base form be or as
hypothetical were (for all persons). The were subjunctive is especially used after if,
as if, though, and as though.
The following is extracted from a hotel workers’ manual, describing how to
deal with customer complaints in the restaurant.
[11] The kitchen and restaurant staff must be contacted immediately and the
cause for complaint dealt with. The guests must be persuaded to return to
the restaurant, where it is imperative they be served with a more than
satisfactory meal and be completely pacified.
[12] I can remember it as if it were yesterday.
1.8.1. Using subjunctive
1.8.1.1.Expressing wishes
When we wish for something to be true, we conjugate the verb one
degree into the past to create the subjunctive mood. For example,
[1] It’s Monday. I have to go to work. (indicative)
[1a] I wish it weren’t Monday. I wish I didn’t have to go to work.
(subjunctive)
Note that the verb be always conjugates to were in the subjunctive
mood, regardless of whether it refers to a singular or plural noun.
1.8.1.2.Expressing commands, suggestions, requests, and statements of
necessity
When we express actions that we demand, suggest, or request that
someone else take, or describe something that must be the case, we
use the base form of the verb (with no inflections).
[1] He demanded that they leave the room at once. (command)
[2] I recommend the she study harder next time. (suggestion)

- 16 -
[3] I ask that the audience be completely silent during the
performance. (request)
[4] It’s necessary that we be vigilant to avoid another disaster.
(statement of necessity)
The biggest difference between the subjunctive and the indicative
mood in this case is that the verb does not change according to who is
taking the action. For instance, it is she study, the audience be, and
we be in the subjunctive, while it would be she studies, the audience
is, and we are in the indicative mood.
Note that when we issue direct demands using imperative sentences
(as in, “Do your homework!” or “Please close the window.”), we are
no longer using the subjunctive mood, instead we are using the
imperative mood.
1.9. Word order
1.9.1. Subject - verb - object/complement
In an affirmative sentence, the subject normally comes before the verb;
objects or complements come after the verb.
[1] Siti smiled.
[2] My brother likes Arabic.
[3] Maria is a student.
In a few affirmative structures the verb can come before the subject (e.g. “So
can I.”, “On the grass sat an enormous frog.”).7
For sentences that begin with
the object (e.g. “Those people I can’t stand.”).8

1.9.2. Preparatory it and there
When the subject or object is an infinitive phrase or clause, we often put it at
the end of a sentence, and use it as a preparatory subject or object.9

[1] It’s difficult to understand what she really wants.
[2] He made it clear that he disagreed.
There can be a preparatory subject for an indefinite expression.10

[3] There is a big spider in the bath.
1.9.3. Direct and indirect objects
Indirect objects can come before direct objects (without a preposition) or
after direct objects (with a preposition).11

[1] He sent the girl some flowers.
[2] He sent some flowers to the girl.
1.9.4. Questions: auxiliary before subject
Questions normally have the order auxiliary verb – subject – main verb.
[1] Have you seen Syifani?
[2] Where was she going?
[3] Did Fuad phone?

7
See Unit 302-303 of Practical English Usage (3rd
Edition) by Michael Swan.
8
See unit 513 of Practical English Usage (3rd
9
See unit 446-447 of Practical English Usage (3rd
10
11
For detailed explanations and examples, see unit 610 of Practical English Usage (3rd

Edition) by Michael Swan

- 17 -
Indirect questions have the subject before the verb.12

[4] Do you know where she was going?
1.9.5. Negatives: auxiliary + not
Negative structures have not after an auxiliary verb.
[1] The bus did not stop. (NOT The train stopped not.)
For word order in negative questions (e.g. “Why didn’t she come? / Why did
she not come?”), see unit 368 of Practical English Usage (3rd
Edition) by
Michael Swan.
1.9.6. Adjectives before nouns
When adjectives are together with nouns, they usually come before nouns.
[1] an interesting book
[2] difficult tests
For exceptions and special cases, please see unit 13 of Practical English Usage
(3rd
1.9.7. Adverbs: possible positions
Different adverbs can go in different places in a sentence: at the beginning,
with the verb, or at the end.13

[1] Suddenly I had a terrible thought.
[2] The students had probably gone home.
[3] I was playing badly.
An adverb cannot normally come between a verb and its object.
[4] I like Nasi Goreng very much. (NOT I like very much Nasi Goreng.)
1.9.8. Subordinate clauses (after …, if …, because …, etc.)
Adverbial subordinate clauses (beginning for example after, before, when,
while, if, because) can usually come either before of after the rest of the
sentence.
[1] After I left school I spent a year in China.
or
I spent a year in china after I left school.
1.9.9. Prepositions: in what … / what … in
In an informal style, a preposition can be separated from its object in certain
structures.14

[1] In what hotel did the President stay? (formal)
[2] What hotel did the President stay in? (informal)
1.10. Causative Verb
1.10.1. Definitions
Causative verbs indicate that a person, place, or thing is causing an action or an
event to happen. Causative verbs are followed by a noun or pronoun and a non-
causative verb in either the infinitive or base form. These non-causative verbs
describe the action that the subject has caused to happen.

12
13
For detailed explanations and examples, see unit 21-25 of Practical English Usage (3rd

14
For more details, see unit 452 of Practical English Usage (3rd

- 18 -
Examples of causative verbs include the words enable, cause, have, force, let, keep,
hold, got and require. Here are some examples of causative verbs being used in
sentences.
[1] He let his sheep run through the field.
[2] You got to go to the futsal game last night.
[3] The bigger house enabled the family to have more room for their belongings.
[4] The dree code forced the students to wear different shoes.
[5] The landlord kept his property to rent out too many different tenants.
1.10.2. Tense
Because the non-causative verb is always in the infinite form, the tense of the
sentence depends on the conjugation of the causative verb. Causative verbs can
take the past, present, or future tense. Here are the examples,
a) Past
[1] The woman caused the accident to occur by driving carelessly.
[2] The law required a person to obtain a permit before hunting on public land.
b) Present
[1] The store holds certain items on layaway to sell to particular customers at
later date.
[2] They get a tax break on any purchases to the business.
c) Future
[1] The manager of the store will force her employees to work shorter hours in
order to cut costs.
[2] They will allow the company to install more solar panels on their roofs.
1.10.3. Causative verbs with other verbs in the sentence
As previously mentioned, the non-causative verbs that follow causative verbs
explain the action that is being caused in the sentence. Depending on the causative
verb that’s used, these non-causative verbs will either be in the infinitive or base
form of the verb, or, in certain circumstances, the past participle form.
1.10.3.1. Infinitives
Infinitives are base-form verbs that are preceded by the particle to, for
example, to run, to see, to climb, etc. The majority of causative verbs are
paired with infinitives to complete their meaning, as in,
[1] He forced himself to train harder.
[2] The woman holds on to her past memories to remember all the good
times she had.
[3] The government is requiring all citizens to carry identification at all
times.
1.10.3.2. Base form
Base-form verbs appear exactly as they would in the infinitive, except they
are not preceded by the word to. They are not conjugated for tense in any
way. Only three causative verbs pair with the base form of the verb instead
of an infinitive: have, make, and let. For example,
[1] They let the light stay on until morning.
[2] The headmaster made the students remove their shoes when
entering the school’s building.
[3] My dad had my mom prepare lots of cakes before the guests arrived.

- 19 -
There is an exception to these, however when we use the passive voice
with make, it will take the infinitive rather than the base form, as in,
[4] I‘m sorry, but I was made to report my suspicions to police.
[5] Employees are often made to feel responsible for the company’s
financial woes.
1.10.4. Past participles
Uniquely, the causative verbs have and get are also able to take the past participle
of non-causative verbs if they themselves are in the past tense. For example,
[1] My mom had me the motorcycle cleaned after our futsal practice.
[2] Joni’s drinking problem finally got him fired.

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