The nervous system is composed of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS receives sensory input, integrates information, and directs motor responses. Within the CNS, the brain is responsible for higher functions like thinking and memory, while the spinal cord transmits signals between the brain and body. Neurons are the basic functional units and communicate via electrical and chemical signals across synapses. The nervous system allows animals to integrate internal and external sensory information to direct activities and maintain homeostasis.
It is a brief account on neurons. Neurons are simply brain cells. They have the ability to process and transmit information as electrical and chemical signals.These signals between neurons occur via synapses.
The document summarizes the nervous and endocrine systems and homeostasis. It describes the central and peripheral nervous systems, including different types of neurons and how electrical impulses are transmitted between neurons. It also explains how hormones are released from endocrine glands and target tissues, and how negative feedback loops maintain homeostasis, such as in regulating blood glucose and temperature. Diseases like diabetes result from disruptions to these feedback mechanisms.
This document describes the three main types of neurons - sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. It provides details on each type, including their functions and characteristics. Sensory neurons transmit signals from receptors to the brain/spinal cord, motor neurons carry signals from the brain/spinal cord to muscles and glands, and interneurons connect neurons within the central nervous system. The document also discusses the structure and function of neurons, how they communicate via electrical and chemical signals, and different neurotransmitters.
The action potential travels from one location in the cell to another, but ion flow across the membrane occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier. As a result, the action potential signal jumps along the axon, from node to node, rather than propagating smoothly, as they do in axons that lack a myelin sheath.
Function of Dendrites. In order for neurons to become active, they must receive action potentials or other stimuli. Dendrites are the structures on the neuron that receive electrical messages. These messages come in two basic forms: excitatory and inhibitory.
The Cell body (soma) is the factory of the neuron. It produces all the proteins for the dendrites, axons and synaptic terminals and contains specialized organelles such as the mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, secretory granules, ribosomes and polysomes to provide energy and make the parts, as well as a production line to assemble the parts into completed products.
The document discusses various types of inhibition in the central nervous system, including central (Sechenov's) inhibition, direct (postsynaptic) inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, Renshaw inhibition, indirect (presynaptic) inhibition, pessimal inhibition, inhibition following excitation, and lateral inhibition. It provides details on the mechanisms and functions of each type of inhibition.
This document discusses neurophysiology and summarizes key aspects of nerve cells and signal transmission. It describes the basic anatomy of neurons including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and synaptic terminals. It explains how myelin sheaths insulate neurons and how synapses facilitate chemical transmission between neurons. It also summarizes how nerve impulses are generated through changes in ion permeability and the roles of sodium-potassium pumps in restoring polarization.
It is a brief account on neurons. Neurons are simply brain cells. They have the ability to process and transmit information as electrical and chemical signals.These signals between neurons occur via synapses.
The document summarizes the nervous and endocrine systems and homeostasis. It describes the central and peripheral nervous systems, including different types of neurons and how electrical impulses are transmitted between neurons. It also explains how hormones are released from endocrine glands and target tissues, and how negative feedback loops maintain homeostasis, such as in regulating blood glucose and temperature. Diseases like diabetes result from disruptions to these feedback mechanisms.
This document describes the three main types of neurons - sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. It provides details on each type, including their functions and characteristics. Sensory neurons transmit signals from receptors to the brain/spinal cord, motor neurons carry signals from the brain/spinal cord to muscles and glands, and interneurons connect neurons within the central nervous system. The document also discusses the structure and function of neurons, how they communicate via electrical and chemical signals, and different neurotransmitters.
The action potential travels from one location in the cell to another, but ion flow across the membrane occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier. As a result, the action potential signal jumps along the axon, from node to node, rather than propagating smoothly, as they do in axons that lack a myelin sheath.
Function of Dendrites. In order for neurons to become active, they must receive action potentials or other stimuli. Dendrites are the structures on the neuron that receive electrical messages. These messages come in two basic forms: excitatory and inhibitory.
The Cell body (soma) is the factory of the neuron. It produces all the proteins for the dendrites, axons and synaptic terminals and contains specialized organelles such as the mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, secretory granules, ribosomes and polysomes to provide energy and make the parts, as well as a production line to assemble the parts into completed products.
The document discusses various types of inhibition in the central nervous system, including central (Sechenov's) inhibition, direct (postsynaptic) inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, Renshaw inhibition, indirect (presynaptic) inhibition, pessimal inhibition, inhibition following excitation, and lateral inhibition. It provides details on the mechanisms and functions of each type of inhibition.
This document discusses neurophysiology and summarizes key aspects of nerve cells and signal transmission. It describes the basic anatomy of neurons including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and synaptic terminals. It explains how myelin sheaths insulate neurons and how synapses facilitate chemical transmission between neurons. It also summarizes how nerve impulses are generated through changes in ion permeability and the roles of sodium-potassium pumps in restoring polarization.
The nervous system consists of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons transmit nerve impulses through electrical and chemical signals. The neuron has a cell body, dendrites which receive signals, and an axon which transmits signals. Schwann cells wrap around axons and form myelin sheaths to insulate axons. Myelin allows faster impulse transmission. The nervous system regulates sensation, movement, and organ function through sensory, motor and interneurons. Nerve impulses rely on ion exchange and travel through the nervous system via pathways and reflex arcs.
This document provides an overview of the main components and functions of the nervous system, including neurons, action potentials, and synaptic transmission. It discusses the central nervous system and brain anatomy, as well as some common neurological disorders. Key topics covered include the structure and roles of dendrites, axons, myelin sheaths, and nodes of Ranvier in neurons. It also explains concepts such as the resting potential, depolarization, and how action potentials are generated and propagated. Synaptic transmission and summation are summarized. The main parts and functions of the brain are outlined.
1. The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes cranial and spinal nerves.
2. Neurons conduct electrical and chemical signals to transmit information, while glial cells provide support to neurons. Myelination affects how fast impulses are conducted along neurons.
3. Neurotransmitters are released at synapses to chemically transmit signals between neurons. The signal can be excitatory and increase the chance of firing an action potential, or inhibitory and decrease excitability.
This document describes the structure and function of neurons and synapses. It discusses the key parts of neurons including the soma, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It classifies neurons as multipolar, bipolar, or pseudounipolar. Synapses are described as the junction between an axon and dendrite or cell body. The stages of synaptic transmission and types of mediators are outlined. The principles of spatial and temporal summation are introduced as ways neurons integrate multiple inputs. Reflexes are defined as automatic sensory-motor responses mediated by the central nervous system. Inhibition is described as a process that suppresses excitation.
Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They transmit electrical and chemical signals and have three main parts - the cell body, dendrites, and axon. The cell body contains the nucleus. Dendrites receive signals and the long axon conducts signals away from the cell body. Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell. This allows signals to be transmitted electrically along neurons and chemically between neurons.
The nervous system allows for coordination in the body through electrochemical signaling between neurons. It consists of neurons and neuroglia. Neurons receive and transmit signals via dendrites, the cell body, and the axon. There are three types of neurons - sensory, motor, and inter. A nerve impulse is generated through changes in the neuron's membrane potential and the opening and closing of ion channels, causing the signal to propagate along the axon. At a synapse, neurotransmitters transmit the signal to the next neuron. Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli.
The document discusses synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. It describes the cellular organization of the brain including neurons and support cells. It then focuses on synapses, explaining that they allow chemical communication between neurons through neurotransmitters. There are two main types of synapses - electrical synapses which allow direct electrical coupling, and chemical synapses which use chemical messengers. Chemical synapses are more numerous and involve neurotransmitters being released into the synaptic cleft, binding to receptors and causing excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic neuron. The properties of synaptic transmission include one-way conduction, synaptic delay, fatigue, convergence and divergence, summation, and facilitation.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its organization, components, and functions. It discusses the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system contains the brain and spinal cord, and processes sensory information and motor output. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the body and includes nerves, ganglia, and receptors. It also describes neurons, their structure and signaling processes, as well as neurotransmission and electrical signaling within the nervous system.
Nervous system 3; Synapses and NeurotransmittersJames H. Workman
Lecture notes and diagrams for Anatomy and Physiology students describing / showing the connections between nerve cells (synapses) and how neurotransmitters work. Video of animation that shows how drugs affect neurotransmitters is included, although it will not show in slideshare.
The nervous system helps maintain homeostasis and control conditions within healthy limits. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system connects them to muscles, glands, and sensory receptors. Neurons are the basic functional units and communicate via electrical signals called action potentials. The document provides detailed information on the structure and function of neurons, neurotransmission, and regeneration capabilities after injury.
A synapse transmits nerve impulses between neurons. During transmission: 1) an electrical impulse travels along an axon, 2) neurotransmitters are released, and 3) these chemicals bind to receptors on the next neuron, stimulating it. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine relay signals between neurons and control functions like mood, sleep, and movement. Drugs like ecstasy and cocaine affect synapses by preventing neurotransmitter reabsorption, increasing their levels in the synapse. Nobel Prizes have been awarded for discoveries relating to neurotransmitters, synaptic transmission, and their roles in conditions like Parkinson's and memory formation.
Nerve muscle physiology /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental...Indian dental academy
This document discusses nerve and muscle physiology. It defines key terms like neurons, dendrites, axons, and action potentials. It explains that neurons transmit nerve impulses via action potentials generated by the movement of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane. The document also describes how graded potentials lead to action potentials when the threshold is reached, causing voltage-gated ion channels to open. It notes that action potentials propagate in an all-or-none manner via saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers.
The human neural system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord for information processing and control, while the PNS comprises nerves associated with the CNS. Nerve fibers of the PNS are afferent (transmit impulses to the CNS) and efferent (transmit impulses from the CNS). The PNS is further divided into the somatic and autonomic systems. Neurons are the basic structural and functional units, composed of a cell body, dendrites, and axon. Impulses are generated and conducted along neurons when the membrane becomes permeable to ions, then restored to its
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its main components and functions. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), and neurons. The three main functions of the nervous system are to receive stimuli, integrate input, and respond to stimuli. The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS links the CNS to receptors and effectors. Neurons transmit signals through electrical and chemical processes. The document also describes the pathways of nervous transmission and different types of neurons and reflexes.
Synapses can be classified anatomically or functionally. Anatomically, synapses are classified based on where the axon of one neuron contacts the other neuron. Functionally, synapses are either electrical or chemical. Chemical synapses transmit signals via neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, while electrical synapses allow direct ion flow between neurons. Synaptic transmission can be excitatory or inhibitory, with inhibition occurring via inhibitory neurotransmitters that hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neuron.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the nervous system in vertebrates and humans. It describes the evolution of nervous systems from simple nerve nets in invertebrates to centralized nervous systems in vertebrates. Key points include:
- The human central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which receive sensory input and initiate motor responses.
- Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals. They communicate at synapses using neurotransmitters.
- The peripheral nervous system connects to and works with the central nervous system to receive sensory information and generate motor outputs.
The nervous system is a highly organized network of billions of nerve cells that functions as the control center of the body. It has two main divisions - the central nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system outside of these. Nerve cells called neurons are specialized to conduct electrical signals called action potentials that allow communication within the nervous system. Neurons have cell bodies and long processes called axons that transmit signals. They communicate with other neurons at junctions called synapses using chemical messenger molecules. The coordinated functions of sensation, integration and response enabled by this neuronal signaling allow the nervous system to monitor and control all bodily functions.
Synapses are junctions between neurons that allow for communication through either electrical or chemical transmission. Anatomically, synapses can be classified based on where the axon of one neuron connects to the other neuron, such as onto the cell body, dendrite, or axon. Functionally, synapses are either electrical, using gap junctions, or chemical, using neurotransmitters. Chemically, synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory based on the neurotransmitters released, with excitatory synapses transmitting impulses and inhibitory synapses inhibiting transmission. Key properties of synapses include one-way conduction, synaptic delay, fatigue due to depletion of neurotransmitters, summation effects from multiple stimulations, and the generation of
Synaptic transmission involves the transfer of information from the axon terminal of one neuron to the next neuron across the synaptic cleft via the release of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are contained in vesicles and are released into the synaptic cleft upon the arrival of an action potential, where they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing ion channels to open and generate postsynaptic potentials. The integration of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials determines whether the postsynaptic neuron reaches its firing threshold. Chemical synaptic transmission allows for flexibility, plasticity, and amplification of neuronal signals compared to electrical transmission.
The document provides an overview of endocrinology, summarizing the major endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, and pancreas. It also covers some common endocrine disorders like hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, Addison's disease, diabetes mellitus, and discusses some relevant laboratory tests.
The document provides information on cardiovascular anatomy and physiology for veterinary technicians. It discusses the major components and functions of the cardiac system including the heart chambers and valves, conduction system, blood vessels, and cardiac cycle. It also covers some common cardiac pathologies such as heart failure, valvular disease, patent ductus arteriosus, and persistent right aortic arch.
The nervous system consists of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons transmit nerve impulses through electrical and chemical signals. The neuron has a cell body, dendrites which receive signals, and an axon which transmits signals. Schwann cells wrap around axons and form myelin sheaths to insulate axons. Myelin allows faster impulse transmission. The nervous system regulates sensation, movement, and organ function through sensory, motor and interneurons. Nerve impulses rely on ion exchange and travel through the nervous system via pathways and reflex arcs.
This document provides an overview of the main components and functions of the nervous system, including neurons, action potentials, and synaptic transmission. It discusses the central nervous system and brain anatomy, as well as some common neurological disorders. Key topics covered include the structure and roles of dendrites, axons, myelin sheaths, and nodes of Ranvier in neurons. It also explains concepts such as the resting potential, depolarization, and how action potentials are generated and propagated. Synaptic transmission and summation are summarized. The main parts and functions of the brain are outlined.
1. The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes cranial and spinal nerves.
2. Neurons conduct electrical and chemical signals to transmit information, while glial cells provide support to neurons. Myelination affects how fast impulses are conducted along neurons.
3. Neurotransmitters are released at synapses to chemically transmit signals between neurons. The signal can be excitatory and increase the chance of firing an action potential, or inhibitory and decrease excitability.
This document describes the structure and function of neurons and synapses. It discusses the key parts of neurons including the soma, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It classifies neurons as multipolar, bipolar, or pseudounipolar. Synapses are described as the junction between an axon and dendrite or cell body. The stages of synaptic transmission and types of mediators are outlined. The principles of spatial and temporal summation are introduced as ways neurons integrate multiple inputs. Reflexes are defined as automatic sensory-motor responses mediated by the central nervous system. Inhibition is described as a process that suppresses excitation.
Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They transmit electrical and chemical signals and have three main parts - the cell body, dendrites, and axon. The cell body contains the nucleus. Dendrites receive signals and the long axon conducts signals away from the cell body. Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell. This allows signals to be transmitted electrically along neurons and chemically between neurons.
The nervous system allows for coordination in the body through electrochemical signaling between neurons. It consists of neurons and neuroglia. Neurons receive and transmit signals via dendrites, the cell body, and the axon. There are three types of neurons - sensory, motor, and inter. A nerve impulse is generated through changes in the neuron's membrane potential and the opening and closing of ion channels, causing the signal to propagate along the axon. At a synapse, neurotransmitters transmit the signal to the next neuron. Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli.
The document discusses synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. It describes the cellular organization of the brain including neurons and support cells. It then focuses on synapses, explaining that they allow chemical communication between neurons through neurotransmitters. There are two main types of synapses - electrical synapses which allow direct electrical coupling, and chemical synapses which use chemical messengers. Chemical synapses are more numerous and involve neurotransmitters being released into the synaptic cleft, binding to receptors and causing excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic neuron. The properties of synaptic transmission include one-way conduction, synaptic delay, fatigue, convergence and divergence, summation, and facilitation.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its organization, components, and functions. It discusses the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system contains the brain and spinal cord, and processes sensory information and motor output. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the body and includes nerves, ganglia, and receptors. It also describes neurons, their structure and signaling processes, as well as neurotransmission and electrical signaling within the nervous system.
Nervous system 3; Synapses and NeurotransmittersJames H. Workman
Lecture notes and diagrams for Anatomy and Physiology students describing / showing the connections between nerve cells (synapses) and how neurotransmitters work. Video of animation that shows how drugs affect neurotransmitters is included, although it will not show in slideshare.
The nervous system helps maintain homeostasis and control conditions within healthy limits. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system connects them to muscles, glands, and sensory receptors. Neurons are the basic functional units and communicate via electrical signals called action potentials. The document provides detailed information on the structure and function of neurons, neurotransmission, and regeneration capabilities after injury.
A synapse transmits nerve impulses between neurons. During transmission: 1) an electrical impulse travels along an axon, 2) neurotransmitters are released, and 3) these chemicals bind to receptors on the next neuron, stimulating it. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine relay signals between neurons and control functions like mood, sleep, and movement. Drugs like ecstasy and cocaine affect synapses by preventing neurotransmitter reabsorption, increasing their levels in the synapse. Nobel Prizes have been awarded for discoveries relating to neurotransmitters, synaptic transmission, and their roles in conditions like Parkinson's and memory formation.
Nerve muscle physiology /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental...Indian dental academy
This document discusses nerve and muscle physiology. It defines key terms like neurons, dendrites, axons, and action potentials. It explains that neurons transmit nerve impulses via action potentials generated by the movement of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane. The document also describes how graded potentials lead to action potentials when the threshold is reached, causing voltage-gated ion channels to open. It notes that action potentials propagate in an all-or-none manner via saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers.
The human neural system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord for information processing and control, while the PNS comprises nerves associated with the CNS. Nerve fibers of the PNS are afferent (transmit impulses to the CNS) and efferent (transmit impulses from the CNS). The PNS is further divided into the somatic and autonomic systems. Neurons are the basic structural and functional units, composed of a cell body, dendrites, and axon. Impulses are generated and conducted along neurons when the membrane becomes permeable to ions, then restored to its
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its main components and functions. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), and neurons. The three main functions of the nervous system are to receive stimuli, integrate input, and respond to stimuli. The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS links the CNS to receptors and effectors. Neurons transmit signals through electrical and chemical processes. The document also describes the pathways of nervous transmission and different types of neurons and reflexes.
Synapses can be classified anatomically or functionally. Anatomically, synapses are classified based on where the axon of one neuron contacts the other neuron. Functionally, synapses are either electrical or chemical. Chemical synapses transmit signals via neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, while electrical synapses allow direct ion flow between neurons. Synaptic transmission can be excitatory or inhibitory, with inhibition occurring via inhibitory neurotransmitters that hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neuron.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the nervous system in vertebrates and humans. It describes the evolution of nervous systems from simple nerve nets in invertebrates to centralized nervous systems in vertebrates. Key points include:
- The human central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which receive sensory input and initiate motor responses.
- Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals. They communicate at synapses using neurotransmitters.
- The peripheral nervous system connects to and works with the central nervous system to receive sensory information and generate motor outputs.
The nervous system is a highly organized network of billions of nerve cells that functions as the control center of the body. It has two main divisions - the central nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system outside of these. Nerve cells called neurons are specialized to conduct electrical signals called action potentials that allow communication within the nervous system. Neurons have cell bodies and long processes called axons that transmit signals. They communicate with other neurons at junctions called synapses using chemical messenger molecules. The coordinated functions of sensation, integration and response enabled by this neuronal signaling allow the nervous system to monitor and control all bodily functions.
Synapses are junctions between neurons that allow for communication through either electrical or chemical transmission. Anatomically, synapses can be classified based on where the axon of one neuron connects to the other neuron, such as onto the cell body, dendrite, or axon. Functionally, synapses are either electrical, using gap junctions, or chemical, using neurotransmitters. Chemically, synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory based on the neurotransmitters released, with excitatory synapses transmitting impulses and inhibitory synapses inhibiting transmission. Key properties of synapses include one-way conduction, synaptic delay, fatigue due to depletion of neurotransmitters, summation effects from multiple stimulations, and the generation of
Synaptic transmission involves the transfer of information from the axon terminal of one neuron to the next neuron across the synaptic cleft via the release of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are contained in vesicles and are released into the synaptic cleft upon the arrival of an action potential, where they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing ion channels to open and generate postsynaptic potentials. The integration of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials determines whether the postsynaptic neuron reaches its firing threshold. Chemical synaptic transmission allows for flexibility, plasticity, and amplification of neuronal signals compared to electrical transmission.
The document provides an overview of endocrinology, summarizing the major endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, and pancreas. It also covers some common endocrine disorders like hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, Addison's disease, diabetes mellitus, and discusses some relevant laboratory tests.
The document provides information on cardiovascular anatomy and physiology for veterinary technicians. It discusses the major components and functions of the cardiac system including the heart chambers and valves, conduction system, blood vessels, and cardiac cycle. It also covers some common cardiac pathologies such as heart failure, valvular disease, patent ductus arteriosus, and persistent right aortic arch.
The document summarizes the key structures and functions of the respiratory system. It describes:
1) The respiratory system works to supply oxygen to cells through external respiration in the lungs and internal respiration in tissues, while eliminating carbon dioxide.
2) The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles which branch into tiny alveoli in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
3) Respiration is controlled by both mechanical and chemical systems to regulate breathing and acid-base balance through carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
This document provides an overview of the male and female reproductive systems in animals. For the male anatomy, it describes the testes, scrotum, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis and other structures. It also discusses sperm production, testosterone production and common male pathologies. For the female, it outlines the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and vulva. It explains the estrous cycle, hormones, pregnancy, parturition and common female reproductive issues. It concludes with descriptions of vaginal cytology and semen analysis for laboratory evaluation.
The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement, and storage. The skeleton is composed of bones and cartilage. There are two types of bones - compact bone which makes up the outer layer and is very dense, and cancellous bone which is less dense and found in the interior. Bones are composed of cells including osteoblasts which form bone, osteocytes which are mature bone cells, and osteoclasts which resorb bone. The skeletal system is divided into the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, and ribs, and the appendicular skeleton which includes the limbs. Bones provide structure, protect organs, allow for movement, store minerals, and produce blood cells.
This document contains a 50-minute English assessment for students at Taman Desa Secondary School consisting of 4 sections. Section A contains word matching and opposites questions. Section B contains reading comprehension questions about giraffes. Section C requires rearranging words to form sentences. Section D contains subject-verb agreement questions. The assessment was prepared by the English teacher and checked by the head of the language department at the school.
The document discusses the nervous system, including its main components and functions. It is divided into two main parts:
1. The central nervous system (CNS) consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The brain's main parts are the cerebrum, brain stem, cerebellum, and ventricles.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of 31 pairs of spinal nerves, 12 pairs of cranial nerves, and the autonomic nervous system including the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
The nervous system functions to communicate sensory information to the CNS, integrate and interpret stimuli, and respond through motor outputs. It uses neurons, synapses, neurotransmitters, and neuro
This document provides an overview of the main components and functions of the nervous system, including neurons, action potentials, and synaptic transmission. It discusses the central nervous system and brain anatomy, as well as some common neurological disorders. Key topics covered include the structure and roles of dendrites, axons, myelin sheaths, and nodes of Ranvier in neurons. It also explains concepts such as the resting potential, depolarization, and how action potentials are generated and propagated. Synaptic transmission and summation are summarized. The main parts and functions of the brain are outlined.
- Nerve cells transmit electrical signals through long fibers called axons. The cell body contains organelles that produce proteins transported via axoplasmic flow to nerve endings. Myelination increases conduction velocity. Injury can cause temporary (neuropraxia) or permanent (neurotmesis) dysfunction. Regeneration involves Wallerian degeneration clearing debris, axon regrowth, and reinnervation.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, and receives and processes sensory information. The PNS transmits signals between the CNS and body. Within the nervous system are neurons, which transmit signals, and glial cells, which support neurons. Neurons communicate via electrical and chemical signals to coordinate bodily functions.
basic nervous system-CNS-PNS -cell bodie- axon-dendron-grye matter- white mat...shailesh sangle
The nervous system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that coordinates and regulates the body's responses to internal and external stimuli. It is responsible for the control and coordination of all the body's functions, including movement, sensation, thought, and behavior.
The nervous system can be divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS consists of all the nerves that extend from the CNS to the rest of the body.
The nervous system is made up of different types of cells, including neurons and glial cells. Neurons are specialized cells that transmit signals through the body in the form of electrical impulses. Glial cells, on the other hand, support and protect the neurons and help maintain the proper functioning of the nervous system.
The nervous system is responsible for many vital functions, including:
Sensory processing: The nervous system receives sensory information from the environment and the body's internal organs, and processes and interprets this information to generate appropriate responses.
Motor control: The nervous system controls the muscles and other organs of the body to produce movement and other responses.
Cognitive functions: The nervous system is responsible for the processes of learning, memory, language, and other complex mental activities.
Autonomic functions: The nervous system regulates the body's automatic functions, such as breathing, heart rate, digestion, and other bodily processes that are not under conscious control.
Overall, the nervous system is a complex and intricate system that plays a critical role in maintaining the body's homeostasis and overall well-being.
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The nervous system consists of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons transmit nerve impulses through electrical and chemical signals. The neuron has a cell body, dendrites which receive signals, and an axon which transmits signals. Schwann cells wrap around axons and form myelin sheaths to aid impulse conduction. The nervous system regulates sensation, movement, and organ function through sensory, motor and interneurons. Nerve impulses rely on ion exchange and are transmitted across synapses using neurotransmitters. The central and peripheral nervous systems work together to control all bodily functions.
The nervous system consists of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons transmit nerve impulses through electrical and chemical signals. The neuron has a cell body, dendrites which receive signals, and an axon which transmits signals. Schwann cells wrap around axons and produce myelin sheaths for insulation and faster signal transmission. The nervous system has sensory, inter, and motor neurons and performs functions like receiving information and transmitting instructions. Diseases can disrupt myelin sheaths and impair signaling.
The nervous system consists of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons transmit nerve impulses through electrical and chemical signals. The neuron has a cell body, dendrites which receive signals, and an axon which transmits signals. Schwann cells wrap around axons and produce myelin sheaths for insulation and faster signal transmission. The nervous system has sensory, inter, and motor neurons and performs functions like receiving information and transmitting instructions. Diseases can disrupt myelin sheaths and impair signaling.
The document summarizes the organization and function of the nervous system. It discusses how the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). It also describes the basic components of neurons, including the cell body, dendrites, axon, and myelin sheath. It explains how neurons communicate via graded potentials and action potentials in response to stimuli and how synapses facilitate communication between neurons.
The nervous system is organized into two main parts - the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and acts as the command center that processes sensory input and directs motor output. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and senses the external environment via sensory receptors. Communication between neurons is mediated by electrical and chemical signals. The nervous system works with the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis via reflexes and other rapid or slower responses.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is made up of the cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brain stem. The spinal cord contains nerves that carry messages between the brain and body. The PNS consists of nerves that connect to the CNS and control both voluntary and involuntary functions.
The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system, including:
1) It describes the basic structures and functions of neurons, neuroglia, the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem.
2) It explains the organization and direction of signals in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including afferent, efferent, somatic, and autonomic nerves.
3) It outlines the processes of neuronal signaling including resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, synaptic transmission, and types of neurotransmitters.
4) It defines structures like the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid, and reflexes like stretch, withdrawal, and crossed extensor
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The document summarizes the main systems and structures of the human body. It discusses the organization of cells into tissues, organs and organ systems. It then provides details on the 11 major organ systems, including their structures and functions. It also describes the central and peripheral nervous systems, neurons, nerve impulses, and the senses.
This document provides an overview of the central nervous system. It discusses the main components and functions.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is made up of the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem and cerebellum. The spinal cord contains ascending and descending tracts that transmit sensory and motor signals between the brain and body.
The brain and spinal cord contain grey matter with neuron cell bodies and white matter with myelinated axons. Neuroglia provide support to neurons. The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.
Neurons are the basic functional units and come in different types. They transmit signals through electrical
The nervous system consists of neurons and glial cells like Schwann cells. Neurons have dendrites, cell bodies, and axons coated with myelin sheaths from Schwann cells. The nervous system functions to receive sensory input, transmit and interpret signals between neurons, and send motor output. Nerve impulses travel along neurons via changes in ion concentrations. Neurotransmitters transmit signals across synapses between neurons. The nervous system regulates both voluntary and involuntary functions through sensory, inter, and motor neurons.
The nervous system consists of neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit electrical signals via nerve impulses. They have dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Glial cells like Schwann cells provide insulation and support to neurons. The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves). It has sensory, interneuron, and motor functions. Nerve impulses travel along myelinated axons via saltatory conduction. Neurotransmitters transmit signals at synapses between neurons. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions.
The document discusses the nervous system and sense organs. It begins by describing the basic functions and components of the nervous system, including neurons, action potentials, and synapses. It then provides details on the types of neurons, glial cells, and how the resting membrane potential and action potentials work. The document also discusses the evolution of nervous systems in invertebrates and vertebrates. It concludes by describing the peripheral nervous system and different types of sense organs.
The document describes the structure and function of the nervous system. It can be divided into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Neurons are the basic functional units that connect and transmit information via electrical and chemical signals. Communication between neurons occurs at synapses, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals between neurons. Reflex actions are automatic responses that occur quickly through defined neural pathways without conscious thought.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system:
1. It describes the nervous system as a network of billions of nerve cells that functions as the control center of the body, integrating homeostasis, movement, and other functions.
2. The peripheral nervous system communicates between the central nervous system and the rest of the body, and can be divided into sensory and motor divisions.
3. Within neurons, the cell body contains organelles and receives inputs, while the axon conducts electrical signals to transmit outputs to other neurons.
2. The Nervous System
A complex communication and control
system.
It monitors the animal’s internal and
external environments and directs
activities to maintain the well-being of
the body.
3. 2 Main Divisions
Central Nervous System-
Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System-
Consists of cord-like nerves that link the
CNS with the rest of the body.
4. Functions
Sensory Functions-
The nervous system senses changes from
inside/outside the body and conveys this
information to the spinal cord or brain.
Integrating Functions-
In the brain and spinal cord, the sensory
information is received, analyzed, stored,
and integrated to produce a response.
5. Functions…
Motor Response Functions-
Instructs the body to do something, such
as contract a muscle or cause a gland to
secrete its product(s).
7. Neuroglia
“Glial cells”, glia- greek for glue!
Structurally and functionally supports
and protects neurons.
Outnumbers neurons 10:1.
Not directly involved in the transmission
of information or impulses.
8. Neurons
Nerve cells.
The basic functional
units of the nervous
system.
Has a high
requirement for
oxygen.
9. Neuron Structure
Central cell body- “stoma”
Dendrites-
Receive stimuli, or impulses, from other
neurons and conduct the stimulation to the
cell body.
May also be modified into sensory
receptors that receive, or sense, stimuli
such as heat, cold, touch, pressure…
Short, numerous, multi-branched
projections extending from the cell body.
10. Neuron Structure…
Axons-
Conduct nerve impulses away from the cell
body toward another neuron or effecter
cell.
A cell that does something when stimulated.
A single process can be very long.
Often covered by a fatty substance called
myelin (white matter).
11. Neuron Structure…
Myelin sheath-
Actually cell membranes of specialized glial
cells called oligodendrocytes in the brain &
spinal cord, and Schwann cells in nerves
outside of the brain and spinal cord.
These special glial cells are wrapped around
the axon.
12. Neuron Structure…
Nodes of Ranvier-
Small gaps in the
myelin sheath
between adjacent
glial cells.
Works with the
myelin sheath to
enhance the speed of
conduction of nerve
impulses along the
axon.
15. CNS vs. PNS
CNS- anatomically composed of the brain and
spinal cord.
PNS- made up of components of the nervous
system that extend away from the CNS,
towards the periphery of the body.
Cranial nerves- nerves of the PNS that
originate directly from the brain.
Spinal Nerves- nerves of the PNS that
originate from the spinal cord.
16. Afferent vs. Efferent
Afferent nerves-
Conduct nerve impulses towards the CNS.
Conducts sensations from the sensory
receptors in the skin and other locations in
the body to the CNS.
Also called sensory nerves.
17. Afferent vs. Efferent…
Efferent nerves-
Conduct impulses from the CNS out toward
muscles and other organs.
They cause skeletal muscle contractions
and movement.
20. Resting State
When a neuron is not being stimulated, it is in
a resting state.
The cell membranes of neurons are
electronically polarized when at rest (like
tiny, charged batteries).
Specially charged molecules located in the
neuron’s cell membrane pump sodium (Na+)
ions from inside the neuron to the outside.
They also pump potassium (K+) ions from the
outside to the inside.
21. Resting State…
This specialized molecule is called the
sodium-potassium pump.
The action of the sodium-potassium
pump causes a higher concentration of
Na+ to accumulate outside the cell.
The pump’s actions and the negative
charges inside the cell cause a higher
concentration of K+ to accumulate inside
the cell.
22. Resting State…
This keeps the cellular membrane
between Na+ and K+ polarized.
The distribution of positive and
negative charges creates a difference
in electrical charge across the
membrane.
Inside the cell- negative
This electrical difference in charges is
called the resting membrane potential.
23. Depolarization
When an impulse from an adjoining neuron
stimulates another neuron, a set of specific
steps occurs, resulting in the nerve “firing” or
depolarizing.
The Na+ channel opens and allows only Na+
ions to pass through it by passive diffusion
into the cell.
Depolarization refers to this opening of the
Na+ channels and the sudden influx of many
Na+ ions.
24. Depolarization…
The inside of the neuron goes from a
negative charge to a positive charge.
The significant change in electrical
charge is also referred to as the action
potential.
25. Repolarization
Within a fraction of a second, the Na+
channels snap shut, halting the influx.
At the same time, potassium channels
open and only allow K+ ions to pass
through them.
K+ ions passively diffuse out of the cell
by a concentration gradient and positive
cell charge.
26. Repolarization…
The outflow of K+ ions continues until
the channels close a split-second after
they have opened.
This causes the charge inside the cell to
swing back in the negative direction.
The change of the cell’s charge back to
negative is called repolarization.
27.
28. All-or-Nothing Principle
Not every depolarization stimulus
results in a complete depolarization-
repolarization cycle.
The initial stimulus must be sufficient
enough to make the neuron respond.
When the stimulus is strong enough to
cause complete depolarization, it is said
to have reached the threshold.
29. All-or-Nothing Principle…
Regardless of how strong the initial
stimulus was, if it was sufficient enough
to achieve threshold, the action
potential would be generated and
conducted along the entire length of
the neuron with a uniform strength.
30. All-or-Nothing Principle…
This phenomenon is called the all-or-
nothing principle, because either the
neuron completes a depolarization to
the maximum strength, or it does not
depolarize at all.
31. Refractory Period
If a second threshold stimulus arrives
at the dendrites while the Na+ channels
are open or while K+ molecules are
moving through their open channels, the
stimulus is incapable of a second
depolarization.
33. The Synapse…
Once the action potential has been
successfully conducted to the end of the
axon, the nerve impulse must be transmitted
to the next neuron or to the cells of the
target organ or tissue.
Because two neurons do not physically touch,
the depolarization wave is unable to continue
to the next neuron.
Instead, the neuron must release a chemical
that stimulates the next neuron or cell.
34. The Synapse…
This perpetuation is called a synaptic
transmission.
The synapse is the junction between
two neurons or a neuron and a target
cell.
The synapse consists of a physical gap
between the two cells called the
synaptic cleft.
35. The Synapse…
Presynaptic neuron- the neuron
bringing the depolarization wave to the
synapse and releasing the chemical to
stimulate the next cell.
Neurotransmitter- the chemical
released from the presynaptic neuron.
Postsynaptic neuron- the neuron that
contains the receptors that receive the
neurotransmitter.
36. The Synapse…
On the postsynaptic membrane are
specialized proteins called receptors.
The neurotransmitter binds with these
receptors and trigger a change in the
postsynaptic cell.
The postsynaptic membrane receptors
are very specific about which
neurotransmitters they will allow to
bind.
37. Neurotransmitters
Can be classified
into 2 categories-
Excitory- usually
causes an influx of
Na+ so that the
postsynaptic
membrane moves
toward the
threshold.
Inhibitory- moves
the charge away from
the threshold.
38. Neurotransmitters…
Acetylcholine-
Excitory or inhibitory, depending on its
location in the body.
Excitory- at the junction between somatic
motor neurons that stimulates muscle fibers to
contract.
Inhibitory at the site where nerves synapse
with the heart and slows the heart rate.
39. Neurotransmitters…
Catacholamines-
Norepinepherine- associated with the “fight-or-
flight” reactions of the sympathetic nervous
system.
Epinepherine- released primarily from the adrenal
medulla to participate in the “fight-or-flight”
response.
Dopamine-
Found in the brain.
Involved in autonomic functions and muscle control.
Low dopamine= Parkinson’s disease.
40. Neurotransmitters…
GABA & Glycine-
GABA- gamma-aminobutyric acid.
GABA is found in the brain, glycine is found
in the spinal cord.
41. Neurotransmitters…
One postsynaptic membrane may have
multiple types of presynaptic neurons
across the synaptic cleft.
By having both, the nervous system can
selectively increase or decrease the
activity of specific parts of the brain or
spinal cord.
42. Stopping & Recycling
Neurotransmitters
The body needs a way to stop the
neurotransmitter or the excitory or
inhibitory effect would continue.
In the case of acetylcholine, it is
broken down into the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase.
“-ase”- enzyme
43. Stopping Neurotransmitters
If nothing breaks down
neurotransmitters, the effect
would continue indefinitely.
Ex.- This is what happens with
organophosphate toxicity:
The insecticide combines with
acetylcholinesterase and inactivates it.
Overstimulation of acetylcholine receptors
results in vomiting, diarrhea, difficulty
breathing, and constricted pupils.
44. THE BRAIN
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brainstem
46. Cerebrum
Made up of gray and white matter
fibers.
The largest part of the brain.
Responsible for higher-order behaviors:
Learning
Intelligence
47. Cerebrum…
Receives and interprets sensory
information-
Initiates nerve impulses to skeletal
muscles.
Integrates neuron activity normally
associated with:
Communication
Emotional expression
Memory
48. Cerebrum…
The wrinkled appearance is due to folds called
gyri, separated by deep grooves called
fissures and more shallow grooves called sulci.
The most prominent groove is the longitudinal
fissure which divides the cerebrum into the
right and left cerebral hemispheres.
Each hemisphere is divided by sulci into lobes.
Different lobes specialize in certain
functions.
49. Cerebellum
Located caudal to the cerebrum.
The second largest component of the
brain.
Allows the body to have coordinated
movement:
Balance
Posture
Complex reflexes
50. Diencephalon
Serves as a nervous system passageway
between the primitive brainstem and
the cerebrum.
Pituitary- the endocrine “master gland”
that regulates hormone production and
release.
Thalamus- acts as a relay station for
regulating sensory inputs to the
cerebrum.
51. Diencephalon…
Hypothalamus- and interface between
the nervous and endocrine systems.
Plays a major role in:
Temperature regulation
Hunger
Thirst
52. Brainstem
The connection between the brain and
spinal cord.
The most primitive part of the brain.
Composed of: the medulla oblongata,
pons, and midbrain.
Maintains basic body support functions.
53. Brainstem…
Heavily involved in autonomic control
functions related to:
The heart
Respiration- including coughing, sneezing,
and hiccuping.
Blood vessel diameter
Swallowing
Vomiting
54. Meninges
A set of connective tissue layers that
surround the brain and spinal cord.
They contain a rich network of blood
vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients
to the superficial tissues of the brain
and spinal cord.
55. Cerebrospinal Fluid
The brain and spinal cord are bathed and
protected from the hard inner surfaces of
the skull and spinal column by CSF.
It circulates between layers of meninges and
through cavities inside the brain and spinal
cord.
The chemical composition may be involved in
the regulation of certain autonomic function,
such as respiration and vomiting.
56. Blood-Brain Barrier
A functional barrier separating the capillaries
in the brain from the nervous tissue itself.
The composition results in a cellular barrier
that prevents many drugs, proteins, ions, and
other molecules from readily passing from the
blood into the brain.
In this way, the BBB protects the brain from
many poisons circulating in the bloodstream.
Ex.- Ivermectin
Parasites and insects don’t have a BBB so the drug kills them
by allowing it to reach target receptors in the brain.
57. Cranial Nerves
A special set of 12 nerve pairs in the
peripheral nervous system that
originate directly from the brain.
58. Cranial Nerves
Colville p. 155
Nerve Type Function
I Olefactory Sensory Smell
II Optic Sensory Vision
Eye movement, pupil
III Occulomotor Motor size, focusing
lens
IV Trochlear Motor Eye movement
S: eye & face
V Trigeminal Mixed
M: chewing
VI Abducens Motor Eye movement
59. Face and scalp
movement,
VII Facial Mixed
salivation, tears,
& taste
VII
Vestibulocochlear Sensory Balance/hearing
I
S: 1/3 caudal tongue
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed taste
M: swallowing &
salivation
S: GI tract, resp.,
M: larynx, pharynx,
X Vagus Mixed parasympathetic motor
to the abdominal
viscera & thoracic
organs
Skeletal muscles of the
XI Spinal Accessory Motor neck and shoulder
Accessory with vagus
Skeletal muscles of the
XII Hypoglossal Motor
tongue
60. I Olfactory bulb
II Optic chiasma
Pituitary gland
Cranial
nerves III
Cerebral
IV peduncle
V
VI Pons
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI Pyramid
XII
61. Spinal Cord
The caudal continuation of the brain
stem outside the skull.
It conducts sensory information and
motor instructions between the brain
and the periphery of the body.
63. Autonomic Nervous System
Controls many functions of the body on
a subconscious level.
These autonomic functions are
performed by two divisions:
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
These two systems generally have
opposite effects on eachother.
66. Cerebral Trauma/ Hemorrhage
Severe bruising
of the brain
causes capillary
rupture &
bleeding of the
brain resulting in
increased ICP
(intracranial
pressure)
67. Cerebellar Hypoplasia
The cerebellum does not grow
properly
Due to in utero viral infections or
injury, or just bad genetics
Panleukopenia in cats
Herpesvirus infections in dogs
Vaccinating pregnant animals w/ MLV
Problems are first noticed when the
young animal starts to ambulate
69. Hydrocephalus
Commonly referred
to as “water on the
brain”
Characterized by a
dome-shaped head
Either too much CSF
is produced or there
is inadequate
drainage
70. Cerebral Hypoxia
Lack of oxygen to
the brain
Numerous causes-
clots (“stroke”),
heart disease,
renal disease,
hyperthyroidism in
cats, parasites, etc.
71. Brain Tumors
Can arise from any type of neuro cells
Clinical signs depend on the location,
size, and degree of pressure they are
putting on the brain
Glial tumors include astrocytomas &
oligodendrogliomas
Meningiomas are another type of tumor
73. Strychnine Poisoning
Strychnine blocks an inhibitory
neurotransmitter (glycine) in the
medulla & spinal cord
So you end up with excitation of
neurons which results in muscle
rigidity & seizures
Animals die from lack of oxygen to
vital body parts and exhaustion
75. Rabies
Rhabdovirus
Furious Rabies- aggressive, snarling,
seizuring, drooling animal
Dumb Rabies- depression, dementia,
hind-end weakness, & drooling
Some animals will show obsessive
licking/self mutilation of an old wound
No ante-mortem tests- need the
brain
77. Rabies (cont)
Bad Raccoon! A Negri Body inside a neuron.
When seen this viral inclusion
body can mean only Rabies!
78. Distemper
Caused by a Paramyxovirus
The virus depletes the immune
system so the puppy is very prone to
secondary infections
Starts out respiratory, then GI signs,
then neurological signs
“hard pads” usually occur end-stage
79. Distemper (cont)
Difficult to diagnose
ante-mortem
Serology can be
very unrewarding
Can do
immunoflourescent
assays for the virus
in conjunctival
scrapings (or wait
for necropsy)
80. Equine Encephalitis
Caused by a virus
3 forms: Eastern, Western, &
Venezuelan
Horses have a fever, appear sleepy, and
may show incoordination of the rear-
end; it can progress to full paralysis and
death
81. Seizures
A seizure is an episode of abnormal
electrical activity in the brain resulting in:
loss or altered consciousness
increased muscle tone
involuntary urination & defecation
Most seizures are grand mal but some may
be petit mal where there is not a complete
loss of consciousness and may only involve a
limb shaking or small body tremors
82. Seizures (cont)
Seizures have either an intracranial
or an extracranial cause
Intracranial seizures are caused by
primary CNS disease (problem is
inside the brain itself)
Extracranial seizures are caused by
organ dysfunctions or toxins which
have secondary effects on the brain
(problem is outside the brain)
83. Intracranial Causes of Seizures
Brain tumors- primary or those that
metastasize to the brain
Bacteria (abscesses)
Viruses (distemper)
Protozoa (toxoplasmosis)
Fungal
Hydrocephalus
Idiopathic epilepsy
86. Wobbler Syndrome
In horses, known as Cervical Stenotic
Myelopathy
In dogs, known as Caudal Cervical
Spondylomyelopthy
Either way, it’s a malformation of the
cervical spine causing cord compression
87. Wobbler (cont)
Breeds of dogs include
Dobermans, Great Danes,
& Basset Hounds
Affected dogs are mostly
young adults
Signs range from hind-end
weakness to tetraplegia,
neck pain, & the neck is
flexed ventrally
88. Wobbler (cont)
Seen in young,
rapidly growing
horses, especially
Thoroughbreds
Over nutrition is a
big contributing
factor
Signs consist of limb
weakness and
incoordination
89. Vertebral Fractures
Usually secondary to trauma (HBC) or
bone pathology (osteomyelitis)
Spinous process fractures do not usually
cause problems
Problems arise when the spinal cord
becomes compressed or is also
fractured
91. Spinal Cord Concussion
Usually secondary to trauma, such as HBC
Due to severe bruising of the cord, the
motor nerves do not function properly
These dogs can look completely paralyzed
but radiographs +/- CT scan will show no
abnormalities
With time and steroids, there will be
improvement
92. Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD)
Affects dogs, rarely cats
Disease can occur anywhere in the
spinal tract but the lumbosacral and
cervical regions are most common
Can have partial or complete
herniation of the disc up into the
spinal cord
Typically a degenerative process
Dachshunds, Beagles, Pekingese, etc.
93. IVDD (cont)
Clinical signs can be acute or chronic
Severity of signs depends on the degree of
spinal cord compression
Signs progress from ataxia/incoordination &
loss of conscious proprioception >> paresis
(muscle weakness) >> paralysis >> loss of deep
pain sensation
Animals with acutely compressed cords can
be very painful while there may be little to
no pain with chronic compression
96. Degenerative Myelopathy
Most common in German Shepherds & Welsh
Corgis
A progressive degeneration of the axons &
myelin of the white matter of the SC
Dogs are usually > 5 yrs old and develop a
gradual onset of non painful ataxia &
weakness in the pelvic limbs
Poor prognosis; most are euthanized within 1-
3 yrs
97. Spinal Neoplasia
Relatively common in dogs & cats
Tumors are classified according to their
relationship with the spinal cord & meninges
Extradural: outside the dura mater; compress SC;
most common SC tumor in dogs/cats
Intradural-extramedullary: in the subarachnoid
space; compress SC
Intramedullary: inside the SC itself; least
common type