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Making Maps A Visual Guide To Map Design For Gis 1st Edition John Krygier

Making Maps A Visual Guide To Map Design For Gis 1st Edition John Krygier Making Maps A Visual Guide To Map Design For Gis 1st Edition John Krygier Making Maps A Visual Guide To Map Design For Gis 1st Edition John Krygier

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the guilford press new york / london making maps john krygier denis wood a visual guide to map design for gis
© 2005 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc. 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher. Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Krygier, John. Making maps : a visual guide to map design for GIS / John Krygier, Denis Wood. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 1-59385-200-2 (pbk.) 1. Cartography. 2. Geographic information systems. I. Wood, Denis. II. Title. GA105.3K79 2005 526—dc22 2005018239
This book is dedicated to, and in memory of, David Woodward, map designer and scholar
x Key concepts that shape the geographic framework upon which your map will be constructed. Arranging your map, its title, and other components. 4Map-Making Tools A diversity of map-making tools enables you to make a diversity of maps. 3Mappable Data Making maps requires data. Locating and processing data is a vital step in the map- making process. What exactly is a map, and why are maps and map making so powerful? What are you trying to do with your map? Your intentions for your map shape the way you make it. 3 25 51 73 91 125 1 5 6 2 Geographic Framework Map Layout It’s a Map Why Are You Making Your Map?
xi 10Type on Maps The effective use of type on maps. 9Map Symbolization Matching visual marks to your data. Adding depth and order to your map by manipulating its visual elements. Simplifying point, line, and area data for a more effective map. The effective use of color on maps. 11Color on Maps Evaluating your map to make it perfect. 12Finishing Your Map 145 161 195 233 255 277 7 8 Intellectual and Visual Hierarchies Map Generalization and Classification Index 292
What is it?
Red Lake Mississippi River St. Louis River Lake Superior
3 1 It’s a Map Ojibwe (Native American) ca. 1820 Maps are a powerful way of thinking about the earth. This Native map, drawn on birch bark (which accounts for its shape), shows the migration legend of the Ojibwe, from the creation of their people (on the right) to their home in the upper Midwest (on the left). The left and central portions of the map show Lake Huron, Lake Superior, and Red Lake in Minnesota. The right side of the map relates the spiritual realities of the Ojibwe origins with important spiritual guides symbolized along the route. The map is a sophisticated synthesis of spiritual and physical geography, revealing the vital importance of making maps in the context of your life and belief systems. Lake Michigan Lakes Erie, Huron, & Ontario
4 GIS Technological Changes Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Technological changes have made the mapping and analysis of geographic information a daily part of how we understand the world. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) consist of digital map layers that store a multitude of geographic facts by location: water features, property parcels, floodplains, roads, political boundaries, and so on. Digital map layers are linked to a database of “attribute” information. Each property parcel, for example, contains information such as the owner, address, zoning, and value of the property. Each stream and river contains information including the name of the feature, its length, and flow. Latitude Longitude Roads Rivers Schools School Districts
5 1981 2003 Native Forest Pine Plantation Pine - Mix Pine Plantation Prep Logged - Cleared Other: Some Canopy Other: No Canopy Study Area Forest change in Tennessee GIS is an excellent way to inventory geographic facts, but its power lies in its analytical capabilities. Jon Evans of Sewanee University used GIS to analyze forest change in Tennessee. Combining satellite data and GIS map layers, Evans’ GIS analysis revealed a 14% loss in native forests and a 170% increase in pine plantations between 1981 and 2000. The quality of forests is a politically sensitive issue. The lumber and paper industry and certain U.S. government policy-makers claim U.S. forests are increasing in area. Biologists argue that diverse native forests are being replaced by dangerous monoculture tree plantations: not all trees make a forest. Evans’ GIS analysis and the resulting maps provide quantitative and visual evidence for the growing debate over forest quality and policy in the U.S.
6 Maps Kill! Military targeting maps Maps have long been used to fight wars, win battles, and kill people. Targeting maps help to fine-tune bombing during military campaigns, to destroy certain select targets and people and not others. Royal Air Force pilots are briefed with a terrain model prior to a bombing mission during World War II (top). Geographic Information Systems – and maps of bombing targets – are at the core of strategizing and planning bombing missions for the war in Iraq (bottom).
7 Route of Marine jet Ski lift cable (not on map) hit by jet 20 killed near Cavalese, northern Italy Despite a long tradition of map making, and expensive and extensive new technologies for making maps, maps still can fail and so kill. A U.S. Marine Corps jet struck and severed a ski lift cable spanning an Alpine valley in northern Italy in 1998, sending the ski lift gondola crashing to the earth, killing 20 people. The jet crew did have a map of the area, but not one that showed the ski lift cable. The cable was shown on Italian maps, but the Pentagon prohibits the use of maps made by foreign nations. Map users and makers should always be critical of maps: maps have the power and potential for failing that every human-created object has.
8 Discoveries with Maps Maps generate new understanding Maps don’t simply locate things: they can lead us to insights, discoveries, and new ways of understanding. We see geographic patterns, and those patterns may lead us to think about things in a new way. When maps of the then known world were first made in the 16th century, people immediately noticed provocative patterns: the earth’s continents seemed to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. Many explanations for these patterns were put forth for debate. Juan de la Cosa’s map of the known world, from the early 16th century.
9 Plate tectonics Geologic evidence gathered by Alfred Wegener and others suggested that a single large continent, Pangea, had indeed preceded the current configuration of the continents. Evidence included geologic and fossil characteristics common to continents now widely separated. But how did the continents move? Geologic research in the 1950s and 1960s led to the understanding that molten rock from deep inside the earth pushes up along major cracks in the earth’s crust, building new crust, and pushing and moving the huge plates, upon which the continents rest. Plate tectonics is now accepted as the explanation for the continental patterns on maps that intrigued humans for so long. Map making is powerful, as it can lead us to discoveries of new things about the natural and human world. Geologic and fossil commonalities in dark grey, spanning different “continents” in Pangea. AFRICA S . A M ERICA INDIA AUST R A L I A A N TARCTICA
10 Thinking Visually with Maps HIV patients in rural Tennessee Maps are a powerful way to think things through. Abraham Verghese used maps to help think about his HIV-infected patients in the mid- 1980s. Dr. Verghese practiced medicine in rural Tennessee. He and his colleagues were stunned when HIV-infected patients began to dominate their practices. What was this urban problem doing in rural Tennessee? "There was a pattern in my HIV practice. I kept feeling if I could concentrate hard enough, step back and look carefully, I could draw a kind of blueprint that explained what was happening here...” Dr. Verghese borrowed a map of the U.S. from his son. With the map spread on his living room floor, he marked where his HIV patients lived. He labeled the map Domicile, but he could as well have called it “Birthplace,” for most of his patients were men who had come home to die. Pound Norton Big Stone Gap Abingdon Bristol Elizabethton Johnson City Newland Erwin Greeneville Gate City Kingsport Rogersville Morristown Newport Knoxville VIRGINIA NORTH CAROLINA TENNESSEE Domicile = One HIV Patient
11 Dr. Verghese next mapped where his HIV patients lived between 1979 and 1985. The places on the Acquisition map “seemed to circle the periphery of the United States” and were mostly large cities. “As I neared the end, I could see a distinct pattern of dots emerging on this larger map of the USA. All evening I had been on the threshold of seeing. Now I fully understood.” Dr. Verghese learned of a circuitous voyage, a migration from home and a return, ending in death. It was “the story of how a generation of young men, raised to self-hatred, had risen above the definitions that their society and upbringings had used to define them. It was the story of hard and sometimes lonely journeys they took far from home into a world more complicated than they imagined and far more dangerous than anyone could have known.” Patients that appear on both maps are those “who had the virus delivered to their doorstep... hemophiliacs or blood transfusion recipients who got tainted ... blood products.” The maps Verghese made on his living room floor might not be much to look at, but the thinking they inspired was rich. = Site of probable acquisition of HIV Acquisition
12 Maps Shape How We See The earth is really big and complex Maps are small and show only a few of the multitude of human and natural features. When making maps, we strip away selected details and flatten the earth’s surface, showing what we could not otherwise see.
13 The impossible is natural Global temperature is something we could never “see” without maps. Nevertheless, such an impossible “view” of the world is now quite natural to us: our maps shape how we “see” the world. Less detail Map makers remove detail to show what they choose to show. Entire earth, all at once Map makers flatten the earth’s entire surface. This map stretches continental shapes, revealing distortions that occur when we flatten the earth’s surface. Seeing the invisible On maps we can record what is visible to us – coastlines – and what is not visible to us – temperatures.
14 The internet The internet lets anyone make maps Changes in technology have always affected map making. The invention of printing made it easy to duplicate and distribute maps, providing more people with access to maps and the knowledge they store. The internet is having a profound impact on map access. Free internet mapping sites provide both basic and sophisticated map-making capabilities. With internet access, and the ability to point and click, anyone can make maps. The geography of the internet: larger circles = more internet hosts.
15 Making maps is ubiquitous! Map making is part of our day-to-day lives. Where is ... Where is 231 Crestview Road, in Columbus, Ohio? What is the route ... How do I get from 231 Crestview Road to Delaware, Ohio? How many ... How many people live in Delaware, Ohio, and where are they?
16 What Is a Map? A graphic statement that locates facts Graphic: A visual display of marks which stand for something else. An airplane shape on a map implies an airport. Statement: To put forth information, a formal embodiment of facts or assertions. Locating facts: Tangible and intangible phenomena located in geographic space: what we can see (roads, rivers) and what we cannot see (temperature, radiation), varying in amount (population) and kind (vegetation types). Areas crossed by two or more radioactive clouds during the era of nuclear testing in the American Southwest, 1951-62.
17 Making Maps How do you make a map? Why are you making your map? What are you intending to do with it? Who is your audience? Are they experts or novices? Young or old? What should the map assert? What do you want your map to communicate to those who see it? You must decide why you are making the map before you make it. Chapter 2. Mappable data: Given your purpose, what data do you need? Roads? Rivers? Coastlines? Population? Toxin levels in wells? Number of deer per county? Some data are free and easy to find. Other data exist, but at a cost. The facts you need may not exist at all, and you may have to collect them yourself or pay someone to do so. Locating and processing mappable data can be among the most expensive and time-consuming parts of making maps. Chapter 3. Map-making tools: Which tools will you use to make your map? Internet map-making sites are free but limited in data and map-making capabilities. Geographical Information System (GIS) software is more sophisticated and flexiblebutexpensivetopurchaseandmoredifficulttouse. Selectappropriate map-making tools based on the kind of map you want to make: you cannot make every map using internet sites, but you don’t need GIS for every map either. Chapter 4. Map design: Given the reason you are making the map, mappable data, and map-making tools, how do you make a map that fulfills your goals - a map that works? Key issues include the geographic framework, map layout, intellectual and visual hierarchies, map generalization and classification, map symbolization, and the use of type and color. Chapters 5-12.
18 “Who died and made you the map police?” Jill. Home Improvement. (TV, 1991) “Is that the same map?” Jincey asked. She pointed to the large map of the world that hung, rolled up for the summer, above the blackboard behind Miss Dove. “Is China still orange?” “It is a new map,” Miss Dove said. “China is purple.” “I liked the old map,” Jincey said. “I liked the old world.” “Cartography is a fluid art,” said Miss Dove. Frances Gray Patton. Good Morning, Miss Dove. (1954)
19 more information... Three excellent books situate mapping in its broader human context: Daniel Dorling and David Fairbairn, Mapping (Longman, 1997); Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps (2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 1996); and Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (Guilford Press, 1992). Check out the journal Cartographic Perspectives; published by the North American Cartographic Information Society. This book draws from numerous texts, which can be consulted for more information: Borden Dent, Cartography: Thematic Map Design (5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1998); Alan MacEachren, Some Truth with Maps (Association of American Geographers, 1994); and Phillip and Juliana Muehrcke, Map Use (4th ed., JP Publications, 1998). Also consulted were M.J. Kraak and F.J. Ormeling, Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data (Longman, 1996); Arthur Robinson et al., Elements of Cartography (6th ed., Wiley, 1995); and Terry Slocum et al., Thematic Cartography and Visualization (2nd ed., Prentice Hall, 2003). These folks are the map police. An older generation of mapping textbooks are worth looking at: F.J. Monkhouse and H.R. Wilkinson, Maps and Diagrams (Methuen, 1952); J.S. Keates, Cartographic Design and Production (Wiley, 1973); and two wonderful textbooks by Erwin Raisz: General Cartography (McGraw-Hill, 1938) and Principles of Cartography (McGraw-Hill, 1962). The most comprehensive overview of academic research on mapping is Alan MacEachren, How Maps Work (Guilford Press, 1995). Sources: The Ojibwe map (pp. xii, 1-3) redrawn from Selwyn Dewdney, The Sacred Scrolls of the Southern Ojibway (University of Toronto Press, 1975). The forest change map (p. 5) is courtesy of Jon Evans. The RAF terrain model image (p. 6) is from the Geographical Review, Oct. 1946. The Iraq military targeting map (p. 6) was found floating on the internet. The Cavalese map (p. 7) is courtesy of the Harvard Map Library, Harvard University. AIDS data (pp. 10-11) from Abraham Verghese, My Own Country: A Doctor’s Story (Vintage, 1994) and “Urbs in Rure: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Rural Tennessee” (Journal of Infectious Diseases, 160:6). The internet hosts map (p. 14) is based on one from Matrix Net Systems. Internet road maps from Mapsonus.com, and U.S. Census map from the U.S. Census American Factfinder. The radioactive cloud map is from Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (Two-Sixty Press, 1999).
Whose purpose does it serve?
Lake Ontario Lake Ontario Lake Ontario Lake Erie Lake Erie Lake Erie Lake Lake Lake Huron Huron Huron The many small stick-figures vary, depending on the amount of energy reflected at a particular location.
25 2 Why Are You Making Your Map? Maps look like what they are supposed to do. Each mark on this map is a complex symbol representing five different types of energy reflected from the earth’s surface. The map shows an area in Ontario, including parts of Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Most people won’t be able to make much sense out of this map, but to expert earth scientists the complex symbols and specialist subject matter are necessary.
26 2 Why Are You Making Your Map? What are you trying to say with your map? Who are you saying it to? What do they know? How will they use it? Are they going to see it on a computer, paper, poster, or projected on a screen during a presentation? Careful consideration of these issues will guide the making of your map and will produce a map that more effectively accomplishes what you want it to do. 1 2 3 4 Why are you making your map? Prior to making a map, clarify your intent: intent shapes design. Who is your map for? Knowing the intended audience for your map will help you design it. What is the final medium? The final form of your map - paper, projected, etc. - will affect its design. Evaluating your map Evaluation plays a useful role in making maps.
27 1Why are you making your map? Prior to making a map, clarify your intent. Simply writing out the purpose of the map prior to making it will clarify goals; help determine relevant data, map design, and symbolization choices; and will lead to a better map. What the map is for: A map showing a proposed Black Heritage Trail in Eli County, VA. The map is the visual centerpiece of a proposal for grants to develop the trail and its associated sites, and must visually tantalize granting agencies. Poor: Good: ü title suggests county rather than trail as primary subject of the map. ü hard to figure out where the trail is. ü cities and roads along trail not visually different from other cities and roads. ü little visual depth to the map: trail is not visually prominent. ü title suggests trail as primary subject of the map. ü easy to see the trail. ü cities and roads along trail are visually prominent. ü meaningful visual depth to the map: trail is visually prominent. Eli County, VA Black Heritage Trail Raden Caspar Tuper Centerton Belle Varney Eli Beebe Cash Reper S everin Mountain Black Heritage Trail Eli County, VA Raden Caspar Tuper Centerton Belle Varney Eli Beebe Cash Reper S everin Mountain
28 Goal: The County Chamber of Commerce shows the shortest and least costly route for the connector. They focus on property values: Good: Good: Different goals call for different maps! Frequently the quality of a map is a matter of perspective, not design. This is because a map is a statement locating facts, and people tend to select the facts that make their case. That’s what the map is for: to make their case. Consider the examples below. A proposed connector road (dashed black) cuts through a city. Different groups create equally good maps to articulate their different perspectives on the proposed route. Though the maps may seem polemical, isolating the facts each presents is useful in focusing debate. low med. high Property Values: low med. high % African Amer: Goal: A community group contends the connector will devastate the African American community by cutting it in half: African American Community Center 1st African Methodist Episcopal Church Lincoln Park MLK High School
29 Good: Good: low med. high % Historical Buildings: low med. high Density of Businesses: Goal: A historical preservation group shows that historical properties in a historical district will be adversely affected: Goal: The Oberlin Business Association argues the proposed road will siphon traffic and thus business away from their members: Historic ‘Shotgun’ Houses, ca. 1860 Oberlin Business District Oldest Home in City Historic City Hall Olmsted’s Lincoln Park Oberlin Historical District
30 Goal: An environmental group shows how the proposed connector violates the city’s long- standing policy of avoiding road construction in floodplains: Good: Good: Goal: A newspaper story changes the scale to show that the County Chamber of Commerce wants the connector as part of an incentive package to attract a pharmaceutical firm to a suburban development. Most of the employees for the new facility would come from the suburbs south of the city: Potential Pharmaceutical Facility Downtown Area (detail on previous maps) New Suburban Development 100-Year Floodplain
31 Good: Good: Different goals produce different maps! The eight maps involved in this debate over the location of the connector are all good. Each is clear. Each makes its point with accurate data in a way that is easy to read and understand. What makes the maps different is the different purposes each was designed to serve. It is this purpose that drove the selection of facts, and these facts that dictated the design and scale. Goal: Due to historical and environmental concerns with the proposed connector, and the embarrassing newspaper article, the planning department is asked to develop two alternative options. When these alternatives are mapped, they raise additional concerns (and maps): Goal: Alternative B, while more costly than A, is cheaper than C (which passes through property owned by influential developers who don’t favor the connector). B also has a lower environmental impact and does not adversely affect any organized social groups or business interests. Down- town Area A B C Alternative B: Cuts through some older development and small parcels of undeveloped land. Alternative C: Cuts through undeveloped but more expensive land. Down- town Area Connector: Final choice, proposals for funding will be sought.
32 33 Experts: Experts know a lot about the subject of the map. Experts are highly motivated and very interested in the facts the map presents. They expect more substance and expect to engage a complex map. An interactive multivariate map for global climate change researchers visually interposes three data variables related to global climate research (hydrological balance, precipitation, and temperature). ü less peripheral information on map explaining content and symbols. ü more information, more variables of information, more detail. ü follow conventions of experts: consider using a spectral (rainbow) color scheme for ordered data if the user is accustomed to using such colors to show ordered data (spectral color schemes are usually not good for other users). 2Who is your map for?
33 Novices: Novices know less about the map subject and may not be familiar with the way maps are symbolized. They need a map that is more explanatory. Novices may be less motivated than expert users, but they want the map to help them learn something. They expect clarity, and may be put off by a complex map. Farmers need to know about potential drought conditions, but are not trained climatologists. Farmers need a map designed for them. ü more peripheral information on map explaining content and symbols. ü less information, fewer variables of information, less detail. ü follow map design conventions, which enhance comprehension of the map for novice map readers. No Drought Drought: Intensification Drought: Improvement Drought: No Change U.S. Seasonal Drought Outlook: October 2003 Source: USDA Albers Equal Area Projection
34 It is vital to determine the final medium your map will be presented on before making your map. Many maps today are made on computer monitors, but the monitor is not the final medium: paper, a slide to be projected on the wall, projected with a computer, or a poster are common end products. What looks great on your computer will probably not look so great when printed or projected. ü your map may be designed for the internet. Com- pared to paper, computer monitors provide less area and lower resolution, suggesting design modifications including larger symbols and type, and fewer data. Computer monitor Black and white, on paper Color, on paper Projected ü while color is always an option with computers, color may not be an option for your final map: color is expensive to print, and many publications require black-and-white maps. ü color is created differently on computer monitors and printers. Test your colors on the printer your final map will be printed on, and adjust colors on the computer so they look good when printed. ü maps projected on a screen using slides or a computer projector require design adjustments, such as larger type and symbols and more intense colors, so that the map is legible from a distance. Posters ü similar to projected maps, maps in poster form require attention to the typical viewing distance: some posters are to be viewed from a short distance, others from a long distance, and some require both long and short viewing distances. 3What is the final medium?
35 Computer monitor: Computer monitor resolution is about 72 dots per inch (dpi), compared to 1200 or more for many printers. Computer monitors also have limited area: 7 by 9 inches or less if the map is displayed on a web browser. Designing maps for final display on computer monitors must take into account screen resolution and the limited space available. Design a map so that all type and symbols are visible on the screen with no magnification. Also avoid maps that require the viewer to scroll back and forth to see the entire map. Use more than one map if you need more detail. ü limit map size so that the entire map fits on the screen without scrolling or magnification. ü increase type size: 14 point type is the smallest you should use on a monitor. ü make point and line symbols 15% larger than those on a paper map. ü more distinct patterns: avoid pattern variations that are too fine or detailed. ü you may have to limit the amount and complexity of data on your map. ü use color: but remember that some monitors cannot display billions of colors; subtle color variations may not be visible on every monitor. ü white will be more intense than black; use care when using white to designate no information or as the background. ü for the internet, save your map at 72 dpi, and size the map to fit in a browser window (no scrolling). ü design your map so it works on different monitors (RGB, LCD).
36 Black and white, on paper: Most maps are created on computer monitors, with less resolution and area than is possible on a piece of paper. When paper is your final medium, design for the paper and not for the monitor. Always check design decisions by printing the map. While all computers offer color, printing with color is not always an option, and many publications require a black-and- white map. Don’t despair: much can be done with black and white. ü map size should match final paper size, with appropriate margins. ü 10-point type works well on a printed map, but you may have to magnify to see it on the computer monitor. ü point and line symbols can be smaller and finer on a printed map. ü more subtle patterns can be used than on a computer monitor map. ü more data and more complex data can be included on a printed map. ü substitute a range of greys and black and white for color. Remember that printers cannot display as many greys as you can create on a monitor; subtle variations in greys may not print. ü black will be more intense than white; use white to designate no information or the background, dark to designate more important information. ü monochrome copiers reproduce grey tones poorly. ü very light grey tones may not print.
37 Color, on paper: Color on a computer monitor is created in a different manner than color on printers. Select colors on the computer, then print to your final printer. Always design for the final medium: adjust the colors on the monitor so they look best for the printer. The same colors will vary tremendously from printer to printer. Remember that reproducing color is often more expensive than reproducing black and white. Keep in mind that users may reproduce your color map in black and white. ü map size should match final paper size, with appropriate margins. ü 10-point type works well on a printed map, but you may have to magnify to see it on the computer monitor. ü point and line symbols can be smaller and finer on a printed map. ü more subtle patterns can be used than on a computer monitor map. ü more data and more complex data can be included on a printed map. ü use color value (light red vs. dark red) to show differences in amount or impor- tance. Use color hue (blue vs. red) to show differences in kind. Printers cannot display as many colors as you can create on a monitor; subtle vari- ations in colors may not print. ü dark colors are more intense than light; use light colors to designate less important information and background, and dark to designate more important information. ü never print a color map in black and white; redesign for black and white.
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Vol. IV No. 96 August 30, 1851. Pages 145-167 PG # 38405 Vol. IV No. 97 September 6, 1851. Pages 169-183 PG # 38433 Vol. IV No. 98 September 13, 1851. Pages 185-200 PG # 38491 Vol. IV No. 99 September 20, 1851. Pages 201-216 PG # 38574 Vol. IV No. 100 September 27, 1851. Pages 217-246 PG # 38656 Vol. IV No. 101 October 4, 1851. Pages 249-264 PG # 38701 Vol. IV No. 102 October 11, 1851. Pages 265-287 PG # 38773 Vol. IV No. 103 October 18, 1851. Pages 289-303 PG # 38864 Vol. IV No. 104 October 25, 1851. Pages 305-333 PG # 38926 Vol. IV No. 105 November 1, 1851. Pages 337-359 PG # 39076 Vol. IV No. 106 November 8, 1851. Pages 361-374 PG # 39091 Vol. IV No. 107 November 15, 1851. Pages 377-396 PG # 39135 Vol. IV No. 108 November 22, 1851. Pages 401-414 PG # 39197 Vol. IV No. 109 November 29, 1851. Pages 417-430 PG # 39233 Vol. IV No. 110 December 6, 1851. Pages 433-460 PG # 39338 Vol. IV No. 111 December 13, 1851. Pages 465-478 PG # 39393 Vol. IV No. 112 December 20, 1851. Pages 481-494 PG # 39438 Vol. IV No. 113 December 27, 1851. Pages 497-510 PG # 39503 Notes and Queries Vol. V. Vol., No., Date, Year, Pages, PG # Vol. V No. 114 January 3, 1852. Pages 1-19 PG # 40171 Vol. V No. 115 January 10, 1852. Pages 25-45 PG # 40582 Vol. V No. 116 January 17, 1852. Pages 49-70 PG # 40642 Index Vol., Dates, Year, PG # Vol I. Index. [Nov. 1849-May 1850] PG # 13536 INDEX TO THE SECOND VOLUME. MAY-DEC., 1850 PG # 13571 INDEX TO THE THIRD VOLUME. JAN.-JUNE, 1851 PG # 26770 INDEX TO THE FOURTH VOLUME. JULY-DEC., 1851 PG # 40166
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Making Maps A Visual Guide To Map Design For Gis 1st Edition John Krygier

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    © 2005 TheGuilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc. 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher. Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Krygier, John. Making maps : a visual guide to map design for GIS / John Krygier, Denis Wood. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 1-59385-200-2 (pbk.) 1. Cartography. 2. Geographic information systems. I. Wood, Denis. II. Title. GA105.3K79 2005 526—dc22 2005018239
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    This book isdedicated to, and in memory of, David Woodward, map designer and scholar
  • 15.
    x Key concepts thatshape the geographic framework upon which your map will be constructed. Arranging your map, its title, and other components. 4Map-Making Tools A diversity of map-making tools enables you to make a diversity of maps. 3Mappable Data Making maps requires data. Locating and processing data is a vital step in the map- making process. What exactly is a map, and why are maps and map making so powerful? What are you trying to do with your map? Your intentions for your map shape the way you make it. 3 25 51 73 91 125 1 5 6 2 Geographic Framework Map Layout It’s a Map Why Are You Making Your Map?
  • 16.
    xi 10Type on Maps Theeffective use of type on maps. 9Map Symbolization Matching visual marks to your data. Adding depth and order to your map by manipulating its visual elements. Simplifying point, line, and area data for a more effective map. The effective use of color on maps. 11Color on Maps Evaluating your map to make it perfect. 12Finishing Your Map 145 161 195 233 255 277 7 8 Intellectual and Visual Hierarchies Map Generalization and Classification Index 292
  • 18.
  • 19.
    Red Lake Mississippi RiverSt. Louis River Lake Superior
  • 20.
    3 1 It’s a Map Ojibwe(Native American) ca. 1820 Maps are a powerful way of thinking about the earth. This Native map, drawn on birch bark (which accounts for its shape), shows the migration legend of the Ojibwe, from the creation of their people (on the right) to their home in the upper Midwest (on the left). The left and central portions of the map show Lake Huron, Lake Superior, and Red Lake in Minnesota. The right side of the map relates the spiritual realities of the Ojibwe origins with important spiritual guides symbolized along the route. The map is a sophisticated synthesis of spiritual and physical geography, revealing the vital importance of making maps in the context of your life and belief systems. Lake Michigan Lakes Erie, Huron, & Ontario
  • 21.
    4 GIS Technological Changes Geographic InformationSystems (GIS) Technological changes have made the mapping and analysis of geographic information a daily part of how we understand the world. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) consist of digital map layers that store a multitude of geographic facts by location: water features, property parcels, floodplains, roads, political boundaries, and so on. Digital map layers are linked to a database of “attribute” information. Each property parcel, for example, contains information such as the owner, address, zoning, and value of the property. Each stream and river contains information including the name of the feature, its length, and flow. Latitude Longitude Roads Rivers Schools School Districts
  • 22.
    5 1981 2003 Native Forest PinePlantation Pine - Mix Pine Plantation Prep Logged - Cleared Other: Some Canopy Other: No Canopy Study Area Forest change in Tennessee GIS is an excellent way to inventory geographic facts, but its power lies in its analytical capabilities. Jon Evans of Sewanee University used GIS to analyze forest change in Tennessee. Combining satellite data and GIS map layers, Evans’ GIS analysis revealed a 14% loss in native forests and a 170% increase in pine plantations between 1981 and 2000. The quality of forests is a politically sensitive issue. The lumber and paper industry and certain U.S. government policy-makers claim U.S. forests are increasing in area. Biologists argue that diverse native forests are being replaced by dangerous monoculture tree plantations: not all trees make a forest. Evans’ GIS analysis and the resulting maps provide quantitative and visual evidence for the growing debate over forest quality and policy in the U.S.
  • 23.
    6 Maps Kill! Military targetingmaps Maps have long been used to fight wars, win battles, and kill people. Targeting maps help to fine-tune bombing during military campaigns, to destroy certain select targets and people and not others. Royal Air Force pilots are briefed with a terrain model prior to a bombing mission during World War II (top). Geographic Information Systems – and maps of bombing targets – are at the core of strategizing and planning bombing missions for the war in Iraq (bottom).
  • 24.
    7 Route of Marine jet Skilift cable (not on map) hit by jet 20 killed near Cavalese, northern Italy Despite a long tradition of map making, and expensive and extensive new technologies for making maps, maps still can fail and so kill. A U.S. Marine Corps jet struck and severed a ski lift cable spanning an Alpine valley in northern Italy in 1998, sending the ski lift gondola crashing to the earth, killing 20 people. The jet crew did have a map of the area, but not one that showed the ski lift cable. The cable was shown on Italian maps, but the Pentagon prohibits the use of maps made by foreign nations. Map users and makers should always be critical of maps: maps have the power and potential for failing that every human-created object has.
  • 25.
    8 Discoveries with Maps Mapsgenerate new understanding Maps don’t simply locate things: they can lead us to insights, discoveries, and new ways of understanding. We see geographic patterns, and those patterns may lead us to think about things in a new way. When maps of the then known world were first made in the 16th century, people immediately noticed provocative patterns: the earth’s continents seemed to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. Many explanations for these patterns were put forth for debate. Juan de la Cosa’s map of the known world, from the early 16th century.
  • 26.
    9 Plate tectonics Geologic evidencegathered by Alfred Wegener and others suggested that a single large continent, Pangea, had indeed preceded the current configuration of the continents. Evidence included geologic and fossil characteristics common to continents now widely separated. But how did the continents move? Geologic research in the 1950s and 1960s led to the understanding that molten rock from deep inside the earth pushes up along major cracks in the earth’s crust, building new crust, and pushing and moving the huge plates, upon which the continents rest. Plate tectonics is now accepted as the explanation for the continental patterns on maps that intrigued humans for so long. Map making is powerful, as it can lead us to discoveries of new things about the natural and human world. Geologic and fossil commonalities in dark grey, spanning different “continents” in Pangea. AFRICA S . A M ERICA INDIA AUST R A L I A A N TARCTICA
  • 27.
    10 Thinking Visually withMaps HIV patients in rural Tennessee Maps are a powerful way to think things through. Abraham Verghese used maps to help think about his HIV-infected patients in the mid- 1980s. Dr. Verghese practiced medicine in rural Tennessee. He and his colleagues were stunned when HIV-infected patients began to dominate their practices. What was this urban problem doing in rural Tennessee? "There was a pattern in my HIV practice. I kept feeling if I could concentrate hard enough, step back and look carefully, I could draw a kind of blueprint that explained what was happening here...” Dr. Verghese borrowed a map of the U.S. from his son. With the map spread on his living room floor, he marked where his HIV patients lived. He labeled the map Domicile, but he could as well have called it “Birthplace,” for most of his patients were men who had come home to die. Pound Norton Big Stone Gap Abingdon Bristol Elizabethton Johnson City Newland Erwin Greeneville Gate City Kingsport Rogersville Morristown Newport Knoxville VIRGINIA NORTH CAROLINA TENNESSEE Domicile = One HIV Patient
  • 28.
    11 Dr. Verghese nextmapped where his HIV patients lived between 1979 and 1985. The places on the Acquisition map “seemed to circle the periphery of the United States” and were mostly large cities. “As I neared the end, I could see a distinct pattern of dots emerging on this larger map of the USA. All evening I had been on the threshold of seeing. Now I fully understood.” Dr. Verghese learned of a circuitous voyage, a migration from home and a return, ending in death. It was “the story of how a generation of young men, raised to self-hatred, had risen above the definitions that their society and upbringings had used to define them. It was the story of hard and sometimes lonely journeys they took far from home into a world more complicated than they imagined and far more dangerous than anyone could have known.” Patients that appear on both maps are those “who had the virus delivered to their doorstep... hemophiliacs or blood transfusion recipients who got tainted ... blood products.” The maps Verghese made on his living room floor might not be much to look at, but the thinking they inspired was rich. = Site of probable acquisition of HIV Acquisition
  • 29.
    12 Maps Shape HowWe See The earth is really big and complex Maps are small and show only a few of the multitude of human and natural features. When making maps, we strip away selected details and flatten the earth’s surface, showing what we could not otherwise see.
  • 30.
    13 The impossible isnatural Global temperature is something we could never “see” without maps. Nevertheless, such an impossible “view” of the world is now quite natural to us: our maps shape how we “see” the world. Less detail Map makers remove detail to show what they choose to show. Entire earth, all at once Map makers flatten the earth’s entire surface. This map stretches continental shapes, revealing distortions that occur when we flatten the earth’s surface. Seeing the invisible On maps we can record what is visible to us – coastlines – and what is not visible to us – temperatures.
  • 31.
    14 The internet The internetlets anyone make maps Changes in technology have always affected map making. The invention of printing made it easy to duplicate and distribute maps, providing more people with access to maps and the knowledge they store. The internet is having a profound impact on map access. Free internet mapping sites provide both basic and sophisticated map-making capabilities. With internet access, and the ability to point and click, anyone can make maps. The geography of the internet: larger circles = more internet hosts.
  • 32.
    15 Making maps isubiquitous! Map making is part of our day-to-day lives. Where is ... Where is 231 Crestview Road, in Columbus, Ohio? What is the route ... How do I get from 231 Crestview Road to Delaware, Ohio? How many ... How many people live in Delaware, Ohio, and where are they?
  • 33.
    16 What Is aMap? A graphic statement that locates facts Graphic: A visual display of marks which stand for something else. An airplane shape on a map implies an airport. Statement: To put forth information, a formal embodiment of facts or assertions. Locating facts: Tangible and intangible phenomena located in geographic space: what we can see (roads, rivers) and what we cannot see (temperature, radiation), varying in amount (population) and kind (vegetation types). Areas crossed by two or more radioactive clouds during the era of nuclear testing in the American Southwest, 1951-62.
  • 34.
    17 Making Maps How doyou make a map? Why are you making your map? What are you intending to do with it? Who is your audience? Are they experts or novices? Young or old? What should the map assert? What do you want your map to communicate to those who see it? You must decide why you are making the map before you make it. Chapter 2. Mappable data: Given your purpose, what data do you need? Roads? Rivers? Coastlines? Population? Toxin levels in wells? Number of deer per county? Some data are free and easy to find. Other data exist, but at a cost. The facts you need may not exist at all, and you may have to collect them yourself or pay someone to do so. Locating and processing mappable data can be among the most expensive and time-consuming parts of making maps. Chapter 3. Map-making tools: Which tools will you use to make your map? Internet map-making sites are free but limited in data and map-making capabilities. Geographical Information System (GIS) software is more sophisticated and flexiblebutexpensivetopurchaseandmoredifficulttouse. Selectappropriate map-making tools based on the kind of map you want to make: you cannot make every map using internet sites, but you don’t need GIS for every map either. Chapter 4. Map design: Given the reason you are making the map, mappable data, and map-making tools, how do you make a map that fulfills your goals - a map that works? Key issues include the geographic framework, map layout, intellectual and visual hierarchies, map generalization and classification, map symbolization, and the use of type and color. Chapters 5-12.
  • 35.
    18 “Who died andmade you the map police?” Jill. Home Improvement. (TV, 1991) “Is that the same map?” Jincey asked. She pointed to the large map of the world that hung, rolled up for the summer, above the blackboard behind Miss Dove. “Is China still orange?” “It is a new map,” Miss Dove said. “China is purple.” “I liked the old map,” Jincey said. “I liked the old world.” “Cartography is a fluid art,” said Miss Dove. Frances Gray Patton. Good Morning, Miss Dove. (1954)
  • 36.
    19 more information... Three excellentbooks situate mapping in its broader human context: Daniel Dorling and David Fairbairn, Mapping (Longman, 1997); Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps (2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 1996); and Denis Wood, The Power of Maps (Guilford Press, 1992). Check out the journal Cartographic Perspectives; published by the North American Cartographic Information Society. This book draws from numerous texts, which can be consulted for more information: Borden Dent, Cartography: Thematic Map Design (5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1998); Alan MacEachren, Some Truth with Maps (Association of American Geographers, 1994); and Phillip and Juliana Muehrcke, Map Use (4th ed., JP Publications, 1998). Also consulted were M.J. Kraak and F.J. Ormeling, Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data (Longman, 1996); Arthur Robinson et al., Elements of Cartography (6th ed., Wiley, 1995); and Terry Slocum et al., Thematic Cartography and Visualization (2nd ed., Prentice Hall, 2003). These folks are the map police. An older generation of mapping textbooks are worth looking at: F.J. Monkhouse and H.R. Wilkinson, Maps and Diagrams (Methuen, 1952); J.S. Keates, Cartographic Design and Production (Wiley, 1973); and two wonderful textbooks by Erwin Raisz: General Cartography (McGraw-Hill, 1938) and Principles of Cartography (McGraw-Hill, 1962). The most comprehensive overview of academic research on mapping is Alan MacEachren, How Maps Work (Guilford Press, 1995). Sources: The Ojibwe map (pp. xii, 1-3) redrawn from Selwyn Dewdney, The Sacred Scrolls of the Southern Ojibway (University of Toronto Press, 1975). The forest change map (p. 5) is courtesy of Jon Evans. The RAF terrain model image (p. 6) is from the Geographical Review, Oct. 1946. The Iraq military targeting map (p. 6) was found floating on the internet. The Cavalese map (p. 7) is courtesy of the Harvard Map Library, Harvard University. AIDS data (pp. 10-11) from Abraham Verghese, My Own Country: A Doctor’s Story (Vintage, 1994) and “Urbs in Rure: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Rural Tennessee” (Journal of Infectious Diseases, 160:6). The internet hosts map (p. 14) is based on one from Matrix Net Systems. Internet road maps from Mapsonus.com, and U.S. Census map from the U.S. Census American Factfinder. The radioactive cloud map is from Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (Two-Sixty Press, 1999).
  • 40.
  • 41.
    Lake Ontario Lake Ontario LakeOntario Lake Erie Lake Erie Lake Erie Lake Lake Lake Huron Huron Huron The many small stick-figures vary, depending on the amount of energy reflected at a particular location.
  • 42.
    25 2 Why Are You MakingYour Map? Maps look like what they are supposed to do. Each mark on this map is a complex symbol representing five different types of energy reflected from the earth’s surface. The map shows an area in Ontario, including parts of Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Most people won’t be able to make much sense out of this map, but to expert earth scientists the complex symbols and specialist subject matter are necessary.
  • 43.
    26 2 Why Are You MakingYour Map? What are you trying to say with your map? Who are you saying it to? What do they know? How will they use it? Are they going to see it on a computer, paper, poster, or projected on a screen during a presentation? Careful consideration of these issues will guide the making of your map and will produce a map that more effectively accomplishes what you want it to do. 1 2 3 4 Why are you making your map? Prior to making a map, clarify your intent: intent shapes design. Who is your map for? Knowing the intended audience for your map will help you design it. What is the final medium? The final form of your map - paper, projected, etc. - will affect its design. Evaluating your map Evaluation plays a useful role in making maps.
  • 44.
    27 1Why are youmaking your map? Prior to making a map, clarify your intent. Simply writing out the purpose of the map prior to making it will clarify goals; help determine relevant data, map design, and symbolization choices; and will lead to a better map. What the map is for: A map showing a proposed Black Heritage Trail in Eli County, VA. The map is the visual centerpiece of a proposal for grants to develop the trail and its associated sites, and must visually tantalize granting agencies. Poor: Good: ü title suggests county rather than trail as primary subject of the map. ü hard to figure out where the trail is. ü cities and roads along trail not visually different from other cities and roads. ü little visual depth to the map: trail is not visually prominent. ü title suggests trail as primary subject of the map. ü easy to see the trail. ü cities and roads along trail are visually prominent. ü meaningful visual depth to the map: trail is visually prominent. Eli County, VA Black Heritage Trail Raden Caspar Tuper Centerton Belle Varney Eli Beebe Cash Reper S everin Mountain Black Heritage Trail Eli County, VA Raden Caspar Tuper Centerton Belle Varney Eli Beebe Cash Reper S everin Mountain
  • 45.
    28 Goal: The CountyChamber of Commerce shows the shortest and least costly route for the connector. They focus on property values: Good: Good: Different goals call for different maps! Frequently the quality of a map is a matter of perspective, not design. This is because a map is a statement locating facts, and people tend to select the facts that make their case. That’s what the map is for: to make their case. Consider the examples below. A proposed connector road (dashed black) cuts through a city. Different groups create equally good maps to articulate their different perspectives on the proposed route. Though the maps may seem polemical, isolating the facts each presents is useful in focusing debate. low med. high Property Values: low med. high % African Amer: Goal: A community group contends the connector will devastate the African American community by cutting it in half: African American Community Center 1st African Methodist Episcopal Church Lincoln Park MLK High School
  • 46.
    29 Good: Good: low med. high % Historical Buildings:low med. high Density of Businesses: Goal: A historical preservation group shows that historical properties in a historical district will be adversely affected: Goal: The Oberlin Business Association argues the proposed road will siphon traffic and thus business away from their members: Historic ‘Shotgun’ Houses, ca. 1860 Oberlin Business District Oldest Home in City Historic City Hall Olmsted’s Lincoln Park Oberlin Historical District
  • 47.
    30 Goal: An environmentalgroup shows how the proposed connector violates the city’s long- standing policy of avoiding road construction in floodplains: Good: Good: Goal: A newspaper story changes the scale to show that the County Chamber of Commerce wants the connector as part of an incentive package to attract a pharmaceutical firm to a suburban development. Most of the employees for the new facility would come from the suburbs south of the city: Potential Pharmaceutical Facility Downtown Area (detail on previous maps) New Suburban Development 100-Year Floodplain
  • 48.
    31 Good: Good: Different goalsproduce different maps! The eight maps involved in this debate over the location of the connector are all good. Each is clear. Each makes its point with accurate data in a way that is easy to read and understand. What makes the maps different is the different purposes each was designed to serve. It is this purpose that drove the selection of facts, and these facts that dictated the design and scale. Goal: Due to historical and environmental concerns with the proposed connector, and the embarrassing newspaper article, the planning department is asked to develop two alternative options. When these alternatives are mapped, they raise additional concerns (and maps): Goal: Alternative B, while more costly than A, is cheaper than C (which passes through property owned by influential developers who don’t favor the connector). B also has a lower environmental impact and does not adversely affect any organized social groups or business interests. Down- town Area A B C Alternative B: Cuts through some older development and small parcels of undeveloped land. Alternative C: Cuts through undeveloped but more expensive land. Down- town Area Connector: Final choice, proposals for funding will be sought.
  • 49.
    32 33 Experts: Experts knowa lot about the subject of the map. Experts are highly motivated and very interested in the facts the map presents. They expect more substance and expect to engage a complex map. An interactive multivariate map for global climate change researchers visually interposes three data variables related to global climate research (hydrological balance, precipitation, and temperature). ü less peripheral information on map explaining content and symbols. ü more information, more variables of information, more detail. ü follow conventions of experts: consider using a spectral (rainbow) color scheme for ordered data if the user is accustomed to using such colors to show ordered data (spectral color schemes are usually not good for other users). 2Who is your map for?
  • 50.
    33 Novices: Novices knowless about the map subject and may not be familiar with the way maps are symbolized. They need a map that is more explanatory. Novices may be less motivated than expert users, but they want the map to help them learn something. They expect clarity, and may be put off by a complex map. Farmers need to know about potential drought conditions, but are not trained climatologists. Farmers need a map designed for them. ü more peripheral information on map explaining content and symbols. ü less information, fewer variables of information, less detail. ü follow map design conventions, which enhance comprehension of the map for novice map readers. No Drought Drought: Intensification Drought: Improvement Drought: No Change U.S. Seasonal Drought Outlook: October 2003 Source: USDA Albers Equal Area Projection
  • 51.
    34 It is vitalto determine the final medium your map will be presented on before making your map. Many maps today are made on computer monitors, but the monitor is not the final medium: paper, a slide to be projected on the wall, projected with a computer, or a poster are common end products. What looks great on your computer will probably not look so great when printed or projected. ü your map may be designed for the internet. Com- pared to paper, computer monitors provide less area and lower resolution, suggesting design modifications including larger symbols and type, and fewer data. Computer monitor Black and white, on paper Color, on paper Projected ü while color is always an option with computers, color may not be an option for your final map: color is expensive to print, and many publications require black-and-white maps. ü color is created differently on computer monitors and printers. Test your colors on the printer your final map will be printed on, and adjust colors on the computer so they look good when printed. ü maps projected on a screen using slides or a computer projector require design adjustments, such as larger type and symbols and more intense colors, so that the map is legible from a distance. Posters ü similar to projected maps, maps in poster form require attention to the typical viewing distance: some posters are to be viewed from a short distance, others from a long distance, and some require both long and short viewing distances. 3What is the final medium?
  • 52.
    35 Computer monitor: Computermonitor resolution is about 72 dots per inch (dpi), compared to 1200 or more for many printers. Computer monitors also have limited area: 7 by 9 inches or less if the map is displayed on a web browser. Designing maps for final display on computer monitors must take into account screen resolution and the limited space available. Design a map so that all type and symbols are visible on the screen with no magnification. Also avoid maps that require the viewer to scroll back and forth to see the entire map. Use more than one map if you need more detail. ü limit map size so that the entire map fits on the screen without scrolling or magnification. ü increase type size: 14 point type is the smallest you should use on a monitor. ü make point and line symbols 15% larger than those on a paper map. ü more distinct patterns: avoid pattern variations that are too fine or detailed. ü you may have to limit the amount and complexity of data on your map. ü use color: but remember that some monitors cannot display billions of colors; subtle color variations may not be visible on every monitor. ü white will be more intense than black; use care when using white to designate no information or as the background. ü for the internet, save your map at 72 dpi, and size the map to fit in a browser window (no scrolling). ü design your map so it works on different monitors (RGB, LCD).
  • 53.
    36 Black and white,on paper: Most maps are created on computer monitors, with less resolution and area than is possible on a piece of paper. When paper is your final medium, design for the paper and not for the monitor. Always check design decisions by printing the map. While all computers offer color, printing with color is not always an option, and many publications require a black-and- white map. Don’t despair: much can be done with black and white. ü map size should match final paper size, with appropriate margins. ü 10-point type works well on a printed map, but you may have to magnify to see it on the computer monitor. ü point and line symbols can be smaller and finer on a printed map. ü more subtle patterns can be used than on a computer monitor map. ü more data and more complex data can be included on a printed map. ü substitute a range of greys and black and white for color. Remember that printers cannot display as many greys as you can create on a monitor; subtle variations in greys may not print. ü black will be more intense than white; use white to designate no information or the background, dark to designate more important information. ü monochrome copiers reproduce grey tones poorly. ü very light grey tones may not print.
  • 54.
    37 Color, on paper:Color on a computer monitor is created in a different manner than color on printers. Select colors on the computer, then print to your final printer. Always design for the final medium: adjust the colors on the monitor so they look best for the printer. The same colors will vary tremendously from printer to printer. Remember that reproducing color is often more expensive than reproducing black and white. Keep in mind that users may reproduce your color map in black and white. ü map size should match final paper size, with appropriate margins. ü 10-point type works well on a printed map, but you may have to magnify to see it on the computer monitor. ü point and line symbols can be smaller and finer on a printed map. ü more subtle patterns can be used than on a computer monitor map. ü more data and more complex data can be included on a printed map. ü use color value (light red vs. dark red) to show differences in amount or impor- tance. Use color hue (blue vs. red) to show differences in kind. Printers cannot display as many colors as you can create on a monitor; subtle vari- ations in colors may not print. ü dark colors are more intense than light; use light colors to designate less important information and background, and dark to designate more important information. ü never print a color map in black and white; redesign for black and white.
  • 55.
    Other documents randomlyhave different content
  • 56.
    Vol. IV No.96 August 30, 1851. Pages 145-167 PG # 38405 Vol. IV No. 97 September 6, 1851. Pages 169-183 PG # 38433 Vol. IV No. 98 September 13, 1851. Pages 185-200 PG # 38491 Vol. IV No. 99 September 20, 1851. Pages 201-216 PG # 38574 Vol. IV No. 100 September 27, 1851. Pages 217-246 PG # 38656 Vol. IV No. 101 October 4, 1851. Pages 249-264 PG # 38701 Vol. IV No. 102 October 11, 1851. Pages 265-287 PG # 38773 Vol. IV No. 103 October 18, 1851. Pages 289-303 PG # 38864 Vol. IV No. 104 October 25, 1851. Pages 305-333 PG # 38926 Vol. IV No. 105 November 1, 1851. Pages 337-359 PG # 39076 Vol. IV No. 106 November 8, 1851. Pages 361-374 PG # 39091 Vol. IV No. 107 November 15, 1851. Pages 377-396 PG # 39135 Vol. IV No. 108 November 22, 1851. Pages 401-414 PG # 39197 Vol. IV No. 109 November 29, 1851. Pages 417-430 PG # 39233 Vol. IV No. 110 December 6, 1851. Pages 433-460 PG # 39338 Vol. IV No. 111 December 13, 1851. Pages 465-478 PG # 39393 Vol. IV No. 112 December 20, 1851. Pages 481-494 PG # 39438 Vol. IV No. 113 December 27, 1851. Pages 497-510 PG # 39503 Notes and Queries Vol. V. Vol., No., Date, Year, Pages, PG # Vol. V No. 114 January 3, 1852. Pages 1-19 PG # 40171 Vol. V No. 115 January 10, 1852. Pages 25-45 PG # 40582 Vol. V No. 116 January 17, 1852. Pages 49-70 PG # 40642 Index Vol., Dates, Year, PG # Vol I. Index. [Nov. 1849-May 1850] PG # 13536 INDEX TO THE SECOND VOLUME. MAY-DEC., 1850 PG # 13571 INDEX TO THE THIRD VOLUME. JAN.-JUNE, 1851 PG # 26770 INDEX TO THE FOURTH VOLUME. JULY-DEC., 1851 PG # 40166
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