This document provides an overview of the U.S. legal system, including various theories of law, the goals of the current legal system, and definitions of key concepts. It discusses how law has evolved from early societies through Roman and English common law to the current American system. It describes the state and federal court structures, with three levels of jurisdiction at each - lower courts, appellate courts, and a highest court. The document also distinguishes between criminal and civil law, outlining differences in burden of proof and jurisdiction.
Difference between Laws and Human Rights - David Ford Avon CTDavid Ford Avon Ct
David Ford Avon Ct is the one of best lawyer in the Glastonbury town who provide legal services. He is best know for his community service and help he provide to the immigrants.
Difference between Laws and Human Rights - David Ford Avon CTDavid Ford Avon Ct
David Ford Avon Ct is the one of best lawyer in the Glastonbury town who provide legal services. He is best know for his community service and help he provide to the immigrants.
Business Law I Introduction to LawHello class and welcome to t.docxRAHUL126667
Business Law I
Introduction to Law
Hello class and welcome to the week one lecture for Business Law I. We will begin with an introduction to the law and the American Legal system. Law is a grouping of rules governing relationships among individuals and between individuals and their society. The function of the law is to maintain stability while allowing for change when necessary. As we will discuss, this law originates from many sources.
To start, America has a rich common law tradition. Common law dates back to the English Court system. This common law developed through the slow accumulation of decisions over many hundreds of years. At bottom, judges generally apply the principle of Stare Decisis or the application of principles applied in earlier cases with similar facts. These earlier cases are known as precedent. This principle is important because it allows for a modicum of stability in the law as the idea is that similar cases will be decided in similar ways. However, this system allows gives the common law some flexibility. Judges may decide that old precedent is no longer applicable, for example, due to changes in society’s attitudes or in technology. When this situation occurs, the judge can create a new precedent.
The constitution provides another source of law. The federal constitution creates the rules for governing the country. It specifies which powers each branch of government may wield, and any state or federal law found to be in conflict with the constitution by the courts will be found to be invalid. A third source of law is statutory law. This source of law includes the statutes and ordinances of Congress and state legislatures. This is a very important source of law, and much of the work of the courts is consumed by interpreting these statutes.
The final source of law to discuss is the administrative law. The development of this law has become increasingly important. As the economy began to grow more complex, Congress devolved some of its powers to administrative agencies (generally under the supervision of the executive branch) to regulate the economy. For example, the Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to keep the air safe. This mandate empowers the EPA to pass and enforce regulation protecting society from airborne pollutants. Although this area of law gets less coverage from the press, it can be critically important as these regulations have a monumental impact on the economy. Judges are frequently called upon to determine if the agencies have exceeded the scope of their mandate.
Another important distinction involves the relationship between the federal and state courts. Each state and the federal government has its own court system. And each of these entities will often have different statues, common law, administrative law, and constitutions. States are generally required to follow the decisions of other court’s due to the full faith and credit clause ...
Essay Questions Exam #1 Due Sunday Oct 19th @ 10pm Emmanuel .docxbridgelandying
Essay Questions Exam #1
Due Sunday Oct 19th @ 10pm
Emmanuel
1. What are the differences between domestic law and international law? What are the sources for international law?
Domestic law is enforced by legit government. Codified by a legitimate government. Domestic law is dominated by dominated by culture. No true international law
International law – 1) a nation can consent to be bound by international law (agree to a treaty)
2)a convention (comes out of the UN) UN has to be signed by each country- international contract. 3) also consent by custom & practices.
2. What is "enfranchisement"? Discuss the amendments in the US Constitution that applies to
Enfranchisement- to admit to the privileges of a citizen and especially to the right of suffrage
Amendments
· 15th – blacks
· 19th –deals with women rights
· 23th –Washington D.C. can vote
· 24th – abolish property tax vote
· 26th – Lower voting age to 18 years
David Lopez
3. What is “ethics”? What is “morality”? What are the differences between ethics, morality and the law? Briefly discuss legal obligations, professional obligations and organizational obligations.
As mentioned in chapter 5, at the most basic level, ethics constitutes right or wrong behavior. It is a branch of philosophy focusing on morality and the way moral principles are derived and implemented. Ethics has to do with the fairness, justness, rightness, or wrongness of an action. Morals are influenced by culture or society, however they are principal’s set individually by person to person. Business ethics and business law are closely intertwined because ultimately the law rests on social beliefs about right and wrong behavior in the business world.
4. What is "pleadings"? Discuss the contents of a complaint.
The complaint and answer, taken together, are known as the pleadings.
-The facts showing that the court has subject- matter and personal jurisdiction
-The facts establishing the plaintiff’s basis for relief,
-The remedy the plaintiff is seeking.
5. Discuss at least four reasons why the court will apply equitable remedies. Note:UMIRU
Equitable remedies include specific performance, an injunction, and rescission. Specific performance involves ordering a party to perform an agreement as promised. An injunction is an order to a party to cease engaging in a specific activity or to undo some wrong or injury. Rescission is the cancellation of a contractual obligation.Todays courts will not grant equitable remedies unless the remedy at law (monetary damages )is inadequate.
6. Briefly discuss the major publication, practices and invention that had an influence on the US Constitution.
Ideas from many people and several existing documents, including the Articles of Confederation and Declaration of Independence had major influences on the publication for the constitution.
7. What is evidence law? What criteria must be met for evidence to be admissible.
The law of evidence provides principle ...
25 of countries around the world have a common law legal system (.docxtamicawaysmith
25% of countries around the world have a common law legal system (v. 75% civil law system) , which is based on the idea that law is created with the time, and, in it, judges play an important row.
America’s constitution dates from 1787 and it has been amended 26 times. It’s short, so it must be interpreted. By who? For federal judges (which are different from state judges), which are named by the president and stand their Jobs for life, so they are very independent.
The US is a federal system composed of 50 States, each of which has its own political identity and legal structure (own courts –in Illinois, judges run for elections-, legislator, Governors, law…).
Federal law (for the whole US) also exists, as well as Federal Courts.
In 1787, 13 states decided to give out some of their powers in order to create a federal state: (1) Foreign/international policy and (2) enumerated powers (tax, expenditure, defense -army, navy…-). However, states still have lots of powers.
US CONSTITUTION:
Article 1.- Legislative branch (Congress). There is ;
· a Senate (2 senators for state in order to make sure that all states have equal voice 100 senators; they run for office every 6 years)
· and a House of Representatives, with 435 members who are voted based on population; each state has, at least, one representative (700.000 per congressman, except for Wyoming, with less population); they run for office every 2 years, which is a problem, as the always have to raise money. There are electoral districts whose boundaries are drawn by the state legislators every 10 years, and there is a problem related to it: the gerrymandering problem, which exists when governments change those districts in order to get more seats in the Congress (some of them are called “safe seats”, when they have been drawn by state legislators to benefit they party and are not really subject to change)
Article 2.- Executive brand (President)
Article 3.- Judicial brand
These branches are:
-Coequal in relation to one another. Neither branch exercises superiority.
-Separate (Montesquieu).
Article 6.- The Supremacy Clause: Federal law (Constitution, Federal statute -law passed by congress- and treaties) is supreme over State law.
All the branches have say if the laws are constitutional. The President, when signing a law, has to do so as well. And if there is conflict, the Supreme Court decides.
The supreme court is the only one mentioned in the Constitution. But the Congress can create as many federal courts as necessary.
There are three levels for the Federal Court:
· Supreme court. Decibe between 75 and 100 cases each year. Th “wears two hats”:
· Highest court of appeal.
· Highest court of constitutional interpretation.
There are 9 judges (right now there are 8, and the 9th has not been named for political reasons: republicans did not want to have the candidate Obama wanted to appoint), appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate. They serve for life unless
· Co ...
Chapter TenThe Federal JudiciaryBrian M. MurphyLearnin.docxTawnaDelatorrejs
Chapter Ten
The Federal Judiciary
Brian M. Murphy
Learning Objectives
After covering the topic of the federal judiciary, students should
understand:
1. The relationship of state courts to the federal judiciary.
2. The jurisdiction of federal courts.
3. The structure of the federal judicial system.
4. The procedures of the U.S. Supreme Court.
5. The powers of the federal judiciary.
Abstract
The udicial y e i he i ed a e i a ed he d c ri e
federalism. Two court systems exist side-by-side, national and state, and
each has a distinct set of powers. State courts, for the most part, are
responsible for handling the legal issues that arise under their own laws. It
is primarily when a federal uestion is presented that the federal udicial
system can become in ol ed in a state court. therwise, state udiciaries
are generally autonomous even from one another. The Constitution
precisely outlines the types of cases that can be heard by federal courts,
yet it is almost impossible to force a federal court to hear a case that falls
under its urisdiction if the udge s wants to avoid it. The authority of
the U.S. Supreme Court has slowly grown over time, largely through the
power of udicial review. onetheless, federalism has managed to remain
a signi cant barrier against federal courts becoming too powerful. The
udicial system designed by the framers continues to survive and function
after 200 years.
Introduction
The federal judicial system is the least commonly known and least
understood branch of American government. In 2007, 78% could not
name the current Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court but 66% were
able to identify at least one of the judges on the T show American
Idol (Jamieson, 2007). Much of judicial work is conducted out of the
limelight and courts are not considered an important in uence in the daily
lives of people. It is clear the framers believed that the federal judicial
system would be the weakest of the three branches because, as Alexander
amilton wrote, it has no in uence over either the sword or the purse
(Hamilton, 1961, 465). In other words, courts cannot command an army
(or even police) to ensure that decisions are enforced or allocate money to
implement one of their rulings. Judges must depend on the other branches
in order to get anything done. According to an oft-repeated story, President
Andrew Jackson supposedly mocked a decision by Chief Justice John
Marshall with the words, John Marshall has made his decision, now let
him enforce it’’ (Schwartz, 1993, 94).
But times and the role of the federal judiciary have changed. One
scholar even concluded that the United States is now operating under a
government by judiciary’’ because the U.S. Supreme Court can revise
the Constitution by how it interprets the wording (Berger, 1997). As Chief
Justice Charles vans Hughes once uipped, e are under a Constitution,
but the Constitution is what the judges say it is’’ (Hughes, 1916, 185). .
Chapter TenThe Federal JudiciaryBrian M. MurphyLearnin.docxmccormicknadine86
Chapter Ten
The Federal Judiciary
Brian M. Murphy
Learning Objectives
After covering the topic of the federal judiciary, students should
understand:
1. The relationship of state courts to the federal judiciary.
2. The jurisdiction of federal courts.
3. The structure of the federal judicial system.
4. The procedures of the U.S. Supreme Court.
5. The powers of the federal judiciary.
Abstract
The udicial y e i he i ed a e i a ed he d c ri e
federalism. Two court systems exist side-by-side, national and state, and
each has a distinct set of powers. State courts, for the most part, are
responsible for handling the legal issues that arise under their own laws. It
is primarily when a federal uestion is presented that the federal udicial
system can become in ol ed in a state court. therwise, state udiciaries
are generally autonomous even from one another. The Constitution
precisely outlines the types of cases that can be heard by federal courts,
yet it is almost impossible to force a federal court to hear a case that falls
under its urisdiction if the udge s wants to avoid it. The authority of
the U.S. Supreme Court has slowly grown over time, largely through the
power of udicial review. onetheless, federalism has managed to remain
a signi cant barrier against federal courts becoming too powerful. The
udicial system designed by the framers continues to survive and function
after 200 years.
Introduction
The federal judicial system is the least commonly known and least
understood branch of American government. In 2007, 78% could not
name the current Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court but 66% were
able to identify at least one of the judges on the T show American
Idol (Jamieson, 2007). Much of judicial work is conducted out of the
limelight and courts are not considered an important in uence in the daily
lives of people. It is clear the framers believed that the federal judicial
system would be the weakest of the three branches because, as Alexander
amilton wrote, it has no in uence over either the sword or the purse
(Hamilton, 1961, 465). In other words, courts cannot command an army
(or even police) to ensure that decisions are enforced or allocate money to
implement one of their rulings. Judges must depend on the other branches
in order to get anything done. According to an oft-repeated story, President
Andrew Jackson supposedly mocked a decision by Chief Justice John
Marshall with the words, John Marshall has made his decision, now let
him enforce it’’ (Schwartz, 1993, 94).
But times and the role of the federal judiciary have changed. One
scholar even concluded that the United States is now operating under a
government by judiciary’’ because the U.S. Supreme Court can revise
the Constitution by how it interprets the wording (Berger, 1997). As Chief
Justice Charles vans Hughes once uipped, e are under a Constitution,
but the Constitution is what the judges say it is’’ (Hughes, 1916, 185). ...
Ehsan Kabir Solicitor is explaining the Common Law vs. Positive Law. Ehsan Kabir understands that clients may be limited in their financial means. In order to ensure they too benefit from his knowledge and experience, Ehsan Kabir works alongside his clients to find and deliver a cost-effective solutions to their problems. By working together with clients Mr. Kabir provides clients with opportunities to keep control of their finances.
2. Theories
Throughout history, law has regulated human
interactions for different reasons:
Protect society’s interests
Deter antisocial behavior
Enforce moral beliefs
Uphold individual rights
Support those in power
Punish lawbreakers
Or seek retribution for wrongdoing
3. Two Prominent Theories
Consensus Theory
Holds that individuals in a society agree on basic
values, on what is inherently right and wrong, and the
laws that express these values
Social contract exists where individuals agree to give
up a portion of their individual freedom to benefit the
security of the group
Conflict Theory
Holds that laws are established to keep the dominant
class in power
Explains how laws protect the interests and values of
the dominant groups in society
4. Current Legal System Goals
Scales
of
Justice
Ensure fairness in balancing
individual and society rights and
needs, while preventing excessive
government power
Scales of justice represent keeping
individual and societal needs in
balance
5. Law Defined
In the US, laws are created by legislative
bodies empowered by the people to pass
laws.
These laws are made through a legal process
called: Promulgate
American law must be enforced through legal
means, in accordance with the tenets of the
Constitution
6. Development of the Law
Laws evolves through four phases:
1.
2.
3.
4.
People come together seeking collective
security, to collectively gather food and to
satisfy other mutual needs
They discover that they need rules to maintain
order and their sense of security
Inevitably some individuals break the rules
Consequences are established for breaking the
rules
7. Development of the Law
Roman law had great influence on the American
legal system
Justinian Code
Rules were based on tradition and a quest for fairness
Distinguished public and private laws and influenced
legal thought
England common law
Royal judges traveled through territories to apply a
broader or national norm as cases were decided. Law
became more common throughout the country
8. Development of the Law
Common law- early English judge-made law,
based on custom and tradition that was followed
throughout the country. It is synonymous in
American law with case law- based on previous
cases
Parliament took over the role of promulgating law
Offenses once considered personal wrongs (murder, rape)
were redefined by English judges as crimes against the
state because they disrupted the security of the entire
community, not just the individual
This made offenders subject to state control and
punishment
9. Development of the Law
Common law depends heavily on through
precedent and the concept of stare decisis
Stare decisis- to stand by decided matters/ let
the decision stand
Means that previous rules set forth in other cases
shall be used to decide future cases
10. Continuing Need for Law
People need laws to know what behavior is
acceptable and to deal with those who do not
follow the law
Laws should be obeyed for the good of all but,
obedience to the law is voluntary
You should obey the law because as a member
of a larger group, everyone benefits if laws are
obeyed
Laws set parameters for social behavior,
including the consequences for actions outside
these parameters
11. American Law Lives
Human nature dictates that different needs are
perceived at different times
Effective law should be flexible enough to
respond to these changes
American law is referred to as a living law,
because it is not stagnant
It can change, expand or rescinded (repeal) to
serve the overall system
12. American Law Lives
Constitutional Amendments show how law can
advance and retreat as needs and expectations
change
Constitutional Amendments are not easily or
frequently added or removed
2/3 of each house of Congress, or conventions called
by 2/3 of the state legislatures to propose
constitutional amendments
To be ratified, ¾ of the state legislatures must agree
Out of 7,000 proposals, only 33 have been passed
and submitted to the states
17 in total have been successfully ratified
13. American Law Lives
Most influential amendments came after the
civil war:
13th Amend.-abolished slavery
14th Amend.- prevented the states from denying
former slaves equal protection and due process
15th Amend.- right to vote regardless of race
19th Amend.- right to vote for women
21st Amend.- repealed prohibition
15. Who? (Jurisdiction)
Who makes the law? Who does the law
affect?
The group that has jurisdiction or authority to
promulgate that law. Legislative body, city
counsel, or state or federal legislatures
Jurisdiction- authority to establish a law, authority
of a court to hear certain cases or the authority
the law has over a specific group of people
16. Who?
Statutory law- laws set by legislatures or
governing bodies having jurisdiction to make
such law
Statutory law can be referred as codified law
Codified law- law specifically set forth in organizes,
structured codes such as the US criminal code,
state statutes or local ordinances
Ordinances- laws or codes established at the local
level, that is, the municipal or county level
No statutory law can violate the Constitution
17. How? (Procedural)
Substantive law- establishes rules and
regulations
traffic law
Criminal law
Procedural law- how the law is to be enforcedhow and when police can stop people
How and when police can stop people
Violations of procedural law can have
consequences for the government
18. What? (criminal or civil)
Who is the victim? Is it a public wrong
(criminal) or a private wrong (civil)?
The victim in criminal law is the community,
because it disrupts the community. Society’s
welfare has also been violated
This is why the governments name, representing
the people, versus the defendant appears on
court docket
US
v. Smith, State of Florida v. Smith
19. What? (criminal or civil)
Crimes- Acts defined by federal or state
statute or local ordinance that are punishable;
wrongs against the government and the
people it serves.
Ex.-
murder, rape, robbery, etc.
Also called “penal codes” – criminal codes or laws
Tort- civil wrong by one individual against
another
Ex.-
child support, eviction, divorce
Plaintiff v. Defendant (Smith v. Jones)
20. What? (criminal or civil)
Sometimes there is overlap of criminal and civil
law
A drunk driver causes a crash and hurts an
individual.
Is this Criminal or Civil?
It can be both. Can be guilty of DUI (crime) and be held
civilly liable for the injuries caused to others by the tort
committed.
The government would pursue criminal charges
The victim would file a lawsuit in pursuit of damages
i.e. –
The victim’s families were awarded
21. Current Events
Criminal
Case Ca lifo rnia
v . Sim p s o n
Civil Case Re la tiv e s
o f Vic tim s
v . Sim p s o n
OJ Simpson was acquitted in a
criminal court for the murder of
his ex-wife and her friend
Found liable in civil court for
wrongful death
Families were awarded $33.5 million
22. Burden of Proof
Criminal- the government must prove its case
beyond a reasonable doubt (99%)
Civil- plaintiff must prove their case by a
preponderance of the evidence (means-more
likely than not) 51%
Goal of civil actions is to right the wrong
23. The Court System
The court has two main functions:
Settle controversies between parties
To decide the rules of law that apply in the specific
case
Article III of the US Constitution established the federal
judicial system
The types of cases a court can hear depend upon its
jurisdiction...
The authority of a legislative body to establish a law or
a court to hear case
The authority a law has over a specific group of
people
24. Jurisdiction
Three levels of jurisdiction
Federal, state, and local
There are 6 types of jurisdiction:
Original
Appellate
General
Limited
Exclusive
Concurrent
25. Jurisdiction
Original- Courts authorized to hear cases first,
try them and render decisions
Trial courts
Appellate- describes a court authorized to
review cases and to either affirm or reverse
the actions of the lower court
General- courts having the ability to hear a
wide range of cases
26. Jurisdiction
Limited- restricted of the types of cases a
particular court might hear
Exclusive- courts only hear specific cases
Concurrent- two or more courts authorized to
hear a specific type of case
Venue- geographic area in which a specific
case may come to trial, and the area from
which the jury is selected
27. The Court System
The US judicial system is two-tiered, consisting
of state and federal court systems
At either tier, there are three levels:
1.
2.
3.
Lower court (trial court)
Appellate court
Court of last resort (Supreme court)
These levels exist to assure that if either side
thinks procedural rules were violated, they can
appeal the case to a higher court
28. State Court System
Lower Courts
Include municipal, inferior and limited
jurisdiction and county courts
Municipal courts hear ordinance violations,
minor criminal cases, traffic cases and
sometimes more major cases
Limited to the city or county in which the court
is located
29. State Court System
Lower Courts
Inferior include probate, family, police traffic
and justice of the peace courts
States have established these courts to
eliminate the expense and inconvenience of
traveling to a county or district court
30. State Court System
Lower Courts
County often have exclusive jurisdiction over
misdemeanor cases and civil cases involving
a limited amount of money
Superior courts are the highest of trial courts
with general jurisdiction
This is where most felony cases enter the system
Also
called district court, circuit court or courts of
common plea
31. State Court System
Intermediate Appellate Courts
Created to reduce the caseloads of the state
supreme courts
Appeal cases generally go to this court first
32. State Court System
State Supreme Courts
Highest courts in the state and generally called
supreme courts
Power is given to them by the state constitution
Oversee the intermediate appellate courts and
have few areas of original jurisdiction.
Petition for certiorari- to review the decision
of an appeals court
Lower court must abide by the decision of the
higher court
34. Special US Courts
These courts you may never have any
dealings with:
Court of Military Appeals
Court of Claims
Court of Customs and Patent Appeals
Customs Court and
Tax Court
35. US District Court
Are trial courts with general and original federal
jurisdiction
Try both criminal and civil cases
Civil-plaintiff and defendant must be from different
states and the suit must be more than $10,000
Criminal- tries a very limited number of cases
Each state has at least 1 District Court, and
larger states have as many as 4
There are 94 district courts
36. US Court of Appeals
Like the Intermediate appellate courts in the
state court system
Ease caseload of the Supreme Court
Assigned to one of the eleven circuits
Also a DC circuit and a Federal Circuit Court
Have jurisdiction over final decisions of federal
district courts
They are courts of last resort in most federal
cases
37. U.S. Supreme Court
Ultimate court of appeal
Chief function is as an appellate court
Restricted by act of Congress to hear only
certain types of appeals from federal appeals
courts and state supreme courts
The case must involve a state or federal
statute alleged to be unconstitutional
38. U.S. Supreme Court
There is no right to have a case heard by the
Supreme Court
Only hears cases of extreme national
importance to set important policy:
Abortion
Busing
School prayer
Only court empowered to handle lawsuits
between states
39. Officers of the Court
Judges
Lawyers
Clerks of the court
Sheriffs
Marshals
Bailiffs
40. Judges
Sometimes called justices or magistrates
Elected in some states and appointed in
others
Federal judges are nominated and appointed
Preside over trials and hearings
Render decisions
Oversee the selection of juries and instruct
them during jury cases
41. Lawyers
Criminal cases - Prosecutor or Defense
attorney
Prosecutor represents the government
Defense attorney represents the accused
Civil cases- Plaintiff’s lawyer represents the
party bringing the suit
43. Sheriffs and Marshals
Serve summons and other court documents
Enforce court order
Sheriffs function at the state level
Marshals function at the federal level
45. An Adversarial Judicial System
A legal system which places one party against
another to resolve a legal issue
Only in actual conflicts will a judicial body hear
the case
Will not entertain “what it” situations
46. Doctrines that Govern What Cases Will be
Heard
Standing
Mootness
Having an actual interest in the matter of dispute
Exists when the issues that gave rise to a case
have either been resolved or have disappeared
Ripeness
When a case comes to court too soon
Courts cannot get prematurely involved in a case
that can be resolved through other means
47. The Big Picture: Components of the US Legal
System
The courts are only one component of the
American system of justice
There are also law enforcement and the
correctional systems
Law enforcement officers are known as the
“gatekeepers” of the criminal justice system
Correctional officials handle the offenders after
a court renders that they are guilty of a crime
48. Juvenile vs. Adult Systems –
Different (same) terminology
Juvenile
Adult
Taken into custody
Arrested
Accused of delinquent acts
Accused of crimes
Petition
Information or indictment
Juveniles are detained
Adults are jailed
No right to bail
Right to bail
Private court proceedings
More formal, public
No right to jury trial
Right to jury trial
Proof beyond a reasonable doubt
Proof beyond a reasonable doubt
Right to an attorney
Right to an attorney
Appeals to higher court
Appeals to higher court
Guilty = delinquent
Guilty = criminal
49. The Changing Face of American Criminal
Justice and Constitutional Law
The Constitution is important at every juncture
within the criminal and juvenile justice systems
Constitution limits the role of government
agents
Constitution sets guidelines to maintain the
intentions of the framers
All involved in the administration of justice
should understand constitutional rights
50. American Criminal Justice Beyond Our
Borders
With technology the world is becoming closer
There is interest in laws of other countries
Comparative law
Comparing and contrasting laws to expand
understanding of law and legal theory
How do our laws impact the laws of other
nations??