Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-II)
Electrolyte: Intracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid
Plasma (Vascular fluid)
Anionic electrolytes- HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HPO₄²⁻
Cationic electrolytes- Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺
Concentration of important Electrolytes:
Electrolytes used in the replacement therapy: Sodium
chloride*, Potassium chloride, Calcium gluconate* and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS), Physiological acid base balance.
Acids, Bases And Buffers Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-I)
Acids, Bases are defined by Four main theories,
1.Traditional theory / concept
2.Arrhenius theory
3.Bronsted and Lowry theory
4.Lewis theory
Importance of acids and bases in pharmacy
Buffers: Buffer action
Buffer capacity Buffers system
Types of Buffers : Generally buffers are of two types:
1. Acidic buffers
2. Basic buffers
There are some other buffer system:
3. Two salts acts as acid-base pair. Ex- Potassium hydrogen phosphate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
4. Amphoteric electrolyte. Ex- Solution of glycine.
5. Solution of strong acid and solution of strong base. Ex- Strong HCl with KCl Mechanism of Buffer action: Mechanism of Action of acidic buffers: Buffer equation-Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Standard Buffer Solutions Preparation of Buffer Solutions: Buffers in pharmaceutical systems or Application of buffer: Stability of buffers Buffered isotonic solution Types of Buffer Isotonic solution
1. Isotonic Solutions:
2. Hypertonic Solutions:
3. Hypotonic Solution:
Measurement of Tonicity: 1. Hemolytic method: 2. Cryoscopic method or depression of freezing point:
Methods of adjusting the tonicity:
Class I methods:
In this type, sodium chloride or other substances are added to the solution in sufficient quantity to make it isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its final volume withan isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
Cryoscopic method
Sodium chloride equivalent method.
Class II methods:
In this type, water is added in sufficient quantity make the preparation isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its volume with an isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
White-Vincent method
Sprowls method.
This slide contains the details from topic, "Dental Product", B.Pharm 1st Semester, Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry.
Dental Product
Desensitizing Agent
Dental Caries
Dentifrices
Role of Fluoride
Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-V Radiopharmaceutical.pptx
Isotopes Types of decay
Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminium
Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimetres of lead
Units of Radioactivity:
Measurement of Radioactivity
The measurement of nuclear radiation and detection is an important aspect in the identification of type of radiations (, , ) and to assay the radionuclide emitting the radiation, suitable detectors are required. The radiations are identified on the basis of their properties.
e.g. Ionization effect is measured in Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger Muller Counter.
The scintillation effect of radiation is measured using scintillation detector and the photographic effect is measured by Autoradiography.
Gas Filled Detectors:
Ionization Chamber:
Proportional Counters:
Geiger-Muller Counter
Properties of α, β, γ radiations
Half –life of Radioelement
Sodium Iodide (I131)
Handling and Storage of Radioactive Material:
Storage of Radioactive Substances –
Precautions For Handling Radioactive Substances
Labelling of Radioactive Substances
Pharmaceutical Application Of Radioactive Substances
Acids, Bases And Buffers Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-I)
Acids, Bases are defined by Four main theories,
1.Traditional theory / concept
2.Arrhenius theory
3.Bronsted and Lowry theory
4.Lewis theory
Importance of acids and bases in pharmacy
Buffers: Buffer action
Buffer capacity Buffers system
Types of Buffers : Generally buffers are of two types:
1. Acidic buffers
2. Basic buffers
There are some other buffer system:
3. Two salts acts as acid-base pair. Ex- Potassium hydrogen phosphate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
4. Amphoteric electrolyte. Ex- Solution of glycine.
5. Solution of strong acid and solution of strong base. Ex- Strong HCl with KCl Mechanism of Buffer action: Mechanism of Action of acidic buffers: Buffer equation-Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Standard Buffer Solutions Preparation of Buffer Solutions: Buffers in pharmaceutical systems or Application of buffer: Stability of buffers Buffered isotonic solution Types of Buffer Isotonic solution
1. Isotonic Solutions:
2. Hypertonic Solutions:
3. Hypotonic Solution:
Measurement of Tonicity: 1. Hemolytic method: 2. Cryoscopic method or depression of freezing point:
Methods of adjusting the tonicity:
Class I methods:
In this type, sodium chloride or other substances are added to the solution in sufficient quantity to make it isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its final volume withan isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
Cryoscopic method
Sodium chloride equivalent method.
Class II methods:
In this type, water is added in sufficient quantity make the preparation isotonic. Then the preparation is brought to its volume with an isotonic or a buffered isotonic diluting solution.
These methods are of two types:
White-Vincent method
Sprowls method.
This slide contains the details from topic, "Dental Product", B.Pharm 1st Semester, Pharmaceutical Inorganic Chemistry.
Dental Product
Desensitizing Agent
Dental Caries
Dentifrices
Role of Fluoride
Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-V Radiopharmaceutical.pptx
Isotopes Types of decay
Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminium
Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimetres of lead
Units of Radioactivity:
Measurement of Radioactivity
The measurement of nuclear radiation and detection is an important aspect in the identification of type of radiations (, , ) and to assay the radionuclide emitting the radiation, suitable detectors are required. The radiations are identified on the basis of their properties.
e.g. Ionization effect is measured in Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger Muller Counter.
The scintillation effect of radiation is measured using scintillation detector and the photographic effect is measured by Autoradiography.
Gas Filled Detectors:
Ionization Chamber:
Proportional Counters:
Geiger-Muller Counter
Properties of α, β, γ radiations
Half –life of Radioelement
Sodium Iodide (I131)
Handling and Storage of Radioactive Material:
Storage of Radioactive Substances –
Precautions For Handling Radioactive Substances
Labelling of Radioactive Substances
Pharmaceutical Application Of Radioactive Substances
Arsenic is well known under desirable hand harmful due to its toxic nature, it poses the serious health hazard, which is present in medical substance, many qualitative and quantitative test for arsenic known, however Pharmacopoeia method is based on ‘Gutzeit Method’.
Concentration of arsenic beyond 0.01 mg/L in pollutant by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Reasons:
• Stannous chloride is used for complete evolution of arsine.
• Zinc, potassium iodide and stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent.
• Hydrochloride acid is used to make the solution acidic.
• Lead acetate pledger or papers are used to trap any hydrogen sulphide, which may be evolved along with arsine.
Limt test Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-I (Part-III) Limit Test.
Limit tests:- Factors affecting limit tests:
Specificity of the tests
Sensitivity
Control of personal errors (Analyst errors)
Test in which there is no visible reaction
Comparison methods
Quantitative determination
Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result
Limit test for Iron: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Heavy metal: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Lead: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Arsenic: Principle, Gutzet test Procedure, detail in Gutzet Apparatus. observation and result.
Modifies Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Modified Limit test for sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of body in which the amount of water in the body needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.
The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake).
Arsenic is well known under desirable hand harmful due to its toxic nature, it poses the serious health hazard, which is present in medical substance, many qualitative and quantitative test for arsenic known, however Pharmacopoeia method is based on ‘Gutzeit Method’.
Concentration of arsenic beyond 0.01 mg/L in pollutant by the World Health Organization (WHO).
Reasons:
• Stannous chloride is used for complete evolution of arsine.
• Zinc, potassium iodide and stannous chloride is used as a reducing agent.
• Hydrochloride acid is used to make the solution acidic.
• Lead acetate pledger or papers are used to trap any hydrogen sulphide, which may be evolved along with arsine.
Limt test Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-I (Part-III) Limit Test.
Limit tests:- Factors affecting limit tests:
Specificity of the tests
Sensitivity
Control of personal errors (Analyst errors)
Test in which there is no visible reaction
Comparison methods
Quantitative determination
Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result
Limit test for Iron: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Heavy metal: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Lead: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Limit test for Arsenic: Principle, Gutzet test Procedure, detail in Gutzet Apparatus. observation and result.
Modifies Limit test for Chloride: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Modified Limit test for sulphate: Principle, Procedure, observation and result.
Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of body in which the amount of water in the body needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.
The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake).
Nsg care with Fluid & Electrolyte imbalance.pptxAbhishek Joshi
Helpful for first year GNM and B.Sc. Nurses students.
Keep Reading and i will keep uploading...i want to enhance the nursing profession and provide an ideal nursing care to one and every students of India. Thanks
Types and Sources of impurities.pptx Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Types and Sources of impurities. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-I (Part-II) Impurities:
Impure Chemical Compound
Pure Chemical Compound.
Types of impurities: Organic Impurity, Inorganic impurity, Residual solvent, Sources of Impurities in Pharmaceuticals
The different sources of impurities in pharmaceuticals are listed below:
Raw material used in manufacture
Reagents used in manufacturing process
Method/ process used in manufacture or method of manufacturing
Chemical processes used in the manufacture
Atmospheric contamination during the manufacturing process
Intermediate products in the manufacturing process
Defects in the manufacturing process
Manufacturing hazards
Inadequate Storage conditions
Decomposition of the product during storage
Accidental substitution or deliberate adulteration with spurious or useless materials.
Test for purity: Pharmacopoeia prescribes the “Test for purity” for pharmaceutical substances to check their freedom from undesirable impurities.
Pharmacopoeia will decide and fix the limit of tolerance for these impurities.
For certain common impurities for which pharmacopoeia prescribes the test of purity are:
Colour, odour, taste
Physicochemical constants (Iodine value, saponification value, melting point, refractive index etc.)
Acidity, alkalinity, pH
Humidity (Estimation of moisture)
Cations and anions
Insoluble Constituent or Residue.
Ash, Water insoluble ash
Arsenic or lead
Loss on drying
Loss on ignition.
Effect of Impurities
Introduction of Inorganic Chemistry, History of Pharmacopoeia.pptxMs. Pooja Bhandare
Introduction of Inorganic Chemistry, History of Pharmacopoeia, Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry:
IMPORTANTS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, Introduction of Pharmacopoeia, Types of Pharmacopoeia, History of pharmacopoeia, HISTROY OF INDIAN PHARMACOPOEIA
Content of pharmacopoeia Introduction including general Notices
Monographs of the official drugs
Appendices
Polyploidy, mutation and hybridization with reference to medicinal plants. PH...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Polyploidy, mutation and hybridization with reference to medicinal plants. PHARMACOGNOSY & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-IIPart-4
Polyploidy reference to medicinal plants.
Types Of Polyploidy
A. Euploidy
a.Autopolyploidy
b. Allopolyploidy
B. Aneuploidy
1. Causes Of Polyploidy
2. Non-disjunction in mitosis
3. Non-reduction in meiosis
4. Polyspermy
5. Endo-replication or Endo- reduplication.
Factors Promoting Polyploidy
1. Physical factor
2. Chemical factor
3. Biological factor
Physical factor:-
Temperature :- heat temperature & cold temperature
Centrifugation
X-rays
Gamma rays
Cosmic rays
Ionizing & non-ionizing radiations
UV-radiations
Chemical factor:-
Alkylating agents:- nitrogen & sulphur mustard
Acridines
Proflavins
Nitrous acid
Colchicines[6]
Colchicines (Poisonous alkaloids):-
Biological factor
Mode of reproduction
Mode of fertilization
Breeding system present (Hybridization)
Growth habit of the plant
Size of chromosomes
Application Of Polyploidy
Mutation breeding
Seedless fruits production
Bridge crossing
Ornamental & forage breeding
Disease resistance through aneuploidy
Industrial application of polyploidy
mutation reference to medicinal plants
Type of mutations:
1. Spontaneous and induced mutations.
2. Recessive and dominant mutations.
3. Somatic and germinal mutations.
4. Forward, back and suppressor mutation.
5. Chromosomal, genomic and point mutations
Application Of Mutation:
Hybridization reference to medicinal plants
The following steps are involved in hybridization of plant:
Choice Of Parents:.
Selfing Of Parents
Emasculation:.
Bagging:
Crossing Or Cross Pollination
Labelling
Collection Of Hybrid Seeds
Significance of Hybridization
PHARMACOGNOSY & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-IIPart-2.FACTORS AFFECTING CULTIVATION
1. Altitude
2.Temperature
3. Rainfall
4. Day Length and Day Light
5. Soil
6. Soil Fertility
7. Fertilizers and Manures
a) Chemical fertilizers
(b) Manures
(c) Biofertilizers
8. Pests and Pests Control
a. Microbes
b) Insects
C) Non insect pests
d) Weeds
9. Other Factors that Affect the Cultivated Plants
a. Air Pollution
b. Herbicide
Cultivation and collections of drugs of natural origin..pptxMs. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACOGNOSY & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-IIPart-1Cultivation and collections of drugs of natural origin.
Advantages of cultivation
Methods of Plant Propagation
1.Sexual method (seed propagation)
2. Asexual method
Methods of sowing the seeds
Broadcasting Dibbling Miscellaneous
Special treatment to seeds
Asexual method.
Asexual method of vegetative propagation consists of three types:
a) Natural methods of vegetative propagation.
b) Artificial methods of vegetative propagation.
c) Aseptic method of micropropagation (tissue-culture).
COLLECTION OF CRUDE DRUGS
HARVESTING OF CRUDE DRUGS
DRYING OF CRUDE DRUGS
(1) natural (sun drying) and (2) artificial
Artificial Drying
Drying by artificial means includes drying the drugs in
(a) an oven; i.e. tray-dryers;
(b) vacuum dryers and
(c) spray dryers.
GARBLING (DRESSING)
PACKING OF CRUDE DRUGS
STORAGE & PRESEVATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Quality control of Drugs of Natural Origin. PHARMACognosy & Phytochemistry-I ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Quality control of Drugs of Natural Origin PHARMACognosy & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-I Part-3.
CONTENTS
Adulteration
Evaluation of adulteration
Morphological / Organoleptic evaluation
Microscopic evaluation
Quantitative evaluation
Physical evaluation
Chemical evaluation
Biological evaluation
Adulteration is of two types:
Indirect or Unintentional adulteration
Direct or Intentional adulteration
Intentional adulteration may be due to the following reasons
adulteration using manufactured substances
substitution using inferior commercial varieties
substitution using exhausted drugs
substitution of superficially similar inferior natural substance
adulteration using the vegetative part of the same plant
addition of toxic materials
adulteration of powders
addition of synthetic principles
Evaluation of Crude Drugs
1. ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION
2. MICROSCOPICAL EVALUATION
Stomatal index Vein-islet number
Veinlet termination number
Palisade ratio
Quantitative Microscopy (Lycopodium Spore Method)
3.CHEMICAL EVALUATION
4. Physical Evaluation
I. Solubility
II. Optical Rotation
III. Refractive Index
III. Specific Gravity
IV Viscosity
V. Melting Point
VI. Moisture Content
VII. Ultraviolet Light
VIII. Ash Values
Total ash
Acid-insoluble ash
The water-soluble ash
IX. Extractive Values
X. Foreign Organic Matters
5. BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Toxicity
Oxytocic activity
Microbiological assays
Classification of Crude Drugs. HARMACognosy & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-I...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Classification of Crude Drugs.PHARMACognosy & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-I Part-2.
A method of classification should be:
a) simple,
b) easy to use, and
c) free from confusion and ambiguities.
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION.
1.Alphabetical classification
2.Taxonomical classification
3.Morphological classification
4.Pharmacological classification
5.Chemical classification
6.Chemotaxonomical classification
7. Serotaxanomical Classification
Animal Cell Culture: Growth of animal cells in culture. PHARMACEUTICAL MICROB...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-VPart-4
Animal Cell Culture: Growth of animal cells in culture.
Introduction: Histroy, The culture media used for animal cell culture are classified as,
Natural, Artificial, Synthesized
Natural Culture Media:
a. Blood Plasma:
b. Blood Serum:
c. Tissue Extracts:
Artificial Media
Some common examples of artificial media are,
Minimal Essential Medium (MEM),
CMRL 1066,
RPMI 1640.
Synthetic media re classified as,
Serum Containing Media.
Serum Free Media.
a. Serum Containing Media:
b. Serum Free Media:
Physicochemical Parameters needed for growth animal cell culture:
General procedure for cell Culture.
Isolation of the tissue:
Disaggregation of the Tissue:
Mechanical disaggregation
b. Enzymatic Disaggregation
. Trypsin based disaggregation or trypsinization:
Warm trypsinization:
Cold trypsinization:
Drawbacks of trypsin disaggregation:
B. Collagenase based disaggregation:
C. Chelating Agents:
3. Seeding of Culture:
Preservation of pharmaceutical products using antimicrobial agents. PHARMACEU...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-VPart-3
Preservation of pharmaceutical products using antimicrobial agents.
Introduction. Ideal Properties of Preservatives:
Antimicrobial Chemical Preservatives
Development of a Preservative System.
Factors affecting efficacy of a preservative: 1. Interaction With components of the formulation
2. Properties of the Preservatives:
3) Effect of Containers.
4) Type of microbes:
5) Influence of pH:
Challenge Test: Efficacy Test of Preservative : Medium used, Choice of test organism:
Preparation of the inoculum:
Procedure:
Interpretation of Results:
Assessment of microbial contamination and spoilage. PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLO...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-VPart-2
Assessment of microbial contamination and spoilage.
Assessment of microbial contamination and spoilage
1. Physical and chemical changes:
2. Assessment of viable microorganisms in non-sterile products:
3. Sterility test:
4. Estimation of pyrogens:
Microbial Limit Tests:
Total Aerobic Microbial Count:
Membrane Filtration.
Plate Count Methods.
Pour Plate Method.
Surface spread Method.
Most Probable Number(MPN)
Types of spoilage, factors affecting the microbial spoilage of pharmaceutical...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-V Part-1
Types of spoilage, factors affecting the microbial spoilage of pharmaceutical products, source and type of contaminants. Introduction: Defintion Types of Microbial Spoilage:
1. Infection induced due to contaminated pharmaceutical products: Table no. 1.1 Common pathogens spoiling pharmaceutical products:
2. Physicochemical spoilage –
i) Viable growth ii) Gas production
iii) Colouration / Decolouration
iv) Odour formation
v) Taste change
3. Physical Spoilage:
Cracking of emulsion:
Odor changes
4. Biological spoilage:
Microbial Toxins
Microbial Metabolites
5. Chemical spoilage: Table 1.2 Susceptibility of pharmaceutical ingredients to microbial contamination
Factors affecting microbial spoilage
Size of contaminant inoculum
Nutritional factors
Moisture content
pH
Storage temperature
Redox potential
Packaging design
Sources and Types Of Contamination:
Personnel,
Poor facility design,
Incoming ventilation air,
Machinery and other equipment for production,
Raw material and semi-finished material,
Packaging material,
Utilities,
Different media used in the production process as well as for cleaning and Cleanroom clothing.
Microbiological Assay of Vitamin & Amino acid Assessment of a New Antibiotic...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T) Unit-IV Part-3
Microbiological Assay of Vitamin & Amino acid Assessment of a New Antibiotic: Introduction:
Principle
Microbiological Assay of Cynocobalamin (Vitamin B12):
Tritrimetric Method.
Turbidimetric Method.
Preparation of Standard Cynocobalmine stock solution:
Preparation of Basal Medium Stock Solution:
Test Solution of the material to be assayed Preparation of inoculum: Procedure of Titrimetric method: Turbidimetric Method: Microbiological assay of Amino acids. Assessment of a New Antibiotic.
Introduction:
MIC of an antibiotic is tested either by one of the following ways,
Liquid Dilution Method.
Solid Dilution Method
Principles and methods of different microbiological assay, methods for standa...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IV Part-2 Principles and methods of different microbiological assay, methods for standardization of antibiotics.
Introduction: Principles Advantages of Microbial Assay: Disadvantages of Microbial Assay: MICROBIOLOGICAL ASSAY OF ANIBIOTICS PRINCIPLE Media used for antibiotics assay Standard Preparation. Buffer Solutions Preparation of the Sample Solution: Test Organisms Preparation of inoculum: Methods of preparation of test organism suspension: Assay Methods: Method A: Cup-plate or Cylinder Plate Method.
Method B: Turbidimetric or Tube assay Method
Designing of aseptic area, laminar flow equipment: Study of different source ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Designing of aseptic area, laminar flow equipment: Study of different source of contamination in aseptic area and methods of prevention, clean area classification. PHARMACEUTICALMICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IVPart-1
Introduction: Designing of Aseptic Area . i) The clean-up area,
ii) The compounding area,
iii) The aseptic area,
iv) The quarantine area and
v) The packaging/labelling area.
Flow diagram of aseptic area. Floors, walls and ceilings, Doors, windows and services Personnel and protective clothing Cleaning and disinfection. Air Supply. Laminar flow equipment. Vertical laminar air flow bench
Horizontal laminar air flow bench
High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) Filter. Operating Instructions Uses of Laminar Air Flow.Advantages of Laminar Air Flow.Limitations of Laminar Air Flow. Air flow pattern Unidirectional airflow
Non-unidirectional airflow
Combined airflow
Different Sources of Contamination in an Aseptic Area
1) Personnel:
2) Buildings and Facilities
3) Equipment and Utensils:
4) Raw Materials
5) Manufacturing Process:
Methods of Prevention of Contamination Clean Area Classification
Sterility testing products (solids, liquids, ophthalmic and other sterile pro...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-6 Sterility testing products (solids, liquids, ophthalmic and other sterile products) according to IP, BP, USP.
Introduction: Test for Sterility. Culture Media. Fluid Thioglycollate Medium (FTM).
Alternative Thioglycollate Medium (ATM).
Soybean Casein Digest Medium (SCDM).
Tests for Culture Media:
Sterility of Media.
Growth Promotion Test.
Test for Bacteriostatic and Fungistatic.
Sterility Test Methods. Methods A: Membrane Filtration.
Method B: Direct Inoculation Pyrogen Test Methods. Rabbit Test. LAL Test.
Evaluation of Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic (Disinfectant). PHARMACEUTICAL ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-III Part-5 Evaluation of Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic (Disinfectant). The common methods used for evaluation of a disinfectant are as follows,
Tube Dilution Method.
Agar Plate Method.
Filter Paper & Cup Plate Method.
Ditch-Plate Method.
Phenol Coefficient Method.
The official phenol coefficient tests include,
Rideal-Walker Test (RW Test).
Chick-Martin Test.
United States FDA Test for Phenol Coefficient. (FDA Test)
The US Association of Official Agricultural Chemists Test (FDA Test)
A. Rideal-Walker Test:
Kelsey Sykes Method
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-II)
1. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry
UNIT-II (Part-II)
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes
Presented By
Ms. Pooja D. Bhandare
(Assistant Professor)
DADASAHEB BALPANDE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY BESA NAGPUR
2. • Electrolyte is a substance that ionizes when dissolved in a suitable ionising solvent such as water.
• This includes most soluble acids, bases & gases.
• An electrolyte may be defined as concentrated if it has high concentration of ions or dilute if it has
low concentration of ions.
• The electrolyte concentration is maintained constant in the body fluids.
• If a person undergoes surgery or remain ill or under undesirable condition for a long time, the body
cannot maintain the electrolyte balance, then it is done by external administration which is termed
as Replacement therapy.
• Electrolytes are used for the correction of acid-base balance in various body fluids.
Electrolyte:
3. • The electrolyte concentration of body fluids have been different in various body fluid
compartments. They are
1. Intracellular fluid:- The fluid which is present inside the cell. Ex- Cytoplasm
• It constitutes 40-50% of body weight & its volume is 30 litres.
2. Interstitial fluid:- The fluid which is present between the cells.
• It constitutes 12-15% of body weight & its volume is 10 litres.
3. Plasma (Vascular fluid):- The fluid which is present within the blood vascular system.
• This constitutes 4-5% of body weight & its volume is 3-5 litres.
• The fluids present in the interstitial & vascular compartments are referred to collectively as
Extracellular fluid (ECF).
4. • Electrolytic Fluid Compartments:
• Body contain 60-70% of water
Body Fluids
• Intracellular Fluid Extracellular Fluid
(Fluid inside the cell)
[45-50% of body weight]
Interstitial Fluid
(Between the cell)
[12-15% of body
weight]
Plasma or Vascular
fluid (Fluid within
blood vascular system)
[4-5% of body weight]
5. • Sodium & chloride are the main ions of ECF while potassium & phosphate are
the major ions of ICF.
• The three fluid compartments are demarcated from each other by membranes
which are permeable to water & certain inorganic & organic components
present in the body fluids.
• These membranes do not permit the transfer of certain molecules like proteins.
• For certain ions like Na, K, Mg the membrane shows selective permeability.
Thus the composition & concentration of various solutes in body fluids have
been definite but different from one another.
• The body fluids are having various inorganic ions which are either anionic or
cationic.
• Anionic electrolytes- HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HPO₄²⁻
• Cationic electrolytes- Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺
7. • The fluid in each compartment is ionically balanced.
• Body has the capacity to adjust slight variations in electrolytic
concentration of the fluid compartments.
• If concentration of electrolytes changes – water will migrate across the
cell membrane to re-establish Osmotic equilibrium.
8.
9.
10. 1. SODIUM –
• Location- extracellular compartment as a salt (90%).
• Normal plasma level- 136-142 mEq/L
• Normal intake of NaCl per day- 5-20g
• Daily requirement – 3-5g
• Excess quantity of salt consumed gets excreted in the urine.
• The sodium level in the blood is controlled by aldosterone.
• Food sources- table salt, milk, baking powder, meat & some vegetables.
• Functions-
1. Regulates acid-base equilibrium.
2. Along with chloride maintain osmotic balance of various fluids.
3. Plays an important role in permeability of cell
4. Transmission of nerve impulse.
11.
12. 2. POTASSIUM –
• Normal intake of KCl-5-7g/day
• Daily requirement – 1.5-4.5g
• Sources- milk, certain vegetables, meat & whole grains.
• It is rapidly absorbed from diet & rapidly excreted through kidneys.
• Maintains electrolyte composition of various body fluids.
• Influences acid-base balance & water retention.cc
14. 2. CALCIUM –
• The total calcium content in body is about 22g/kg body weight
• Daily requirement – 0.8g
• 99% of calcium is found in bones and 1% in ECF
• Sources- milk, cheese, green vegetables, eggs, some fish.
• It can be absorbed from all parts of small intestine by an active transport mechanism.
• Greater amounts of calcium are needed in children and during pregnancy, lactation
• The normal range for total plasma calcium – 2.2 to 2.6m mol/litre
• About half of this is bound to plasma proteins, a small fraction gets complexed with
• citrate and phosphate and remaining amount circulates in blood as ionised calcium
• Ionised calcium plays a vital role in the functioning of nerves, blood clotting and muscle
contraction
• The level of calcium ions in plasma is regulated by parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
15. • FUNCTIONS –
• Normal functioning of ANS and voluntary system
• For cardiac function
• Important factor in coagulation of blood
• For the formation of bones
• Muscle contraction and maintenance of muscle tone
• Transmission of nerve impulses across synapse
• Release of certain neurotransmitters(Ach)
16. Condition Hypercalcemia Hypocalcaemia
Elevated Ca⁺² levels Low Ca⁺² levels
Reason Hyperparathyroidism, Excess vit D
intake
Decreased calcium absorption,
Hypoparathyroidism, vit D
deficiency, Cushing’s syndrome,
Osteoblastic metastasis
Symptoms Fatigue, muscle weakness,
constipation, Anorexia, Cardiac
irregularities
Titanic spasms, convulsions
17. 3. Magnesium –
• Second most abundant cation in the ICF
• The adult human body having 25gms of Mg about 54% is present in the bones
along with P, Ca, about 45% is in ICF and about 1% is in ECF
• Daily requirement – 350mg
• Source – nuts, soyabeans, whole grains, sea foods
• Functions –
(a). Activates enzymes which are involved carbohydrates and protein metabolis
(b). Important in neural transmission, myocardial function, neuromuscular
activity
(c). Needed for the operation of Na⁺- K⁺- ATPase pump system
(d). It is a cofactor for phosphate transferring enzymes
(e). Constituent of teeth and bones
18.
19. 4. Chloride –
• Major extracellular anion
• Total chloride ion present in the body – 50mEq/kg body wt.
• Daily requirement – 5 to 10g
• Source – common table salt
• It readily gets absorbed throughout GIT.
• Mainly excreted through urine & through skin during sweating.
• Functions –
• Chloride ion along with sodium ion maintain osmotic balance between different
body fluids.
• Maintains charge balance between the body fluids i.e. ICF & ECF both as they
can pass through all membranes.
• Maintains acid-base balance & also take part in the formation of gastric HCl.
• Maintains proper hydration.
20. • Chloride Imbalance –
• Hypochloremia- due to metabolic acidosis
diabetic mellitus &
excessive vomiting.
• Hyperchloremia- due to dehydration
Excess chloride intake
CHF
Severe renal failure
21. 5. Bicarbonate –
• Second largest anion in the ECF.
• Along with carbonic acid, it acts as one of the important buffer system in
the maintenance of acid-base balance.
• A lack of bicarbonate causes metabolic acidosis while an excess of
bicarbonate causes metabolic alkalosis.
22. 6. Phosphate –
• The phosphate ions such as H₂PO₄⁻, HPO₄⁻², PO₄⁻³ are the major anions of ICF.
Among these HPO₄⁻² is most important for maintaining pH at 7.4.
• Normal plasma phosphate concentration is 1.7 to 2.6 mEq/litre.
• Almost 4/5 of the total body phosphate is present in teeth & bones along with
calcium.
• Rest of the phosphate ion is covalently bound with lipids, proteins, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, ATP.
• Functions-
• Plays a vital role in maintaining pH of body fluids.
• HPO₄⁻²/ H₂PO₄⁻ is an important biochemical buffer.
• Essential for normal bone & tooth development & proper calcium metabolism.
• Serum inorganic phosphate plays an important role in regulating erythrocyte
glucose metabolism.
• Under normal conditions, deficiency of phosphate ions does not occur. However
since the serum phosphate levels are usually correlated with serum calcium levels,
any change in the normal serum calcium levels may result in change in normal
serum phosphate levels
23. • Hypophosphatemia –
• Seen in vit D deficiency (Rickets),
• hyperparathyroidism &
• lack of phosphate reabsorption by kidney tubule due to infections,
• cancer in patients consuming a large amount of antacids specifically Al(OH)₃
• Hyperphosphatemia-
• Occur due to inappropriate excretion as a result of renal failure,
• increase in absorption due to hypervitaminosis D &
• hypoparathyroidism.
• Hyperphosphatemia leads to formation of phosphatic urinary calculi ( a form
of kidney stone).
24. ELECTROLYTE REPLACEMENT THERAPY
• It is also called as electrolyte replenisher. Due to serious symptoms of the loss of
electrolytes, it is essential to maintain the normal level by external supply of
electrolytes, this therapy is called as electrolyte replacement therapy.
• There are two types of electrolyte solutions are used in replacement therapy-
I) Electrolyte solution for rapid initial replacement-solutions contains electrolyte
with concentration resemble with the electrolyte concentration found in extracellular
fluids.
II) Electrolyte solution for subsequent replacement-lower concentration of electrolyte
in solution.
25. 1. Sodium replacement-
• The depletion of sodium cause various forms of hyponatremias. A patient who suffers
severe symptoms cause by hyponatremia should receive either 3% or 0.9% sodium
chloride solution, until severe symptoms resolve
• The main objective of replacement to raise the serum sodium concentration to 120
mEq/L. there are various sodium chloride preparations are available.
1. Sodiumchloride:
• Formula: NaCl Molecular weight-58.44
• Standards : Sodium chloride not less than 99.0% and not more than 100.5% of NaCl,
calculated with reference to the dried substance.
26. • Method of Preparation: In laboratory it is prepared from common salt in
water by passing hydrochloric acid gas. The crystals are precipitated out.
• Industrially it is prepared by 1) by evaporating purified saline (sea water)
deposits & further purification. 2) and by purifying rock salt.
• It can also be prepared in laboratory in small scale by the acid-base reaction. In
which strong acid (HCl) reacts with strong base ( NaOH) & finally it gives
sodium chloride.
• Properties:
• Physical properties: it is colorless crystals or white, crystalline powder.
• It is freely soluble in water & slightly more soluble in boiling water, practically
insoluble in ethanol.
• Chemical properties:
• With oxidizing agent, it gets oxidized & liberates chlorine gas.
• 2Cl + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 Mn + 2SO4 + 2H2O +Cl2
27. • Identifications: It gives reactions characteristics of sodium and chloride.
• Test of purity: It has tested for acidity and alkalinity, Ba, Ca and Mg, Fe and
heavy metals, bromide, iodide, sulphate and loss on drying.
• Assay: The 0.1 g of substance is dissolved in 50ml of water in a glass stoppered
flask. To it, 50ml of 0.1 N silver nitrate solution, 3ml of nitric acid, 5ml of
nitrobenzene & 2ml of ferric ammonium sulphate solution are added. Now the
solution is shaken well and is then titrated with 0.1 N ammonium thiocyanate
solution until the water becomes reddish-yellow.
• Each ml of 0.1 N AgNO3 = 0.005844 g of NaCl.
• Storage: It is stored in tightly closed container in dry place as it absorb
moisture.
• Uses:
1. it can be used as electrolyte replenisher, as it is isotonic solution.
2. In combination with other electrolyte & dextrose, it is used as dialysis solution
in renal failure.
3. It is used as a saline diuretic in the form of enteric coated tablet.
28. Sodium chloride preparations:
1. sodium chloride injection I.P ( normal saline)
• It contains 0.9% sodium chloride without any antimicrobial agent (PH 4.5-7.0)
2. Sodium chloride hypertonic injection I.P-
It contains 1.6% w/v sodium chloride (PH 5-7.5)
3. Compound sodium chloride injection ( ringer solution)
• It contain following ingredients:
• Sodium chloride-0.869 g
• Potassium chloride-0.030 g
• Calcium chloride-0.048 g
• Water for injection q. s. 100ml
4. Bacteriostatic sodium chloride injection USP.
• It is sterile solution of sodium chloride (0.9% w/v) in water for injection containing
suitable antimicrobial agent. It is used as sterile vehicle.
29. 5. Sodium chloride & Dextrose Injection I.P
• It is solution of dextrose & sodium chloride in water for injection containing no
antimicrobial agent (PH 3.5-6.5). It is used as a nutrient & as an electrolyte
replenisher.
6. sodium chloride tablet I.P
• It contain 95.0 to 105 % w/v of sodium chloride and is available in strength of 180,
300 & 500 mg of sodium chloride. It is used as an electrolyte replenisher.
7. Sodium chloride and mannitol injection.
• It is sterile solution of sodium chloride and mannitol in water for injection. It is used
as a diuretic agent.
30. 2. Potassium chloride
• Formula: KCl Molecular weight-74.55
• Standard: potassium chloride contains not less 99.0% and not more than 100.5 % of
KCl, calculated with reference to the dried substance.
• Preparation:
• 1.It is prepared from natural mineral, carnallite (KCl, MgCl2.6H2O). The raw mineral
is ground and then treated with hot water. The less soluble KCl precipitate out. The
process is repeated till all the KCl is recovered from liquid.
• 2.On laboratory scale, it is prepared by action of HCl on potassium carbonate or
bicarbonate.
• K2CO3 + 2HCl 2KCl + H2O + CO2
• KHCO3 + HCl KCl + H2O + CO2
• 3. It can also be prepared in the laboratory in small scales by reacting potassium
hydroxide (KOH) with hydrochloric acid (HCl).
• KOH + HCl KCl + H2O
31. Properties:
• It is colorless crystalline, or white crystalline powder; odorless. It has a saline taste. It melts at 772
C. the 10% aqueous solution is neutral to litmus.
• It is freely soluble in water; practically insoluble in ethanol and ether.
Uses:
• It is used in prevention and treatment of potassium depletion and hypokalemia and diuretic-induced
hypokalemia.
• Potassium chloride is sometimes used as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations.
• It is used in diabetic ketoacidosis.
• It is used in hypertension, potassium supplementation results in reduction of both systolic and
diastolic blood pressure.
32. Preparations of Potassium chloride:
1. Potassium chloride and Dextrose Injection:
• Potassium chloride and dextrose, intravenous infusion, is a sterile solution of potassium
chloride and either anhydrous glucose, in water for Injections.
2. Potassium chloride, sodium chloride and dextrose Injection:
• Potassium chloride, sodium chloride and dextrose Injection intravenous infusion.
3. Bumetanide and slow potassium tablets:
• This preparation is official in BP 2007. It contains bumetanide and potassium chloride. They
are formulated so that the potassium chloride is released over a period of several hours.
4. Sterile potassium chloride concentrate:
• It is sterile solution of potassium chloride in water for Injections.
34. Physical properties:
White crystals, granules or powder, stable in air, does not lose its
( C12H22O14Ca. H2O) water of crystallization on drying.
Neutral to litmus paper.
Chemical properties:
When treated with dil. HCl, it is decomposed into gluconic acid and calcium chloride.
Method of Preparation:
It is prepared by boiling a solution of gluconic acid with Calcium carbonate.
Product is filtered and dried.
35. Assay:
Principles: Complexometric titration.
0.5 g sample is dissolved in warm water, cool and add 5 ml of 0.05 M MgSO4 and 10
ml of strong ammonia solution.
Titrant: 0.05 M Disodium EDTA
Indicator: Mordant Black II mixture.
End point: until deep blue color develops.
From the volume of 0.05 M disodium EDTA required, subtract the volume of the
MgSO4 solution added for actual reading.
Factor: 1 ml 0.05 M disodium EDTA= 0.02242 g of Calcium gluconate.
Uses: It is used in management of hypocalcemia and calcium deficiency state.
In insect bite: calcium gluconate 10 % solution, is given intravenously as an alternative
to the use of conventional muscle relaxant, for the management of pain and muscle
spasm associated with insect bite.
In severe acute hypocalcemia.
36. Preparations of calcium gluconate:
1. Calcium gluconate injection:
• Calcium gluconate injection is a sterile solution of calcium gluconate in
water for Injection. Not more than 5 % of the calcium gluconate may be
replaced with a suitable calcium salt as stabilizing agent.
2. Calcium gluconate tablets:
• Usual strengths: 325 mg; 500 mg; 650 mg; 1 g
3. Effervescence calcium gluconate tablets:
37. Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS):-
• Oral rehydration therapy was developed in 1940
• ORS came in market from 1970.
• Recommended by World Health Organization (WHO)
• Oral Rehydration Salts – is a fluid replacement for the condition called dehydration,
electrolyte imbalance due to diarrhea.
• It works by increase the uptake of sodium and water by the intestine.
• Potassium is very important it promote the water and sodium absorption.
• A large number of formulation of oral rehydration preparations are available in
market, which contains glucose, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and either
sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate. These dry powder preparations are to be
mixed in specific amount of water and are used for oral rehydration therapy.
38. • ORS contains anhydrous glucose, NaCl, KCl & either NaHCO₃ or Sodium
citrate.
• These dry powder preparations are to be mixed in specific amounts of
water along with certain flavouring gent and a suitable agent for free flow
of the powder.
• These are used for oral rehydration therapy.
• In ancient times, homemade ORS is used which constitutes of 1
tablespoonful of salt, 2 tablespoonful of sugar in 1 litre of water.
• The following 3 formulations are usually prepared.
• When glucose is used, NaHCO₃ is packed separately.
• The quantities given below are for preparing 1 litre solution.
39. The formula II & III are recommended by WHO & UNICEF for control in
diarrhoeal diseases.
40. Physiological Acid-Base balance
• The number of hydrogen-ions present in the solution may be regarded as a
measure of the acidity of the solution. But pH is related to negative logarithm of
acidity of (H+) ion concentration. Thus, pH may be considered to measure the
acidity of the solution.
• All body fluids have definite pH values which must be maintained within
relatively narrow limits (within which the cells functions normally).The normal
range of pH values of few selected fluids are:
41. The pH values of certain body fluids are:-
• The pH of blood of a healthy person remains constant around 7.35
• If the pH of blood becomes low (high H⁺ concentration) acidosis results.
• If the pH of blood becomes high (low H⁺ concentration) alkalosis results.
• The range of pH of the blood compatible with life is 7-7.8.
• Since the kidneys help to remove excess acid from the body, urine can be quite acidic.
42. • The intracellular fluids also have varying pH depending upon the types of the
cell. For Eg in osteoblasts it may be slightly alkaline (pH 8.0) and in cells of
prostate gland it may be acidic (pH 5.0).
• The individual pH in an organ is maintained by secretions of alkalis or acids to
suitoptimum level.
• The low pH in the stomach is best to the functioning of the enzyme pepsin
present in gastric juice which breakdown proteins. Saliva has a pH range 6.4-
7.4 which is the optimum value for the action of ptyalin (the enzyme present in
saliva which initiates the digestion of carbohydrates)
• The metabolic process of the body cells produces acids or acidic substances
(for eg. Carbonic acid from CO2 and water, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid
from, proteins and phosphoproteins, lactic acid and pyruvic acid from
anaerobic metabolism) and alkalis (for eg. Bicarbonate ions from salt of
organic acids c.f. citrate, lactate etc) which tend to alter the pH of the tissue
fluid and blood.
43. • The term Alkalosis refers to excess removal of H+ from the body fluid, in
contrast to the excess addition of H+, which is referred to as Acidosis.
• There are mainly three regulatory mechanisms which maintain the pH of the
each system and equilibrium with one another. These are:
1. Buffer of the body fluids
2. Respiratory mechanism
3. Renal regulation
44. 1. Buffer System:
• Buffers are the chemicals capable to maintain a constant pH. Buffer system is
consists of a weak acid and the salt of that acid.
• They resist the rapid change in the pH of body fluid by converting strong acids and
bases into weak acids and bases. Buffer is thus able to remove excess H+ from the
body fluid but not from body.
• The major buffer systems existing in the body fluids are as follows:
i. Carbonic acid-Bicarbonate Buffer system (H2CO3/NaHCO3):
ii. Phosphate Buffer System (Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4):
iii. Protein (Hemoglobin) Buffer System:
45. i. Carbonic acid-Bicarbonate Buffer system
(H2CO3/NaHCO3):
• It occurs in plasma and kidneys. Important regulator of blood pH. If there
occurs an excess of H+, the bicarbonate (HCO3-) ion acts as a weak base and
accept H+ to form carbonic acid. They latter dissociate further to yield CO2
and water molecules.
H+ + HCO3- H2CO3 H2O + CO2
• While if there occurs shortage of H+, the carbonic acid (another compound of
buffer system) ionises to release more H+ and maintain the pH.
• H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
46. ii. Phosphate Buffer System
(Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4):
• This buffer system mainly works in cells and kidneys and helps to maintain the
physiological pH 7.4. Higher concentration of phosphate ions are found in intracellular
fluid, thus consider as an important regulator of pH of cytosol.
• The system consists of monohydrogen phosphate/ dihydrogen phosphate (HPO42-/H2PO4-)
anions.
• If there occur an excess of H+, the monohydrogen phosphate ion acts as the weak base by
accepting the proton
• HCl + Na2HPO4 NaCl + NaH2PO4
• While dihydrogen phosphate ions can act as the weak acid and is able to neutralize the
alkaline condition
• NaOH + NaH2PO4 H2O + Na2HPO4
47. iii. Protein (Hemoglobin) Buffer System:
• It is considered to be the most abundant buffer in body cells and plasma. Protein is
compound of amino acids that are having at least one carboxyl group (COOH) and at least
one amino (NH2) group.
• When there occurs an excess of hydrogen ions, the amino group acts as a base and accept
the proton.
• Thus, proteins are able to serve both the functions of acid and base components of a buffer
system due to its amphoteric nature. At physiological pH, histidine and cysteine are
considered to be the most important amino acid buffer. Since hemoglobin which is a
protein is composed of 37 histidine in the structure, it is effective physiological buffer.
48. 2. Respiratory mechanism:
• When respiration is decreased, there is an accumulation of CO2 in the body
which used up the alkali reserve of the blood resulting in the acidosis.
• On the other hand, if thereis “over-breathing”, which results in excessive
excretion of CO2, the condition of alkalosis may develop. Thus, acidity and
CO2 increases are both powerful stimulants of respiratory mechanism and
cause an increase in the rate and depth of respiration.
49.
50. 3. Renal mechanism:
• Kidneys have the ability to form ammonia which combines with the acids
produced during the protein metabolism and is excreted in urine.
• The pH of urine is highly variable between 4.8 to 8.0. Normally, it is towards
acid side but varies with the nature of diet, exercise etc. While unstable
H2CO3 is removed mainly by respiratory mechanism, the fixed acids like
phosphoric, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids have to be remove through
kidneys.