Lower federal courts
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The document summarizes the structure and roles of the lower federal court system in the United States. It outlines that there are two types of lower federal courts - constitutional courts and legislative courts. Constitutional courts include district courts which handle trials, courts of appeal which hear appeals of district court cases, and the Court of International Trade. District courts are located throughout the country and use both grand and petit juries. The majority of federal cases are handled in district courts. Courts of appeal further review district court decisions and can affirm, reverse, or remand cases. Legislative courts are created by Congress to help exercise specific powers like taxes and military affairs. Judges are appointed by the president.
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Judicial branch
This document provides an overview of the US judicial branch and court system. It discusses that the judicial branch exists to ensure equal justice and protect people's rights. There are three levels of federal courts: district courts, courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest court and can rule on the constitutionality of laws. It explains key aspects like how cases are chosen and decided through majority opinions.
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The document summarizes the structure and jurisdiction of the US federal court system. It discusses the 94 federal district courts which have original jurisdiction over criminal and civil cases. It also describes the 12 federal courts of appeals which have appellate jurisdiction and hear cases appealed from lower courts. Additionally, it briefly outlines two other constitutional courts: the Court of International Trade which hears trade law cases, and the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit which has nationwide jurisdiction over cases from several other courts.
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The US federal court system begins with district courts that hear both civil and criminal cases. Losing parties can appeal district court decisions to courts of appeals, and the Supreme Court chooses some cases to review appellate court decisions. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review to determine if laws are constitutional and can strike down laws, establishing precedent for future cases.
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The document discusses the formation and structure of the US Judicial Branch. It notes that Article III of the Constitution created the Supreme Court and gave Congress power to establish lower courts. The Judiciary Act of 1789 then formed the basic judicial structure still used today. The Supreme Court has 9 justices appointed for life who can only be removed through impeachment. Judicial Review, established in Marbury v. Madison, gave the Supreme Court the power to determine the constitutionality of laws and assert itself as an equal branch of government by interpreting the vague Article III. This interpretation has been used in thousands of cases since 1803 to define the Judicial Branch's role.
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After the Chinese Civil War, the Communists led by Mao Zedong defeated the Nationalists and established control over mainland China, implementing policies like land redistribution that increased their popularity with peasants. However, Mao's Great Leap Forward in the late 1950s that collectivized agriculture and increased industrial output was a failure, resulting in a massive famine that caused the deaths of tens of millions. In the 1960s, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution to purge China of "bourgeois" elements and reassert Communist ideology, leading to widespread social and political turmoil.
The cold war unfolds
After WWII, the world divided into two opposing superpowers - the democratic United States and its Western allies in NATO, and the communist Soviet Union and its Eastern bloc allies in the Warsaw Pact. They engaged in a nuclear arms race throughout the Cold War and came close to nuclear conflict during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Additionally, the Soviet Union suppressed rebellions in Eastern Europe and invaded Afghanistan, while the U.S. fought shooting wars by proxy in Korea and Vietnam as the Cold War took on a global scale.
From appeasement to war
The document discusses key events leading up to World War 2, including Germany annexing Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia through appeasement policies by Britain and France. It also discusses the Spanish Civil War where Germany and Italy supported Franco's Nationalists against the Soviet-backed Loyalists, resulting in over 500,000 deaths. The non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union is mentioned, before the summary concludes that World War 2 officially began when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
Postwar social changes
The document summarizes several social changes that occurred in the 1920s, including the rise of jazz culture during the Roaring Twenties, influential modernist literature from authors like T.S. Eliot and F. Scott Fitzgerald, the Harlem Renaissance which saw a flowering of African American artistic expression, breakthroughs in science from figures like Marie Curie and Albert Einstein, and the development of new visual art styles like Cubism, Abstract art, Dada, and Surrealism.
Nationalism in africa and the middle east
Nationalism grew in Africa and the Middle East in response to European colonialism and imperialism. Africans fought against being controlled by European countries and losing their right to vote and land. Segregationist policies in South Africa, like apartheid, aimed to ensure white supremacy through laws that restricted better jobs and living areas to whites only. African nationalism movements emerged seeking unity, independence, and an end to colonial rule, including pan-Africanism, Marcus Garvey's calls for "Africa to Africans," and Egypt gaining independence from Britain in 1922.
Making the peace
The document summarizes some of the major costs and consequences of World War I. It discusses the massive human costs in deaths and injuries between 1914-1918. It also outlines the political turmoil that emerged as governments collapsed in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The document describes how the Allied powers met at the Paris Peace Conference to determine the fate of Europe after the war, but excluded the Central Powers and Russia, leading to disagreements between Wilson, Clemenceau and George over the treatment of Germany in the eventual Treaty of Versailles.
A new kind of war
This document discusses how World War I involved new countries and new technologies compared to previous wars. It moved from a war of movement to a stalemate on the Western Front as trenches were dug for protection from rapid fire guns and long range artillery. New weapons like poison gas, tanks, airplanes, and submarines were introduced as the first major war after the Industrial Revolution. Trench warfare led to a stalemate on the battlefield as both sides dug into zig zag trenches separated by contested "no man's land" for over four years on the Western Front.
Life in the industrial age
The document outlines many of the key technological and scientific advances that occurred during the Industrial Revolution, including developments in steel production, dynamite, electricity, automobiles, airplanes, communication technologies like the telegraph and telephone, and advances in medicine. Many of these advances originated in Western Europe, particularly Great Britain, before spreading to other industrializing nations like Germany, France, the United States, Japan, and Australia.
Ch 19, 4 new ways of thinking
Laissez-faire economics advocated for minimal government intervention in the economy based on the ideas of Adam Smith. Thomas Malthus believed population growth would outpace food supply, while David Ricardo wrote about an "Iron Law of Wages." Utilitarianism held that laws should maximize happiness for the greatest number. Socialists believed the means of production should be owned collectively rather than privately. Karl Marx viewed socialism as inevitable and realistic in contrast to utopian socialists, laying out his theories in The Communist Manifesto. Marxism later inspired revolutions around the world before declining as people felt stronger national ties than ideological ties to communism.
Social impact of the industrial revolution
The Industrial Revolution led to overcrowded and unsanitary conditions in urban areas as people migrated to cities to work in factories and mines. New social classes emerged, including industrial workers who faced long hours, dangerous machinery, pollution, and poor living conditions in overcrowded tenements. While unions were initially banned, worker protests grew, including the Luddites who destroyed machinery. Child labor was also common, with many starting work as young as age 5 to support their families. Some reforms followed, but conditions remained difficult for industrial workers.
Frechrevevents
The National Assembly formed as the Third Estate broke away from the Estates General, and took the Tennis Court Oath to create a constitution. The storming of the Bastille sparked revolts across France. The National Assembly abolished feudalism and adopted the Declaration of Rights of Man, though it ignored calls to include women's rights. Food shortages led to the March on Versailles and the royal family's move to Paris.
Frenchrevolutionpics
France was facing a financial crisis in the late 1700s due to excessive spending, debt, and a poor harvest. Taxes had risen sharply but were largely paid only by peasants while the nobility and clergy were exempt. King Louis XVI called the Estates General to address the crisis. The Estates General divided France into three groups: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Tensions were rising between the privileged first two estates and the burdened third estate of commoners.
Ch18sec2
The document summarizes the radical phase of the French Revolution from 1792-1794. It describes the rise of radical groups like the Paris Commune and the Jacobins, the execution of King Louis XVI after a split over his fate, and the establishment of the Committee of Public Safety led by Robespierre. This period saw the Reign of Terror where tens of thousands perceived as enemies of the revolution were executed. Robespierre's growing paranoia led to his own downfall and execution in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror.
Ch17sec2
The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that applied scientific reasoning to human society. Key thinkers like Isaac Newton, John Locke, and philosophers called "Philosophes" used reason to critique religious and political institutions and argue for ideas like separation of powers, religious tolerance, and equality. Their works spread new ideas through growing publications and salons, though most Europeans still identified as Christian. The Enlightenment had wide-ranging effects on science, politics, economics, and society.
Ch17sec3
The document summarizes the impact of the Enlightenment on architecture, art, music, literature, philosophy, and politics in the 18th century. Architectural styles became more ornate with fancy decorations, light, and bright colors. In art, Rococo style emphasized grace, charm, and pleasure. The greatest period of European music included Baroque and Classical styles from composers like Bach, Handel, Haydn, and Mozart. Novels grew more popular among the middle class, exemplified by Henry Fielding. Enlightened monarchs like Frederick the Great and Joseph II tried to incorporate Enlightenment principles while maintaining power, with varying degrees of success or failure. International conflicts included the War of Austrian Succession and Seven
The age of absolutism
Philip II of Spain assembled a huge naval force called the Spanish Armada to invade England in 1588, in response to English attacks on Spanish ships and cities, but the Spanish Armada was defeated by the English navy, marking the beginning of the decline of the Spanish empire. Religious wars erupted between Catholics and Protestants in France, culminating in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, until Henry IV converted to Catholicism while still granting religious toleration. Louis XIII strengthened the French monarchy by appointing the powerful Cardinal Richelieu as his advisor and designating the young Louis XIV as the next king.
Struggle for north america
France claimed territory in North America called New France, which included the Great Lakes region, Mississippi River Valley, and Louisiana. New France was profitable for fur trapping, trading, and fishing. Only Catholics were allowed to settle there under King Louis XIV. England established its first permanent colony at Jamestown in 1607 focused on tobacco, while the Pilgrims founded Plymouth in 1620 seeking religious freedom. The colonies practiced self-government, with each having its own representative assembly to make local decisions.
The search for spices
The document summarizes the key motivations and events that led to the Age of Exploration. It discusses how the search for spices drove Portuguese exploration down the coast of Africa. It then outlines some of the major voyages including Diaz rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, Vasco da Gama reaching India, and Columbus sailing west hoping to find a route to Asia but landing in the Caribbean instead. Finally, it briefly discusses the rise of the slave trade and growing European colonial presence in Africa.
The renaissance in the north
The printing press, invented by Johann Gutenberg, mass produced books and made them more affordable. This helped spread ideas and contributed to the Northern Renaissance. Flanders was a center of this intellectual movement, where artists like Jan van Eyck, Pieter Bruegel, and Peter Paul Rubens flourished. Albrecht Dรผrer was a renowned German painter and engraver who portrayed religious themes. Humanists like Erasmus and Thomas More promoted educational and religious reform through their writings.
Reformation ideas spread
The document discusses the English Reformation and the rise of Protestant sects. It describes how King Henry VIII established the Church of England after breaking from Catholicism to divorce his wife. It also discusses his six marriages and the reigns of his children Edward VI and Mary Tudor, with Mary trying to return England to Catholicism. The document concludes that Elizabeth brought a religious compromise and unity to England with the Elizabethan Settlement that made it a Protestant nation with Catholic traditions.
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skeleton System.pdf (skeleton system wow)
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ุชูุถูุญูุง ุจุดูู ุชูุตููู ุฌุฏุงู (ุชูุนุชุจุฑ ูุฏู ุงูุทุงูุจ ุฃู ุงูุทุงูุจุฉ ุจุฅููุง ู
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Lower federal courts
- 1. Ch. 11, sec 2
- 2. ๏ The constitution created the Supreme Court, but Congress created all the lower federal courts. ๏ 2 types of lower federal courts: ๏ Constitutional Courts ๏ Legislative courts
- 3. ๏ Constitutional Courts include: ๏ 1. Federal District Courts ๏ 2. Federal Courts of Appeal ๏ 3. The Court of International trade
- 4. ๏ Trial Court- ๏ 94 Districts throughout the U.S. ๏ Two types of juries ๏ Grand jury ๏ 16-23 people ๏ Determines if there is enough evidence to send a person to trial ๏ Petit Jury ๏ 6 or 12 people ๏ Determines guilty or not guilty
- 5. ๏ Over 80% of all cases go to district courts ๏ Most of the time they make the final decision-few cases are appealed. ๏ Appointed officials who work for the district court: ๏ Attorney for each district court ๏ - defends the govt. and prosecutes people charged with crimes ๏ U.S. magistrate- ๏ issues arrest warrants ๏ Bankruptcy judge ๏ U.S. marshal- ๏ makes arrests , gets jurors, keeps order in court
- 6. ๏ Created to deal with all the people trying to appeal to the Supreme Court ๏ 13 Courts of Appeal throughout the U.S. ๏ 12 circuits courts, 1 national appeals court (U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit)
- 7. ๏ Each cases usually has 3 judges who make the decision ๏ Court has 3 options: ๏ 1. uphold the original decision ๏ 2. reverse the original decision ๏ 3. send it back to a lower court for a re-trial
- 8. ๏ Used be called the U.S. Customs Court ๏ Located in NYC ๏ Deals with cases regarding tariffs โ people who think the tariffs for bringing goods in/out of the country are too high
- 9. ๏ Help congress exercise its powers ๏ Power to tax- U.S. Tax Court ๏ Power to regulate armed forces- Court of Military Appeals ๏ Power to govern territories- Territorial Courts ๏ Power to supervise D.C. โ Courts of the District of Columbia ๏ Other Courts- ๏ Court of Federal Claims- $ damages ๏ Court of Veteranโs Appeals ๏ Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court- spies and terrororists
- 10. ๏ Appointed by president- usually from same political party ๏ Itโs a way for the president to have a lasting affect even after their presidential term is over ๏ Life term ๏ Most have had LOTS of judicial experience ๏ Former attorneys, law school professors, congress members, and judges