The Moon formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago from debris ejected into orbit around Earth after a collision between Earth and a Mars-sized object. In contrast, Earth has experienced ongoing geological processes like plate tectonics, erosion, and volcanism that have recycled its surface over time. The Moon has had fewer large impacts in its history than Earth and lacks an atmosphere, liquid water, plate tectonics, and an internally generated magnetic field - leading to significant differences in their surface features and evolution.
Our solar system is part of the Milky Way galaxy, which contains thousands of other galaxies. It contains the sun and eight planets that orbit the sun, including Earth. The four inner planets closest to the sun are terrestrial, while the four outer planets are gas giants. Other objects in our solar system include comets, asteroids, meteoroids, and dwarf planets. Gravity and inertia work together to keep planets and other objects in stable orbits around the sun and other celestial bodies.
The document summarizes the origin and composition of the universe. It begins with the Big Bang theory around 10-18,000 years ago which resulted in the formation of chemical elements like hydrogen, helium, and other compounds like water. The universe contains galaxies like the Milky Way galaxy, which contains our solar system centered around the Sun. The Earth rotates daily and revolves yearly around the Sun, causing seasons, and the Moon rotates and revolves around the Earth monthly, causing its phases. Gravity is the force that governs movement and interactions between astronomical bodies.
This document summarizes theories about the formation and evolution of the universe and galaxies. It discusses that according to the Big Bang Theory, the universe was created 13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since. Galaxies formed as matter clustered together due to gravitational attraction. Stars formed within galaxies by nuclear fusion, producing heavier elements. When large stars died in supernovae, even heavier elements were created. These elements could provide the raw materials from which planets, and eventually life, developed. The future of humanity within this immense and evolving cosmic landscape remains uncertain.
1. The formation and evolution of the Solar System began about 4.57 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center to form the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk from which the planets, moons, asteroids and other small bodies formed.
2. According to the nebular hypothesis, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from accretion of planetary material in the solar nebula. Within the first 100-200 million years, early Earth had formed extensive oceans and seas.
3. Key events in the development of early Earth included the formation of its layered internal structure through the sinking of
Comets, meteors, and asteroids are objects that orbit the sun. Comets are small icy bodies that develop tails as they heat up when passing near the sun. Meteors are small particles that burn up upon entering Earth's atmosphere, sometimes forming meteor showers. Asteroids are rocky remnants from the early solar system and orbit mostly in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, ranging in size from hundreds of feet to hundreds of miles wide. The moon affects tides and lunar phases on Earth due to its gravitational pull and position relative to the sun.
Origin of the Universe and the Solar SystemNikoPatawaran
The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which was light years across.
The document provides information about our solar system and the universe. It describes the major components of the solar system including the sun, planets, moons, comets, asteroids and dwarf planets. It then discusses the history of astronomy from ancient civilizations studying the night sky to modern space exploration. It also explains how gravity and orbits allow the solar system to function and how scientists like Newton contributed to our understanding of motion and orbits. Finally, it summarizes the leading scientific theory of the origins of the universe via the Big Bang over 14 billion years ago.
Our solar system is part of the Milky Way galaxy, which contains thousands of other galaxies. It contains the sun and eight planets that orbit the sun, including Earth. The four inner planets closest to the sun are terrestrial, while the four outer planets are gas giants. Other objects in our solar system include comets, asteroids, meteoroids, and dwarf planets. Gravity and inertia work together to keep planets and other objects in stable orbits around the sun and other celestial bodies.
The document summarizes the origin and composition of the universe. It begins with the Big Bang theory around 10-18,000 years ago which resulted in the formation of chemical elements like hydrogen, helium, and other compounds like water. The universe contains galaxies like the Milky Way galaxy, which contains our solar system centered around the Sun. The Earth rotates daily and revolves yearly around the Sun, causing seasons, and the Moon rotates and revolves around the Earth monthly, causing its phases. Gravity is the force that governs movement and interactions between astronomical bodies.
This document summarizes theories about the formation and evolution of the universe and galaxies. It discusses that according to the Big Bang Theory, the universe was created 13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since. Galaxies formed as matter clustered together due to gravitational attraction. Stars formed within galaxies by nuclear fusion, producing heavier elements. When large stars died in supernovae, even heavier elements were created. These elements could provide the raw materials from which planets, and eventually life, developed. The future of humanity within this immense and evolving cosmic landscape remains uncertain.
1. The formation and evolution of the Solar System began about 4.57 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center to form the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk from which the planets, moons, asteroids and other small bodies formed.
2. According to the nebular hypothesis, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from accretion of planetary material in the solar nebula. Within the first 100-200 million years, early Earth had formed extensive oceans and seas.
3. Key events in the development of early Earth included the formation of its layered internal structure through the sinking of
Comets, meteors, and asteroids are objects that orbit the sun. Comets are small icy bodies that develop tails as they heat up when passing near the sun. Meteors are small particles that burn up upon entering Earth's atmosphere, sometimes forming meteor showers. Asteroids are rocky remnants from the early solar system and orbit mostly in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, ranging in size from hundreds of feet to hundreds of miles wide. The moon affects tides and lunar phases on Earth due to its gravitational pull and position relative to the sun.
Origin of the Universe and the Solar SystemNikoPatawaran
The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which was light years across.
The document provides information about our solar system and the universe. It describes the major components of the solar system including the sun, planets, moons, comets, asteroids and dwarf planets. It then discusses the history of astronomy from ancient civilizations studying the night sky to modern space exploration. It also explains how gravity and orbits allow the solar system to function and how scientists like Newton contributed to our understanding of motion and orbits. Finally, it summarizes the leading scientific theory of the origins of the universe via the Big Bang over 14 billion years ago.
1. James Hutton established the theory of uniformitarianism, which states that the geological forces shaping Earth today are the same as in the past. He is considered the founder of modern geology.
2. Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution through natural selection, which explained how species change over time in response to their environment.
3. Andrija Mohorovicic discovered the boundary between Earth's crust and mantle, known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity or "Moho".
4. Beno Gutenberg studied earthquakes and discovered that their waves can be used to investigate Earth's internal structure
The document describes key features of Earth, including its atmosphere, average temperature, water cycle, and magnetic field that protects from solar radiation. It also discusses Earth's rotation, which causes day and night, and its revolution around the sun, which causes the seasons. The Moon is described as Earth's only natural satellite, formed at the same time, rotating in about 29 days and orbiting Earth in about 28 days. The spheres of Earth - geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere - are also summarized.
The universe contains over 100 billion galaxies scattered throughout over 10 billion light years of space. It formed around 13.8 billion years ago in an event known as the Big Bang, in which all matter, energy, space and time exploded into existence from a single point. The universe has been expanding ever since, with the observable portion extending 46 billion light years from Earth due to the ongoing expansion over billions of years.
Grade 8 Integrated Science Chapter 11 Lesson 2 on the inner planets. Discusses the four inner planets, their atmosphere, interior, surface, weather, and other defining features. Includes individual slides on Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
The document discusses various facts about the Moon, including that it has been in our solar system for billions of years, it gets its light from the Sun, and its phases include the first quarter moon, new moon, last quarter moon, and full moon. The Moon's gravity causes high and low tides on Earth. NASA plans to send astronauts to learn more about living on the Moon. The Moon was formed from rocks blasted off of Earth by an impact and has been in space for over 2.5 billion years.
The universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old and contains countless galaxies, many with supermassive black holes at their centers. The Milky Way galaxy is the one that contains our solar system. According to the leading Big Bang theory, the universe began as an extremely hot and dense singularity which expanded rapidly approximately 13 billion years ago, resulting in the formation of hydrogen and helium from the cooling nuclear matter. Evidence for the expansion of the universe and the Big Bang model includes the redshift of distant galaxies and the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation.
The universe contains stars, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and galaxies. Our solar system is made up of the Sun and objects that orbit it, including the planets. The planets can be divided into inner planets like Earth that are rocky, and outer planets like Jupiter that are gas giants. Beyond our solar system are other galaxies, including the Milky Way galaxy that contains approximately 300 billion stars and is shaped like a spiral. Scientists use measurements like distance and time to study the structure and evolution of the universe.
The document discusses key concepts about the solar system including:
- The mass of the solar system is concentrated in the gas giant planets like Jupiter due to their large sizes, not densities.
- The planets orbit the sun on elliptical paths and revolve in the same direction counter-clockwise when viewed from above the north pole.
- Planets revolve around the sun at different rates, with inner planets revolving faster, and rotate at different rates, with inner planets rotating slower.
- Prograde motion is counter-clockwise rotation when viewed from above the north pole, while retrograde motion is clockwise.
The document discusses the origin and evolution of models of the universe. It begins by describing early flat earth cosmologies from ancient civilizations like Egypt, India, and Mesopotamia. It then outlines the development of the spherical earth model in ancient Greece, including ideas proposed by Pythagoras, Plato, and calculations made by Eratosthenes to estimate the earth's circumference. The document also summarizes the geocentric model developed by the Greeks with the earth at the center, and revisions made by Aristotle and Ptolemy. Finally, it outlines the heliocentric model first proposed by Aristarchus, placing the sun at the center, and the further developments of this model by Copernicus.
The document provides information about the solar system including the Sun, nine planets, and their satellites. It details key facts about each planet such as their composition, size relative to Earth, notable features, and interesting properties. For example, it notes that Jupiter contains over 70% of the mass in the solar system outside the Sun and has a significant bulge at its equator due to its rapid rotation. It also discusses Saturn's moons, winds, and magnetic field.
ORIGIN OF EARTH AND IT’S PLACE IN UNIVERSEShahid Hussain
The document discusses the origin and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life. It describes evidence that supports the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe approximately 13.8 billion years ago. It explains that galaxies, stars, and planets formed over time through evolutionary processes. The document also discusses different views on the origin and age of the universe, from both religious and scientific perspectives, including the idea of theistic evolution. It provides examples of the immense distances in the universe and compares the age of the Earth and the development of life to timescales in a hypothetical "cosmic calendar" representing the universe's age in one year.
This document discusses the exploration and discovery of planets, moons, and dwarf planets within our solar system. It describes findings such as the presence of liquid methane on Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and sedimentary rocks on Mars that indicate ancient water. It outlines plans for human colonization of Mars by 2027 through the Mars One program. Additionally, it provides details on dwarf planets such as Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris, and discusses the first exoplanet discovered in the habitable zone of a sun-like star, Kepler-22b.
The document provides an overview of the course plan for geography which includes physical geography, Indian geography, world geography, and human geography. It then summarizes the origin of the universe, solar system, and earth. Key points include:
- The universe contains galaxies, stars, planets, and other matter and energy. A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars.
- Our solar system revolves around the sun and contains 8 planets, over 160 natural satellites, asteroids, and other objects.
- Theories of the universe's origin include the nebular hypothesis, binary theory, and accretion theory for older theories, and the big bang theory and steady state theory for modern theories.
The document discusses several scientific theories that explain the origin of the solar system. It begins by describing the nebular hypothesis proposed by Kant and Laplace, which suggests that the solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust that collapsed under gravity. It then discusses the planetesimal and tidal theories which built upon this idea to explain how smaller planetesimals formed and were ejected from the sun. The protoplanet theory modified this view to incorporate modern knowledge about independent formation of matter in protoplanets within the rotating nebula.
The document provides an overview of Earth and life science topics including:
1) The Big Bang theory describes the origin and evolution of the universe from the earliest known periods to its current large-scale structure, with the Big Bang occurring approximately 13.8 billion years ago.
2) After the initial expansion of the universe, matter condensed into stars and galaxies, and atoms later formed, allowing life to develop on planets.
3) Our solar system formed 4.5 billion years ago from a cloud of gas and dust, with the sun at its center and planets, moons, asteroids and other bodies in orbit around it.
The document discusses the origin of the Moon. It provides a brief history of theories on the Moon's origin from ancient myths to modern scientific studies. The modern consensus is that the Moon formed from the debris of a giant impact between the early Earth and a Mars-sized object (giant impact theory). Computer simulations in the 1970s-1980s showed this scenario can explain the Moon's composition and the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system. The giant impact theory remains the most widely accepted explanation for how the Moon originated.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
1. James Hutton established the theory of uniformitarianism, which states that the geological forces shaping Earth today are the same as in the past. He is considered the founder of modern geology.
2. Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution through natural selection, which explained how species change over time in response to their environment.
3. Andrija Mohorovicic discovered the boundary between Earth's crust and mantle, known as the Mohorovicic discontinuity or "Moho".
4. Beno Gutenberg studied earthquakes and discovered that their waves can be used to investigate Earth's internal structure
The document describes key features of Earth, including its atmosphere, average temperature, water cycle, and magnetic field that protects from solar radiation. It also discusses Earth's rotation, which causes day and night, and its revolution around the sun, which causes the seasons. The Moon is described as Earth's only natural satellite, formed at the same time, rotating in about 29 days and orbiting Earth in about 28 days. The spheres of Earth - geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere - are also summarized.
The universe contains over 100 billion galaxies scattered throughout over 10 billion light years of space. It formed around 13.8 billion years ago in an event known as the Big Bang, in which all matter, energy, space and time exploded into existence from a single point. The universe has been expanding ever since, with the observable portion extending 46 billion light years from Earth due to the ongoing expansion over billions of years.
Grade 8 Integrated Science Chapter 11 Lesson 2 on the inner planets. Discusses the four inner planets, their atmosphere, interior, surface, weather, and other defining features. Includes individual slides on Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
The document discusses various facts about the Moon, including that it has been in our solar system for billions of years, it gets its light from the Sun, and its phases include the first quarter moon, new moon, last quarter moon, and full moon. The Moon's gravity causes high and low tides on Earth. NASA plans to send astronauts to learn more about living on the Moon. The Moon was formed from rocks blasted off of Earth by an impact and has been in space for over 2.5 billion years.
The universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old and contains countless galaxies, many with supermassive black holes at their centers. The Milky Way galaxy is the one that contains our solar system. According to the leading Big Bang theory, the universe began as an extremely hot and dense singularity which expanded rapidly approximately 13 billion years ago, resulting in the formation of hydrogen and helium from the cooling nuclear matter. Evidence for the expansion of the universe and the Big Bang model includes the redshift of distant galaxies and the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation.
The universe contains stars, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and galaxies. Our solar system is made up of the Sun and objects that orbit it, including the planets. The planets can be divided into inner planets like Earth that are rocky, and outer planets like Jupiter that are gas giants. Beyond our solar system are other galaxies, including the Milky Way galaxy that contains approximately 300 billion stars and is shaped like a spiral. Scientists use measurements like distance and time to study the structure and evolution of the universe.
The document discusses key concepts about the solar system including:
- The mass of the solar system is concentrated in the gas giant planets like Jupiter due to their large sizes, not densities.
- The planets orbit the sun on elliptical paths and revolve in the same direction counter-clockwise when viewed from above the north pole.
- Planets revolve around the sun at different rates, with inner planets revolving faster, and rotate at different rates, with inner planets rotating slower.
- Prograde motion is counter-clockwise rotation when viewed from above the north pole, while retrograde motion is clockwise.
The document discusses the origin and evolution of models of the universe. It begins by describing early flat earth cosmologies from ancient civilizations like Egypt, India, and Mesopotamia. It then outlines the development of the spherical earth model in ancient Greece, including ideas proposed by Pythagoras, Plato, and calculations made by Eratosthenes to estimate the earth's circumference. The document also summarizes the geocentric model developed by the Greeks with the earth at the center, and revisions made by Aristotle and Ptolemy. Finally, it outlines the heliocentric model first proposed by Aristarchus, placing the sun at the center, and the further developments of this model by Copernicus.
The document provides information about the solar system including the Sun, nine planets, and their satellites. It details key facts about each planet such as their composition, size relative to Earth, notable features, and interesting properties. For example, it notes that Jupiter contains over 70% of the mass in the solar system outside the Sun and has a significant bulge at its equator due to its rapid rotation. It also discusses Saturn's moons, winds, and magnetic field.
ORIGIN OF EARTH AND IT’S PLACE IN UNIVERSEShahid Hussain
The document discusses the origin and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life. It describes evidence that supports the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe approximately 13.8 billion years ago. It explains that galaxies, stars, and planets formed over time through evolutionary processes. The document also discusses different views on the origin and age of the universe, from both religious and scientific perspectives, including the idea of theistic evolution. It provides examples of the immense distances in the universe and compares the age of the Earth and the development of life to timescales in a hypothetical "cosmic calendar" representing the universe's age in one year.
This document discusses the exploration and discovery of planets, moons, and dwarf planets within our solar system. It describes findings such as the presence of liquid methane on Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and sedimentary rocks on Mars that indicate ancient water. It outlines plans for human colonization of Mars by 2027 through the Mars One program. Additionally, it provides details on dwarf planets such as Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris, and discusses the first exoplanet discovered in the habitable zone of a sun-like star, Kepler-22b.
The document provides an overview of the course plan for geography which includes physical geography, Indian geography, world geography, and human geography. It then summarizes the origin of the universe, solar system, and earth. Key points include:
- The universe contains galaxies, stars, planets, and other matter and energy. A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars.
- Our solar system revolves around the sun and contains 8 planets, over 160 natural satellites, asteroids, and other objects.
- Theories of the universe's origin include the nebular hypothesis, binary theory, and accretion theory for older theories, and the big bang theory and steady state theory for modern theories.
The document discusses several scientific theories that explain the origin of the solar system. It begins by describing the nebular hypothesis proposed by Kant and Laplace, which suggests that the solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust that collapsed under gravity. It then discusses the planetesimal and tidal theories which built upon this idea to explain how smaller planetesimals formed and were ejected from the sun. The protoplanet theory modified this view to incorporate modern knowledge about independent formation of matter in protoplanets within the rotating nebula.
The document provides an overview of Earth and life science topics including:
1) The Big Bang theory describes the origin and evolution of the universe from the earliest known periods to its current large-scale structure, with the Big Bang occurring approximately 13.8 billion years ago.
2) After the initial expansion of the universe, matter condensed into stars and galaxies, and atoms later formed, allowing life to develop on planets.
3) Our solar system formed 4.5 billion years ago from a cloud of gas and dust, with the sun at its center and planets, moons, asteroids and other bodies in orbit around it.
The document discusses the origin of the Moon. It provides a brief history of theories on the Moon's origin from ancient myths to modern scientific studies. The modern consensus is that the Moon formed from the debris of a giant impact between the early Earth and a Mars-sized object (giant impact theory). Computer simulations in the 1970s-1980s showed this scenario can explain the Moon's composition and the angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system. The giant impact theory remains the most widely accepted explanation for how the Moon originated.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
La película muestra cómo las vidas de varias personas se entrelazan debido a problemas relacionados con las redes sociales, como el ciberacoso, el phishing y la explotación de menores. La historia más impactante es la de Ben, un adolescente cuya foto desnuda es difundida en su escuela, llevándolo eventualmente al suicidio. El documento también discute las ventajas y desventajas del uso de redes sociales y concluye que, si bien han revolucionado la comunicación, su influencia en los jóvenes ha tenido
Yeng K. Vue is seeking a full-time, part-time, or temporary position to advance the work of a business through skills in Microsoft Office, medical terminology, customer service, data entry, clerical work, and communication. She has experience in office administration, front desk coordination, and customer service representative roles. Vue has an Associate of Applied Science degree in Medical Office Management Professionals from Saint Paul Technical Community College.
Od menedżera czasowego do wlaściciela firmyRobert Loranc
Interim Management Buy In / Out.
1. Restrukturyzacja spółki w ramach usługi Interim Management.
2. Odkupienie spółki notowanej na Warszawskiej Giełdzie Papierów Wartościowych od głównych akcjonariuszy
- Management Buy In
3. Powołanie Eksperckiego Zespołu Interim Managerów
- rozwój spółki.
4. Sprzedaż spółki inwestorowi branżowemu.
O documento discute tipos de falhas e dobras em rochas. Ele descreve três tipos principais de falhas - falhas normais, falhas inversas e falhas de desligamento - e explica como cada uma se forma. O documento também define elementos característicos de dobras como a charneira, os flancos, o plano axial e o eixo, e discute classificações de dobras.
O documento discute rochas magmáticas, incluindo suas principais texturas, diferenciação gravítica, cristais, séries isomorfas de olivinas e plagioclases, e polimorfismo. Foi escrito por Maria João Drumond para estudantes do 11o ano e inclui vários links e imagens ilustrativas.
Ryan Noonan is a software developer and game designer seeking new opportunities. He graduated from Rochester Institute of Technology in 2014 with a Bachelor's degree in Game Design and Development and experience developing patent-pending multi-touch software. His work experience includes front-end iOS development, database programming, and managing student programming projects. He is proficient in several programming languages and applications.
O documento descreve as etapas de formação das rochas sedimentares, incluindo sedimentogênese, diagênese e os tipos de sedimentos. Também aborda os processos de meteorização física e química que alteram as rochas e geram sedimentos.
El documento describe las características de las enfermedades desmielinizantes (ED) en la resonancia magnética (RM). Explica que la RM es el mejor método de imagen para diagnosticar las ED, destacando las secuencias y hallazgos característicos. También resume los criterios clínicos y de RM para el diagnóstico de esclerosis múltiple y otras formas atípicas de ED.
This document summarizes salary and benefits information for the WAWM school district and compares it to other districts in Southeast Wisconsin over several years. It finds that the WAWM starting salary ranked between 20th and 34th out of the metro area districts from 1992-2007, while the maximum salary ranked between 24th and 36th. It also compares benefits such as health insurance costs, prescription drug tiers, and the teacher work day among districts.
The Earth and Moon formed together but have since evolved differently due to key differences. The Earth has active geological processes like plate tectonics, erosion, volcanism and earthquakes that continually reshape the surface. It also has a thick atmosphere and liquid water. In contrast, the Moon is geologically inactive today with no atmosphere or water. It has been impacted frequently over its history but lacks internal geological forces, leaving ancient terrain largely unchanged. The Moon formed from debris after a giant impact with the early Earth.
The Earth and Moon formed differently and have undergone different geological processes over time. The Earth has active plate tectonics, erosion from wind and water, volcanism, and earthquakes, making it geologically active. In contrast, the Moon lacks these processes and is geologically inactive except for impacts. The Moon formed as a result of a giant impact between the early Earth and a Mars-sized object, which explains its composition and orbit. In contrast, the Earth formed through accretion in the primordial solar nebula.
The document summarizes key differences between the Earth and the Moon in terms of their formation, composition, geology, and geologic processes. It notes that the Moon has a smaller size, lower density, and different chemical composition compared to Earth. The dominant theory for the Moon's formation is that it resulted from a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized planet around 4.5 billion years ago. The document then outlines the Moon's geologic history, including early magma ocean rocks, impact basin formation, and volcanic mare basalts filling low-lying areas. In contrast to Earth, the Moon lacks plate tectonics, atmospheric or hydrologic erosion, ongoing volcanic or seismic activity, and a magnetic field.
The document provides information about Earth's moon and the planet Mercury. It discusses the different surface features of the moon like maria, craters, and highlands. It describes theories for how the moon formed, including the collision theory which is currently favored. The tidal interactions between Earth and the moon are slowing Earth's rotation and pushing the moon farther away over time. The document also summarizes key facts about Mercury, such as its extremes in surface temperatures, similarities to the moon's surface, the large Caloris impact basin, and evidence that Mercury has a large molten iron core.
This document summarizes a chapter about planetary geology. It discusses:
- The interiors of terrestrial planets and how seismic waves reveal Earth's layered structure.
- Geological processes that shape planetary surfaces, like impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.
- How the amount of impact craters on a surface indicates its geological age.
- Evidence that water once flowed on Mars from features like dry riverbeds and rocks formed in water.
- Unique features of specific planets, like Venus' resurfaced crust and lack of plate tectonics on Venus.
- How plate tectonics shapes Earth's surface through seafloor spreading, subduction, and mountain formation
This document summarizes a chapter about planetary geology. It discusses:
- The interiors of terrestrial planets and how seismic waves reveal Earth's layered structure.
- Geological processes that shape planetary surfaces, like impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.
- How the amount of impact craters on a surface reveals its geological age.
- The unique geology of specific planets, including the Moon's maria, Mercury's shrinkage, and evidence that water flowed on ancient Mars.
- How plate tectonics continually shapes Earth's surface through seafloor spreading, subduction, and mountain building.
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest moon in the solar system and has been explored by numerous spacecraft. The Moon moderates Earth's axial wobble and causes ocean tides, both of which influence the planet's climate. Its surface is dominated by impact craters and basaltic plains called maria that formed from ancient lava flows. The Moon has no significant atmosphere and its gravity is much weaker than Earth's.
The document provides information about the Moon:
- The Moon has 1/80 the mass and 1/4 the diameter of Earth. Its orbit is nearly circular with a mean distance of 384,000 km from Earth.
- The Moon causes Earth's tides and the slowing of Earth's rotation over time. The Moon's surface shows impact craters and lacks atmosphere or liquid water.
- Samples returned by Apollo astronauts show the Moon has a similar composition to Earth's mantle but is deficient in iron and volatiles like water, suggesting it formed from mantle material ejected during an ancient giant impact.
The Moon and Mercury are both characterized as dead worlds with little to no atmosphere or magnetic field. The Moon has almost no magnetic field while Mercury does have a weak global magnetic field, implying it has a molten iron core. Both bodies are heavily cratered but Mercury has some smooth volcanic plains. The interior of the Moon is only partially differentiated while Mercury's core likely contains iron and iron sulfides. Limited past missions have provided data about the features and conditions on these two bodies, but more exploration is still needed to understand their formation and evolution.
The document provides information about the Moon and its exploration history. It describes the Moon's size and distance from Earth. Key events in lunar exploration included Soviet missions in 1959 and US missions in the 1960s including Rangers, Lunar Orbiters, and Surveyors. The Apollo 11 mission in 1969 was the first to land humans on the Moon. The document discusses lunar geology, noting differences from Earth like the lack of an atmosphere, water, or plate tectonics. It describes lunar features such as maria, highlands, craters, and rilles. The formation of the Moon is also summarized.
The document summarizes key concepts about the sun and Earth's formation. It describes how the sun generates energy through nuclear fusion in its core, and how this energy reaches the surface in about 8 minutes. It also explains how Earth formed from the accretion of planetesimals, and how its core, mantle and crust layers developed as denser materials sank to the center. The oceans formed from early rainfall, and continents gradually emerged and shifted positions over billions of years.
The document provides information about planet Earth. It discusses that Earth is the third planet from the sun, the largest of the inner planets, and is known by names like the Blue Planet. It formed 4.6 billion years ago from a solar nebula and molten material that collided to form the planet. Early Earth had extreme conditions that changed over time as the atmosphere stabilized and continents formed, allowing life to emerge in the oceans. The document details Earth's structure, composition, atmosphere, seasons, and key facts about its orbit, rotation, and relationship to the moon.
Earth's internal heat comes from three main sources:
1) The accretion of dust and gas particles during the Earth's formation released gravitational potential energy and caused internal heating.
2) Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth's core and mantle, such as uranium and potassium, continues to generate heat.
3) Frictional heating from convection currents in the mantle also contributes to the Earth's internal heat. Seismic waves have allowed scientists to indirectly learn about the Earth's layered structure despite only drilling about 7 miles deep.
Astronomy - State of the Art is a course covering the hottest topics in astronomy. In this section, the Solar System is explored, including place where biology might exist.
The document discusses the differences between volcanoes, tectonics, erosion, and landforms on Mars compared to Earth, noting that Mars experiences much slower rates of change than Earth due to not having active plate tectonics. Evidence is presented that Mars once had liquid water on its surface and a molten core, but that it has changed more slowly over time than Earth without plate tectonics driving processes like volcanism and mountain building.
1) Stars spew out dust and gas as they die, which collects into clouds in the interstellar medium.
2) In these clouds, the dust and gas coalesces due to gravity into protoplanetary disks surrounding new stars.
3) Planets form within these disks from the accretion of dust and gas, eventually giving rise to systems like our own Solar System.
1) Stars spew out dust and gas as they die, which collects into clouds in the interstellar medium.
2) In these clouds, the dust and gas coalesces due to gravity into protoplanetary disks surrounding new stars.
3) Planets form within these disks from the accretion of dust and gas, eventually giving rise to systems like our own Solar System.
1) Stars spew out dust and gas as they die, which collects into clouds in the interstellar medium.
2) In these clouds, the dust and gas coalesces due to gravity into protoplanetary disks surrounding new stars.
3) The solar system formed from such a protoplanetary disk around the sun 4.6 billion years ago, with the planets, asteroids, comets and other objects taking shape over millions of years as the disk evolved.
1) Stars spew out dust and gas as they die, which collects into clouds in the interstellar medium.
2) In these clouds, dust and gas coalesces due to gravity to form new stars and planetary systems, with protoplanetary disks forming around young stars.
3) The solar system formed from a protoplanetary disk around the sun over billions of years, with the planets forming and evolving into their current configurations as explained by the nebular hypothesis.
O documento discute (1) os tipos e consumo excessivo de recursos naturais, (2) os impactos negativos desse consumo no meio ambiente, e (3) soluções como mudar tendências de consumo e aumentar a consciência ambiental.
1) O documento discute os tipos de vulcanismo, incluindo erupções efusivas, explosivas e vulcanismo residual.
2) São descritos os diferentes tipos de lava e como elas se formam, como lava encordoada, escoriácea e em almofada.
3) Detalha as características das erupções vulcânicas, desde erupções calmas até explosivas, e estruturas resultantes como domos, agulhas e nuvens ardentes.
Alfred Wegener concebeu a hipótese da deriva continental, observando que a configuração de continentes como a América do Sul e África se encaixam como peças de puzzle. Ele encontrou evidências morfológicas, geológicas, paleoclimáticas e paleontológicas para apoiar esta hipótese, porém os cientistas da época rejeitaram sua teoria por ele não ter explicado o mecanismo por trás do movimento dos continentes.
O documento descreve fatores que causam metamorfismo em rochas, incluindo tensão, calor, fluídos e tempo. Detalha como esses fatores promovem recristalização e alteração textural em rochas, formando novas rochas metamórficas. Também discute graus de metamorfismo, fácies metamórficas e tipos de metamorfismo regional e de contato.
O documento discute os tipos de tensões e deformações que as rochas podem sofrer, incluindo compressão, tração, cisalhamento, dobra e fratura. Explica que a deformação pode ser elástica, plástica ou por ruptura, dependendo do nível de tensão e fatores como temperatura e composição da rocha. Fatores internos como porosidade e estratificação e externos como fluídos também influenciam a deformação das rochas.
O documento discute a dificuldade dos alunos em construir explicações científicas completas. Uma explicação científica deve conter uma afirmação, evidências que a apoiam, e raciocínio ligando as evidências à afirmação. Os alunos precisam dominar conceitos, analisar dados e usar um esquema de raciocínio para explicar fenômenos naturais com base em princípios teóricos.
O documento discute os tipos de imunidade ativa e passiva, como a imunidade é desenvolvida através da vacinação ou exposição natural a patógenos, e como a imunidade passiva pode ser transferida de mãe para filho. Também aborda complicações como rejeição imune em transplantes e enxertos, alergias e doenças autoimunes quando o sistema imunológico é desequilibrado.
O documento descreve os mecanismos de defesa específicos do sistema imunitário, incluindo os tipos de linfócitos T e B, suas funções na imunidade humoral e celular, e como reconhecem e destroem agentes patogênicos. A imunidade humoral envolve a produção de anticorpos pelos linfócitos B, enquanto a imunidade celular se baseia na ação dos linfócitos T após a apresentação de antígenos.
Este documento descreve a população do vale do rio Hunza no Paquistão, conhecida como o "oásis da juventude", cujos habitantes vivem em média 120 anos, raramente ficam doentes e mantêm uma aparência jovem. Isto é atribuído à sua dieta à base de plantas com poucas proteínas e estilo de vida ativo.
O documento descreve os mecanismos do sistema imunitário, incluindo defesas não específicas como barreiras físicas, fagocitose, resposta inflamatória e sistema complemento, e defesas específicas mediadas por linfócitos T, B e células NK. Aborda também os principais órgãos e células envolvidas na imunidade.
This document discusses the digestive systems of several organisms including hydra, planaria and earthworms. It provides a high-level overview of the digestive tracts and processes of these organisms without going into extensive detail about each. The document gives a brief introduction to the digestive anatomy and functions of these different species.
O documento discute a engenharia genética, que envolve técnicas para identificar, isolar e manipular genes de organismos vivos. Isso permite aplicações como produzir plantas e alimentos resistentes, diagnosticar e tratar doenças, e identificar suspeitos criminosos. No entanto, também levanta questões éticas sobre a segurança e consequências destas manipulações.
As mutações cromossómicas podem ser estruturais ou numéricas. As mutações estruturais incluem translocações, deleções e inversões cromossómicas. As mutações numéricas alteram o número de cromossomas e incluem trissomias (Síndrome de Down), monossomias (Síndrome de Turner) e poliploidias. Várias síndromes genéticas são causadas por mutações cromossómicas específicas, como a trissomia 21 que causa a Síndrome de Down.
O documento discute as técnicas de engenharia genética, incluindo a manipulação e transferência de genes entre organismos usando ferramentas como enzimas de restrição e vetores de DNA. Ele também aborda aplicações como a produção de plantas e alimentos resistentes e a terapia genética, bem como reflexões éticas sobre o uso destas técnicas.
Este documento aborda várias dúvidas de biologia, incluindo questões sobre masturbação feminina, transmissão de DST em piscinas públicas e possibilidade de "partir" o pênis.
O documento descreve os principais tipos de rochas, incluindo rochas sedimentares formadas por sedimentação, rochas metamórficas formadas pela alteração de outras rochas sob aumento de temperatura e pressão, e rochas magmáticas formadas pelo arrefecimento de magma. Exemplos de cada tipo são fornecidos, como arenito, mármore e granito.
Este documento discute a medição do tempo geológico e a idade da Terra. Ele explica como a paleontologia ajuda a determinar a idade das rochas através do estudo de fósseis. Também descreve os princípios fundamentais da estratigrafia e como a datação radiométrica pode fornecer idades absolutas das rochas medindo a desintegração de isótopos radioativos.
A meteorização química ocorre através de processos como hidratação/desidratação, dissolução, formação de ácido, hidrólise, oxidação/redução. Estes processos quebram as ligações entre iões dos minerais ou alteram seu estado de oxidação, levando à formação de novos minerais ou à desintegração do mineral original. A humidade e a temperatura afetam as taxas destas reações químicas.
Este documento discute vários fósseis incluindo amonites, trilobites, corais, rudistas e arqueopterix. Foi proposto pela professora de ciências naturais e espera-se que os estudantes gostem deste trabalho sobre fósseis e animais extintos.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
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Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
1. How are they different?
By the Lunar and Planetary Institute
For use in teacher workshops
Moon Formation / Processes
2. Earth
12,756.3 km diameter
23 degree axis tilt (seasons!)
Surface temps –73 to 48 C
Thick atmosphere, mild
greenhouse effect
Liquid water – lots! - at
surface
3476 km diameter
7 degree tilt (~no seasons)
Surface temps - 107 C to –
153 C
No atmosphere
No liquid water … Ice at
poles in shadows?
Moon
5. A few data to ponder ….
Lower density – “lighter” -
relative to planets
Less iron than whole Earth,
more aluminum and
titanium
Moon’s chemical signature ~
Earth’s mantle
6. Lunar Formation Models
The moon is a sister world that formed in
orbit around Earth as the Earth formed.
The moon formed somewhere else in the
solar system then was captured into orbit
around Earth.
Early Earth spun so fast that it spun off the
moon.
17. Highlands - light,
rough (Terrae)
Mostly anorthosite
(plagioclase feldspars -
lots of calcium and
aluminum)
“In place” rocks are 4.5
to 4.3 billion years old
BIG Dark areas?
Lunar Geologic History
18. Lunar Impact Basins
Imbrium Rim Orientale Basin
Big, frequent impacts until 3.8 billion years ago
Impact events continue on all moons and planets today
24. Lowlands – dark, smooth
Maria (16%)
Basalt – fine grained dark
igneous rock rich in iron
and magnesium (stuff
that sank in magma
ocean)
Few hundred meters thick
Ro cks are 4.3 to 3.1 billion
years old … volcanic
flows as recently as 1
billion years ago!!
Lunar Geologic History
29. How are they different in terms of
geologic processes?
And WHY?
30. Earth
Active wind/water erosion
Impacts
Active volcanoes
Earthquakes
Active magnetic field
Few craters
Geologically Active!
Moon
NO Active wind/water erosion
Impacts
NO active volcanoes
Small moonquakes
NO active magnetic field
Buckets of craters
Geologically Inactive!
33. What’s Our Plan for Space?
• Fly the shuttle as safely as
possible until 2010
• Complete the ISS – 6-person
crew by 2009
• Align science, exploration, and
aeronautics to support human
space flight
• Bring the new Crew
Exploration Vehicle – CEV -
on line
• Establish a lunar program that
informs future missions to
Mars and other destinations
34. Why?
• Set up, for the first time, a full-fledged habitat on
another world.
• Test advanced spacesuits and rovers.
• Try out methods for protecting explorers from deadly
radiation.
• Learn to operate crucial life support and power
needed on Mars.
• Gauge the effects of the absence of normal gravity
on the body.
• New technology.
35. Return to the Moon
Chandryaan – 2007!
LRO – 2008 !
Identify Resources
Map the Surface
36. Return to the Moon!
• 2012 – Develop and test
technologies for resource
utilization, communications,
power
• 2014 – CEV, Ares launch
vehicle
37. • 2018 – Humans for week-long stays
• Next: 45-day stays at outposts
Editor's Notes
The Earth-Moon SystemDate: 12.16.1992Eight days after its final encounter with the Earth, the Galileo spacecraft looked back and captured this remarkable view of the Earth and Moon. The image was taken from a distance of about 6.2 million kilometers (3.9 million miles). The picture was constructed from images taken through the violet, red, and 1.0-micron infrared filters. The Moon is in the foreground, moving from left to right. The brightly-colored Earth contrasts strongly with the Moon, which reflects only about one-third as much sunlight as the Earth. Contrast and color have been computer-enhanced for both objects to improve visibility. Antarctica is visible through clouds (bottom). The Moon's far side is seen; the shadowy indentation in the dawn terminator is the south pole Aitken Basin, one of the largest and oldest lunar impact features. Image Credit: NASA
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=1879
A cross section view of the Moon’s internal structure. The outer, rocky crust averages about 60 km thick. Most of the Moon is the mantle, which is also rocky but of somewhat different composition than the crust (more magnesium, less iron and aluminum). There is probably also a small, iron rich core, a few hundred km in size at the center of the Moon.
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00094
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
The moon is enriched in Titanium, Aluminum, and related elements and depleted in iron and volatile elements (and compounds - DRY!)
The moon (~3.3) has a low density compared to earth (~5.5)
Earth/moon has anomalously large amount of angular momentum compared to other planets - conservation of momentum. Angular momentum is the measure of rotation in a system.
The combined momentum of these two closely related bodies must stay the same over time. If moon closer earlier, then earth must have been rotating faster (shorter days).
Momentum = mass x velocity
Angular momentum = mass x velocity in a circle
Earth’s high because earth + moon + impact = higher momentum
Old highlands (cratered), young basalt “seas”. 4.5 billion years ago.
Formation of the Moons's geosphere
(fig p179 McSween) The moon too developed a magma ocean during its formation due to the same sources of heat, impact, internal compression, radiogenic decay and gravitational tides. We know this because when the first moon rocks were brought back to Earth during the Apollo program they were composed almost entirely of one mineral -- Feldspar. The only way to form such a rock (called Anorthosite) is to precipitate crystals from a molten lava and then separate the cystals according to differences in density -- a process known as fractional crystallization. This would happen if feldspar crystals intially crystallized with other minerals but then floated to the surface of a large magma ocean. The denser minerals would sink and the less dense minerals would float. Eventually, when the magma ocean cooled and solidified the crustal surface would be dominated by feldspar and the rock would be Anorthosite. This separating out of minerals of different density is known to occur in magma chambers within the continetal crust on Earth, but the planetary scale of this process on the moon is mind-boggling.
(fig p178 Mc Sween) Estimates of the thickness of the Anothosite crustal layer on the moon indicate that it is ~20 km thick. To separate out a 20 km thick layer of feldspar from a molten magma requires a magma ocean that was at least 1000 km thick. So far measurement of radiometric ages of the Anorthosites indicates that the lunar crust solidified 4400 Ma ago, only 200 Ma after the formation of the solar system.
http://www.psi.edu/projects/moon/moon.html
The moon is a sister world that formed in orbit around Earth as the Earth formed. This theory failed because it could not explain why the moon lacks iron.
A second early idea was that the moon formed somewhere else in the solar system where there was little iron, and then was captured into orbit around Earth. This failed when lunar rocks showed the same isotope composition as the Earth.
A third early idea was that early Earth spun so fast that it spun off the moon. This idea would produce a moon similar to Earth's mantle, but it failed when analysis of the total angular momentum and energy involved indicated that the present Earth-moon system could not form in this way.
These were the three main models for the formation of the Moon at the time of the Apollo program. It turns out that each fails to explain some major observation about the Moon. For more about these models, see the Scientific American article by Jeff Taylor cited in the notes for slide 2. Artwork is from Taylor’s article.
Fission – 10 hour rotation worked out for E + M … to spin Moon off would have to be rotating every 4 hours
1) Moon / Earth accreted as two-planet system.
Problem: Dissimilar compositions.
2) Moon accreted separately, captured by Earth.
Problem: mechanics of orbital capture.
3) Moon spun off from Earth during Earth’s differentiation. Pacific Ocean is hole left by Moon.
Problem: Moon could not reach escape velocity.
Okay and the Pacific thing doesn’t work on fist blush - plate tectonics ...
4) Impact by a Mars-sized protoplanet bounced Moon off Earth (after Earth’s core partially formed.
Explains difference in composition, relative sizes.
http://www.psi.edu/projects/moon/moon.html
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
Of course, history is more complex
Lunar highland rocks can be divided into those that are slightly iron rich (formed soon after Moon formed – oldest is 4.5 billion years) and those that are magnesium rich and range in age from 4.5 to 4.3 – indicates different magma sources
Cooled by about 4.3 – KREEP rocks – consistent in mineralogy but scattered across highlands (potassium, rare earth elements, phosphorous)
The energy from the Moon’s initial formation caused at least the outer few hundred kilometers of material to melt. This is known as the magma ocean stage, literally a deep ocean of molten rock. This solidified during the first 50 to 100 million years of lunar history, roughly 12:30 am on our 24 hour clock. Artwork is from the Jeff Taylor article cited in slide 2.
This diagram depicts the magma ocean concept. When the Moon formed it was enveloped by a layer of molten rock (magma) hundreds of kilometers thick. As that magma crystallized, the minerals more dense than the magma sank while those less dense (such as feldspar) floated, forming the anorthosite crust. The dense minerals (olivine and pyroxene) later remelted to produce the basalts that compose the maria.
The lunar magma ocean cooled and crystallized, forming a crust about 60 kilometers thick. Asteroids continued to bombard the Moon, leaving impact craters.
Photo Credits: NASA
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/cchoice/moonrocks/moonrocks6.htm
http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html
http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/compendium.cfm
These are two examples of rocks that crystallized from the lunar magma ocean. Both are made primarily of the mineral plagioclase, which gives the lunar highlands its light gray color. The troctolite also contains some greenish olivine grains (troctolite may be later intrusion).
Plagioclase feldspar
Does not form if water is present
Single mineral – indicates it separated in a magma
This is a sample of anorthosite returned by the Apollo 15 mission. Anorthosites are composed almost entirely of one mineral, plagioclase feldspar. One way a single-mineral rock forms is by accumulation by either floating or sinking in a magma. Because anorthosite seems to be an abundant and widespread rock type in the lunar highlands, scientists believe that the Moon was surrounded completely by a huge ocean of magma soon after it formed.
Anorthosite is a coarse-grained igneous rock made largely of plagioclase feldspar (95%), with small amounts of pyroxene (4%), olivine, and iron oxides. Anorthosite makes up about 60% of Earth's crust. It was found in all the rocks returned from the Moon, including the oldest (dating back 4.4 to 4.5 billion years), and is believed to make up a significant fraction of the lunar crust. Anorthite is an end member and one of the rarer members of the plagioclase series. The plagioclase series comprises minerals that range in chemical composition from pure NaAlSi3 O8, Albite to pure CaAl2 Si2 O8 , anorthite. Anorthite by definition must contain no more than 10% sodium and no less than 90% calcium in the sodium/calcium position in the crystal structure. The various plagioclase feldspars are identified from each other by gradations in index of refraction and density in the absence of chemical analysis and/or optical measurements.
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
Of course, history is more complex
Lunar highland rocks can be divided into those that are slightly iron rich (formed soon after Moon formed – oldest is 4.5 billion years) and those that are magnesium rich and range in age from 4.5 to 4.3 – indicates different magma sources
Cooled by about 4.3 – KREEP rocks – consistent in mineralogy but scattered across highlands (potassium, rare earth elements, phosphorous)
NASA/LPI
Both Earth and Moon were struck by numerous large asteroids and comets in their early history. These impacts produced deep basins up to 1000 km across surrounded by high rings of mountains on the Moon and are visible to the human eye as prominent circular structures. Left: A view of the mountains that surround the Imbrium impact basin. The smooth, dark region on the right side of the image is younger lava flows. Right: Three mountain rings surround the Orientale impact basin. Both the Imbrium and the Orientale impacts occurred around 3.8 billion years ago, roughly 4 am on our 24 hour clock.
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
NASA / LPI
This image clearly shows both the central peak and terracing in the walls of Tycho. Tycho is in the lunar highlands, and the terrain surrounding the crater is quite rugged. The crater floor is also fairly hummocky. Multispectral images obtained by the Clementine spacecraft show that the central peak has a different composition than the surrounding material, presumably because the central peak is composed of material that originated at greater depths in the Moon's crust. (Lunar Orbiter image V-125M.)
Tycho Crater
Tycho Crater, about 85 kilometers across, is clearly visible on our Moon’s surface. The freshness of the crater and the rays of material radiating from it suggest that this is a young crater; there has been little time to erode it.
100 Ma
Clementine - http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap961204.html
Equatorial escape velocity – 2.4 km/s vs 11.2 km/s on Earth
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/Apollo15/A15_ImpMeltFS.gif
http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/compendium.cfm
The force of such large impacts can fragment the original lunar rocks and compress them into new, complex rocks known as breccias. Sometimes, portions of the rock melt and resolidify, which allows the age of the impact to be measured using radiometric dating methods (i.e., from the decay of radioactive parent elements into stable daughter elements. The amount of parent decreases with age and the amount of daughter increases with age.)
NASA / LPI
The deep parts of many large impact basins were later filled by eruptions of basaltic lava. This forms the circular Mare Imbrium (left image). At right, shadows reveal the edges of a long lava flow from the lower left to the upper right of the image. The volcanism in Mare Imbrium occurred about 3.3 billion years ago (7 am on our clock). Because of its small size, the Moon cooled quickly and was mostly dead volcanically by 3 billion years ago, although limited volcanism in isolated regions is thought to have occurred as recently as 1 to 2 billion years ago.
Lunar Volcanism
Portions of the Moon’s interior remained hot enough to produce magma for more than a billion years after it formed. Molten rock flowed onto the lunar surface through cracks in the crust, spreading out and filling the low regions in the impact basins. The lava cooled quickly, forming the fine-grained, dark rocks — basalt — sampled during the Apollo missions. The dark areas seen on the Moon are basaltic lava plains 4.2 to 1 billion
(place at 3.5)
Moon Becomes Geologically Inactive
Lunar volcanism decreased significantly by 3 billion years ago and ceased completely by about 1 billion years ago as the interior of this small body cooled. 3.0 Ga
http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/gallery/kilauea/erupt/24ds182_caption.html
Heat to melt the mantle rock came from radioactive decay of elements. Basins are areas where crust is thinned and fractured by impact – logical places for magma to work its way into….. And they are low – liquids fill low areas
Lunar Volcanism
Portions of the Moon’s interior remained hot enough to produce magma for more than a billion years after it formed. Molten rock flowed onto the lunar surface through cracks in the crust, spreading out and filling the low regions in the impact basins. The lava cooled quickly, forming the fine-grained, dark rocks — basalt — sampled during the Apollo missions. The dark areas seen on the Moon are basaltic lava plains 4.2 to 1 billion
(place at 3.5)
Moon Becomes Geologically Inactive
Lunar volcanism decreased significantly by 3 billion years ago and ceased completely by about 1 billion years ago as the interior of this small body cooled. 3.0 Ga
Fissure eruption -- Fissure eruption generating a "curtain of fire" on the Kilauea volcano, Hawaii in 1992. The Pu'u O'o volcano is located just beyond the photograph to the lower left. Courtesy of USGS.
http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Thumblinks/Puuoorift_page.html
NASA / LPI
Rare volcanic domes
Rilles – lava channels
Volcanism finished by 1 billion years ago
These images from orbit around the Moon illustrate some other areas produced by volcanism. Both would be interesting areas for future exploration.
Although eruption of most mare basalts did not produce volcanic mountains, there are a small volcanic domes in a few places. This shows the Marius Hills, a collection of relatively low domes. Rilles (sinuous lava channels) are also visible, one of which cuts across a mare ridge. (Lunar Orbiter V-214-M)
11. Marius Hills, Moon
Although most lunar volcanism produced the broad lava flows that infill the lunar maria, in a few places, such as the Marius Hills (14°N, 56°W), it is possible to find volcanic domes. In this scene we can see several lunar domes. Some of these domes are quite smooth and low, while others are more rugged and heavily cratered. Two large sinuous rilles similar to Hadley Rille (slide #12) can also be seen cross-cutting a mare ridge.
http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/compendium.cfm
http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/compendium.cfm
These rocks are typical of lunar volcanic rocks. Collected on Apollo 15, both are 3.3 billion year old basalts, similar to those produced by volcanos such as Hawaii on Earth. The lower image (sample 15016) contained some type of gas, possibly carbon monoxide, which formed the round holes known as vesicles.
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
Basalts also unusually high in titanium – 10x more than on Earth
Basalts on Moon formed in mantle – devoid of water – no hydrated minerals
Lots of volcanic glass beads – fire fountains of Hawaii – magma spewed into space and cooled immediately before any crystalline structure could form.
http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/22dec_lunartaurid.htm
The blast was equal in energy to about 70kg of TNT and was seen near the edge of Mare Imbrium (the Sea of Rains).
The object that hit the Moon was probably part of a shower of "taurids" which peppered Earth in late October and early November.
Understanding lunar impacts could help protect astronauts when Nasa sends humans back to the Moon.
Meteoroids are small rocky or metallic objects in orbit around the Sun, or another star. One of the astronomers who observed the impact estimates that it gouged a crater 3m wide and 0.4m deep.
Rob Suggs of Nasa's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, US, was testing a new 10-in telescope and video camera assembled to monitor the Moon for space strikes.
On 7 November, his first night using the telescope, he observed one.
Renewed interest
"People just do not look at the Moon anymore," said Dr Suggs, of Marshall's engineering directorate.
"We tend to think of it as a known quantity; but there is knowledge still to be gained here."
Dr Suggs used commercial software to study the video he took, and spotted a very bright flash. The burst of light diminished gradually over the course of five video frames, each 1/30th of a second in duration.
The explosion can be seen in these video framesHe and Nasa astronomer Bill Cooke consulted star charts and lunar imaging software, and determined the meteoroid was probably a taurid, part of an annual meteor shower active at the time of the strike.
Like Earth, the Moon was peppered by taurids in late October and early November.
But unlike our planet, the Moon has no atmosphere to intercept and vaporise them, so they explode on the surface.
Since the Leonids of 2001, astronomers have not spent much time hunting for lunar impacts.
However, as Nasa plans to return to the Moon by 2020, the agency says it needs to understand what happens after lunar impacts in order to protect astronauts.
Dr Suggs said planetary scientists wanted to know how often big meteoroids hit the Moon and whether they only happened during showers like the taurids or were a more common occurrence.
Bill Cooke said that while the odds of a direct hit with a big meteoroid were almost nil for an individual astronaut, they might be shorter for an entire lunar outpost.
www.nps.gov/grsa/ resources/photos_dunes.htm
http://www.nps.gov/grca/photos/index.htm
Public Domain
The Earth-Moon SystemDate: 12.16.1992Eight days after its final encounter with the Earth, the Galileo spacecraft looked back and captured this remarkable view of the Earth and Moon. The image was taken from a distance of about 6.2 million kilometers (3.9 million miles). The picture was constructed from images taken through the violet, red, and 1.0-micron infrared filters. The Moon is in the foreground, moving from left to right. The brightly-colored Earth contrasts strongly with the Moon, which reflects only about one-third as much sunlight as the Earth. Contrast and color have been computer-enhanced for both objects to improve visibility. Antarctica is visible through clouds (bottom). The Moon's far side is seen; the shadowy indentation in the dawn terminator is the south pole Aitken Basin, one of the largest and oldest lunar impact features. Image Credit: NASA
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=1879
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
http://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/index.html
NASA Clementine
LRO - More / more detailed data: temperature, radiation, distribution of hydrogen (=water), ice, other elements, characterization of surface topography to 0.5 m, properties of lunar soil
http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/156337main_Orion_with_LSAM.jpg - Orion docked with a lunar lander in orbit around the moon. Photo credit: Lockheed Martin Corp.
http://www.space.com/news/050914_nasa_cev_update.html
WASHINGTON – NASA briefed senior White House officials Wednesday on its plan to spend $100 billion and the next 12 years building the spacecraft and rockets it needs to put humans back on the Moon by 2018.
The U.S. space agency now expects to roll out its lunar exploration plan to key Congressional committees on Friday and to the broader public through a news conference on Monday, Washington sources tell SPACE.com.
U.S. President George W. Bush called in January 2004 for the United States to return to the Moon by 2020 as the first major step in a broader space exploration vision aimed at extending the human presence throughout the solar system.
NASA has been working intensely since April on an exploration plan that entails building an 18-foot (5.5-meter) blunt body crew capsule and launchers built from major space shuttle components including the main engines, solid rocket boosters and massive external fuel tanks.
That plan, called the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, was presented by NASA Administrator Mike Griffin, his space operations chief Bill Gerstenmaier and several other senior agency officials Wednesday afternoon to senior White House policy officials, including an advisor to U.S. Vice President Richard Cheney and the president’s Deputy National Security Advisor J.D. Crouch.
NASA’s plan, according to briefing charts obtained by SPACE.com, envisions beginning a sustained lunar exploration campaign in 2018 by landing four astronauts on the Moon for a seven-day stay.
The expedition would begin, these charts show, by launching the lunar lander and Earth departure stage (essentially a giant propulsion module) on a heavy-lift launch vehicle that would be lifted into orbit by five space shuttle main engines and a pair of five-segment shuttle solid rocket boosters.
Once the Earth departure stage and lunar lander are safely in orbit, NASA would launch the Crew Exploration Vehicle capsule atop a new launcher built from a four-segment shuttle solid rocket booster and an upper stage powered by a single space shuttle main engine.
The CEV would then dock with the lunar lander and Earth departure stage and begin its several day journey to the Moon.
NASA’s plan envisions being able to land four-person human crews anywhere on the Moon’s surface and to eventually use the system to transport crew members to and from a lunar outpost that it would consider building on the lunar south pole, according to the charts, because of the regions elevated quantities of hydrogen and possibly water ice.
One of NASA’s reasons for going back to the Moon is to demonstrate that astronauts can essentially “live off the land” by using lunar resources to produce potable water, fuel and other valuable commodities. Such capabilities are considered extremely important to human expeditions to Mars which, because of the distances involved, would be much longer missions entailing a minimum of 500 days spent on the planet’s surface.
NASA’s Crew Exploration Vehicle is expected to cost $5.5 billion to develop, according to government and industry sources, and the Crew Launch Vehicle another $4.5 billion. The heavy-lift launcher, which would be capable of lofting 125 metric tons of payload, is expected to cost more than $5 billion but less than $10 billion to develop, according to these sources.
NASA’s plan also calls for using the Crew Exploration Vehicle, equipped with as many as six seats, to transport astronauts to and from the international space station. An unmanned version of the Crew Exploration Vehicle could be used to deliver a limited amount of cargo to the space station.
NASA would like to field the Crew Exploration Vehicle by 2011, or within a year of when it plans to fly the space shuttle for the last time. Development of the heavy lift launcher, lunar lander and Earth departure stage would begin in 2011. By that time, according to NASA’s charts, the space agency would expect to be spending $7 billion a year on its exploration efforts, a figure projected to grow to more than $15 billion a year by 2018, that date NASA has targeted for its first human lunar landing since Apollo 17 in 1972.
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/main/index.html
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/multimedia/vision_images_search_agent_archive_1.html
Set up, for the first time, a full-fledged habitat on another world. Test advanced spacesuits and rovers. Try out methods for protecting explorers from deadly radiation. Learn to operate crucial life support and power needed on Mars. Gauge the effects of the absence of normal gravity on the body.
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00405
Original Caption Released with Image:
During its flight, the Galileo spacecraft returned images of the Moon. The Galileo spacecraft took these images on December 7, 1992 on its way to explore the Jupiter system in 1995-97. The distinct bright ray crater at the bottom of the image is the Tycho impact basin. The dark areas are lava rock filled impact basins: Oceanus Procellarum (on the left), Mare Imbrium (center left), Mare Serenitatis and Mare Tranquillitatis (center), and Mare Crisium (near the right edge). This picture contains images through the Violet, 756 nm, 968 nm filters. The color is 'enhanced' in the sense that the CCD camera is sensitive to near infrared wavelengths of light beyond human vision. The Galileo project is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.