Literary appreciation

LITERARY APPRECIATION
TABLE OF CONTENT
DEDICATION
PREFACE
CHAPTER ONE
The Meaning of Literature
Functions of Literature
Elements of Literature
a. characters
b. plot
c. Subject Matter/theme
d. setting
Narrative Technique
CHAPTER TWO
GENRES OF LITERATURE
Poetry
Types of poems
Elements of poetry
Poetic Devices
CHAPTER THREE
DRAMA
Types of drama
Elements of Drama

CHAPTER FOUR
PROSE
Types of prose
Elements of Novel
CHAPTER FIVE
LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES
PAST QUESTIONS
REFERENCES
DEDICATION
To God most high; and the literary genius, Mr. Victor Saduwa
PREFACE
For any student to perform well in Literature, he or she
must be well-grounded in Literary Appreciation. Literary
Appreciation is the bedrock of Literature. It covers literary
principles, terms, techniques and devices. The SSCE
Literature Paper 1 and some JAMB questions are based on
literary appreciation. In addition literary appreciation’s
knowledge is required for evaluation of poems, plays and
prose works. For instance, a candidate may be asked in a
Literature Examination to compare the dramatic technique used
by one playwright to that of another. Such a student needs
literary appreciation knowledge to answer such a question
successfully. Moreover, to acquire the language of literary
criticism, so as to use appropriate words to describe

techniques/devices, expressions and situations employed in a
literature text, literature students need a thorough study of
literary appreciation.
This textbook is specially designed to furnish Senior
Secondary School Students and JAMB candidates with the
essential literary appreciation skills and knowledge they
need to perform well in their Literature Examinations.
My special thanks go to the following persons who
assisted me in the course of writing this textbook: Mr.
Francis Dieseru, Mr. Moses,Miss Ayuba Abigail, Mr. Fatai J.
among others.
Permit me also, to place on record my appreciation of
the following authors whose works provided me with valuable
information in the course of my research which has flowered
into this textbook: Benson Omonode, Richard .J. Smith and Max
.F. Schulz, Nanyen Ojukwu, Chinweikpe Iwuchukwu ,Sylvanus
Igwebuike, William Shakespeare of blessed memory and a host
of others.
Usiemure O. Christopher

CHAPTER ONE
Literary Appreciation is simply the ability to
understand, enjoy and evaluate works of Literature.
Evaluate here means to make judgment about the quality or
value of literary work. Evaluation is usually an opinion
about a given work, but it must be based on facts
The Paper one of the SSCE Literature usually requires
candidates to answer questions on: Literary Appreciation
and a Prescribed Shakespearean Text. Questions on
Literature Appreciation are further divided into questions
on general knowledge of literature, questions on unseen
prose and poetry passages. This text is devoted to these
aspects of Literature.
The Meaning of Literature
Literature is a word derived from a Latin word
‘Littera’ which means, ‘letter of the alphabet’. Literature
as a field of study has many definitions. Some of these
definitions tend to describe literature as writings valued
as creative works, as writings of a country or as anything
in print. However it is wrong to limit Literature to only
written materials. An effort to reduce Literature to only
written materials removes from Literature the Literature of

Preliterate societies that were not written down. For
example, Nigeria only began writing with the advent of
European education in the 19th century. Should we then
conclude that Nigeria had no Literature before the coming
of the British Education, it would be a wrong conclusion.
Of course, the proverbs, songs, folktales, riddles etc that
existed in preliterate societies like Nigeria are forms of
Literature. Creative writings valued as work of arts are
only forms of literature. Literature is an umbrella word
used to describe a variety of creative works of imagination
that may be written or oral. We can also define Literature
as imitation of Life. It is an imaginary composition.
Literature is not a faithful record of reality as History
is. This means Literature merely copies actual life people,
events and situations.
Professor Egudu in his book, The Study of Poetry, describes
Literature as ‘a mode or method of expression. This implies
that Literature is concerned with the manner in which words
are put together to express a new idea. It is not a subject
that just says something new, but says that new thing with
skillful manipulation of words as somebody plaiting hair
dexterously weaves it to form a beautiful hairstyle like
braid.
The Functions of Literature

We study literature because of its great value, which
include the following;
1. Entertainment: One of the functions of literature is
entertainment. The primary purpose of literature is to
provide entertainment. A book that fails to provide
entertainment can hardly pass for a literature book. We
read novels, play, recite poems mainly for recreation.
People tell stories or sing to entertain themselves.
Referring to this function of literature, Horace had said
that literature is out to please and delight
2. Mastering of English Language: By reading literary works
composed in the English Language, students get familiar
with new words and master the structure of the English
Language.
3. Emotional Relief: By expressing our thought or our
emotions as we often do through literary works or reading
literature books, we release our emotions. This is because
a literary work leaves us at the end of easthetic
experience with a relax mind, by providing our emotions
with focus.
4. Social Control: Literature serves as a weapon of social
control. The literary artiste (i.e. novelist, poet, e.t.c.)
is like a watch dog to the society. He barks the moment
things start going wrong. Morality of the society is

measured through his works. Also through works of
literature wrong-doings of a society are exposed to all and
sundry.
5. Literature also functions as a means of direct
experience. Some literary works have the settings
(background) of a foreign land we may not have been to.
E.g. The Merchant of Venice written by Shakespeare has
Venice, Belmont as well as Jewish and Christian traditions
as its background. In the same vein, The Joys of
Motherhood, written by Buchi Emechata has Ibusa, Lagos
together with the Igbo culture as its background. Thus by
reading such works, we get to know about the people and
places reflected without having been to these lands.
6. Literature Mirrors Life: By this we mean that literature
is a mimetic art. It imitates. The events, Situation and
characters we find in literature shows real life
situations. As we get amused by actions in literary works
or condemn activities of some characters, we equally laugh
at ourselves or condemn ourselves.
7. Literature is a reservoir of culture: When we read
literary works written by people from other culture area,
we get to know about those cultures. Sometimes we learn
more about our own culture by reading works by authors from
our culture area. This is because most of the literary

works we read embodies culture of a group of people. Simply
put, Literature is a store in which culture are stocked or
preserved.
8. Literature Serves As Historical Document/ Social
Document: A literary work would be used by historians as
social document to reconstruct history of past society.
This is because; a literary work conveys or reflects time
it was written as well as the virtues and the prejudices of
the time. The idea is that, every writer is influenced by
the happenings of the time he is writing. In fact some
novels, poems, plays e.t.c are reactions to political
happenings at the time they were written.
9. Finally, Literature is also a means of education and
enlightenment: It teaches new things and new ways of doing
things. In so doing, it broadens our knowledge and builds
our individual skills. In addition, it informs us about the
happenings around us.
ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE
There are four basic elements of literature. This include
1. Character
2. Plot
3. Subject Matter/Theme
4. Setting

1. Characters: These are the people we read about in a
literary work. In a literary work, a writer describing
actions or ideas must as well describe the characters
affected by the actions or ideas. The major interest of an
audience is on the people in a drama. So also our central
interest is on the characters in a novel. The author of a
literary work makes his comments on society through his
characters. A good writer must have complete knowledge of
his characters; the way they look, how they talk, e.t.c.
There are two identifiable ways of showing characters,
namely are, Motivation and Setting.
Motivation: This refers to the reason for a character’s
action. The reason for a character’s action must be given.
In literature, as in life, characters dictate actions. For
example, if Shylock had not insisted on Antonio’s pound of
flesh, the play, Merchant of Venice would have been
something different. A writer has to ensure that the
reasons behind his character’s action are clear and
logical.
2. Setting: It is the place in which a character’s story
takes place. The people in literature, like the one who
reads about them, do not exist in space. They act and react
to one another. They also react to their world. The real
geographical location, the period and cultural environment

are some of the things which come together to form setting.
For example, the setting of Sizwe Bansi is Dead is South
Africa and the Apartheid regime. So also the settings of
The Joys of Motherhood are Ibusa, Lagos as well as the
Colonial period.
3. Plot: Every literary work has element of plot. Plot
tells what happens to the characters. It is the story-line
of a literary work. A plot is created around a series of
event that occur within a specific period of time. There
are no general rules guiding the order in which the events
are arranged. However a good plot has a beginning, middle
and an end. That is to say, the plot guides us from a
character with problem {somewhere} through a character
confronting the problem, {through somewhere} to the
character overcoming or being overcome by the problem {to a
point.}
E.M. Forster describes plot as “the arrangement of event in
cause-effect relationship”. This means a plot tells us what
makes something happens (cause) and what happens (effect).
If there is no relationship between cause and effect, there
will be no conflict, and therefore no plot.
A story is different from a plot. Story is the narration of
a series of events or happenings in chronological order.
Consider the example below:

a. Mr. Odudu died last week and was buried two days later.
His children are in his home town sharing his property now.
This is a story telling us what events took place in order
of time. (Chronological order)
b. Mr. Odudu died last week. It was uncertain what killed
him, until it was discovered that he drank poison. His
children had gone to his village to share his property as
their tradition requires children of a deceased to inherit
his belongings.
In the above, the cause of Mr. Odudu’s death was his
drinking of poison. And the effect was his death. This is a
good example of a plot. A story may have more than one
plot. Hence we talk of major plot and sub-plot. Sub-plots
are woven into the major plot.
4. Theme or Statement: Is the basic idea expressed by a
literary work. It is the central idea or observation about
life. It builds from the interplay of characters and plot.
A theme may state that life is good or not good, or condemn
crime or exonerate crimes. It may sanction or warn the
reader to live a better life or adopt a new lifestyle. A
good story directs the reader to the author’s conclusion.
5. Subject Matter: Often students mistake theme for
subject-matter. Subject-matter is what is discussed by a
literary work while the theme is derived from the comments

on what is discussed or how the writer discusses the
subject-matter. The things, people and events a writer
writes about are the subject matter. We can liken a theme
and subject-matter to the subject and predicate of a
sentence. While the subject is what performs the action
mentioned in a sentence, the predicate is the comment on
the subject of the verb. E.g. Ojevwe went home. Here Ojevwe
is the subject while went home is the comment (predicate).
Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children are very good children.
They are obedient and hard-working at home. They do all
their assignments and home-works. They keep their house
clean at all times and respect one another. Their good-
manners and hard-work at school are indeed reflections of
their good behavior at home. They are very intelligent too.
This has made them win scholarships. Their parents and
teachers praise them and are proud of them.
In this story, the subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs.
Portrayal’s children. While the theme is good behaviour, is
praise-worthy.
Mr. and Mrs. Portrayal’s children are very bad children.
They are disobedient and lazy at home. They do not care to
do their assignment and home-works when they get home from
school. They don’t help their parents. They are the worst
set of students at school. They give their teachers

headache. They are lukewarm and dull set of students. Their
behavior at school is the reflection of what they do at
home. Their parents and teachers are ashamed of them and
always punish them.
In the above plot the subject-matter is Mr. and Mrs.
Portrayal’s children. Even though the subject-matter of
this passage is the same as the first, the theme is
different. What is the theme?
Style: Is the manner a writer uses words to create his
literary work. The way a writer or a poet writes what they
have to express. We can rarely enjoy a story’s characters
or plot without enjoying the author’s style. A writer must
solve problems of style from his first word to the last, by
answering such questions as: What kind of words shall I
use? How shall I present details? Should sentences be
colloquial or formal? Should paragraphs be long or short?
Point Of View or Narrative Technique is a part of a
writer’s style. Point of view may be first person Narrator,
Third person Narrator, Third person limited, or Third
Person Omniscient.
a. First Person Narrator: This is technique by which the
writer tells his story as though he was one of the
characters in the story. The writer uses I, We, Us instead
of He/ She, They, Them.

b. Third Person Point Of View: Here the writer uses the
third person pronouns (he/ she). The narrator/ writer
stands apart from the character.
c. Third Person Limited Point Of View: This is a narrative
technique by which the writer describes the action as a
single character might see them. The writer sees the events
through the eyes of his narrator.
d. Third Person Omniscient: It is the method in which the
narrator/ writer reports on what many characters are
thinking and feeling.
e. Stream Of Consciousness: It is a narrative technique by
which the audience or reader is made to follow the mind or
thoughts of the narrator. The narrator here is not regarded
as real narrator though. The story is usually not told in
the order the events took place or in the order of time.
This is because; the human mind we are made to follow by
this narrative technique can recall many things at the same
time
CHAPTER TWO
GENRES OF LITERATURE
The term genre means branch of literature. There are
three main branches of literature, namely are: Poetry,
Drama and Prose.

POETRY: Poetry has been variously defined by different
poets. According to one school of thought, it is the
expression, in a language, of thoughts and feelings which
popped up intuitively. William Wordsworth however defines
poetry as the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings
recollected in the moment of tranquility. The above
definitions imply that poetry is natural, imaginative and
emotional expression. Poetry is also defined as “the art
which uses words as both speech and songs to reveal the
realities that the senses record, the feeling salute the
mind perceives and the harping imaginations orders”. . It
employs beautiful language in passing across its message. A
poem is usually written in verse, stanza and arranged in
lines.
UNSEEN POETRY
Unseen poetry is a piece of a poem, examination candidates
might not have seen before the examination. The poem is not
among the ones prescribed. Candidates are expected to read
and demonstrate their literary appreciation skills by
answering questions based on the unseen poem. Students who
make good use of this textbook will find this section not
only easy but also interesting.
TYPES OF POEM

There are four basic types of poem, namely are: Narrative
poem, dramatic poem, A closet Drama and lyric.
Narrative poem: tells a story. Epic is an example of
narrative poem
Dramatic poem: This is a poem that tells its story
through the speech of a character. There are two types of
Dramatic poem. A dramatic poem, in which only one character
speaks, is termed Monologue.
Closet Drama: A play in a poem form that is designed to be
read but not acted.
Lyric: Is a short song-like poem, often expressing strong
feelings. We may describe a lyric poem in terms of what it
discusses (Subject-Matter) or in terms of its form. Hence
we term a poem eulogy if it praises the qualities of
someone or something; or elegy if it laments the dead.
Other poems classified according to subject-matter are
discussed below.
Panegyric poem: It is a poem meant to praise a person or
object.
Ode: It is a poem addressed to somebody or something or an
idea. It is often more or less a sober reflection on an
object or a personage. The following are examples of ode:
Ode to the Grecian Urn, by John Keats, Ode on the Morning

of Christ’s Nativity-by Milton, Ode to Nightingale, by John
Keats e.t.c
Dirge: A poem which expresses grief or mourns the dead. It
is shorter and less formal than Elegy. Songs of Sorrow, by
Kofi Awoonor is an example of Dirge.
Poems Described According To Forms
Sonnet: It is a poem of 14 lines long with a definite rhyme
scheme. There are two types of sonnets. The Shakespearean
sonnet and Pertrechan or Italian sonnet
.
Shakespearean sonnet is also called English sonnet. It is
named after William Shakespeare who is a foremost writer of
this type of poem. It has four divisions. From the first to
the twelfth line, it is divided into three stanzas of four
lines each. The last two lines form the fourth divisions.
Pertrechan or Italian sonnet is a poem named after the poet
Francesco Pertrach. It is usually divided into two stanzas,
viz: The OCTAVE (eight lines) and the SESTET (six lines).
The second stanza has the following rhyme scheme: c d e c d
e. However note that the rhyme pattern of the sestet is not
constant. It may have cde dde etc, as its rhyme scheme.
Usually, the octave creates a problem while the sestet
resolves or comments on the problem.

Ballad: It is a narrative poem which tells a simple and
dramatic story. It is often meant to be sung. A ballad has
strong rhythms and rhymes which give it its songlike
qualities. The following are features of a ballad:
(i) Themes of physical courage and love
(ii) Events that happen to common people
Every stanza of a Ballad is made up of four lines with
the following rhyme - scheme: ab ab, the first and the
third lines usually have four stressed syllables while the
second and the fourth carry three syllables
Idyll: a short poem that expresses a peaceful and happy
scene.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Diction: It is the choice of words of a poet. A good
diction passes its message with suitable words
Rhyme: It is the repetition of similar sounds in different
words. Rhyme often occurs at the end of lines. E.g.(by /
sky). For there to be a perfect rhyme, the consonants
preceding the rhyming vowel sounds must be different. E.g.
ban /can, corn/ born
Internal Rhyme: If the rhyming words are in the middle of a
line of poem, the kind of rhyme thus form is called
internal rhyme.

End Rhyme: It is a form of rhyme that occurs at the end of
each line
Masculine Rhyme: Rhyme made up of single stressed syllable
e.g. Word/work
Feminine Rhyme: Double rhyme (when rhyme consists of two
syllables with a stressed syllable followed by unstressed
syllable e.g. ending/ pending
Rhyme- scheme: The pattern or sequence of in which words
rhyme with each other. It is usually denoted aa, bb, cc,
dd, e.t.c.
Alternate Rhyme-Scheme: It occurs when first line of a poem
rhymes with the third. The second, with the fourth, the
fifth with the seventh e.t.c.
Tone: Tone is the inner voice which sends the feelings of
the poet or the poet’s persona to the reader. A tone may be
of sorrow, anger, resignation, ridicule, contempt, sarcasm,
joyous e.t.c if a student is asked to state the tone of a
poem; he is expected to use appropriate word as one of the
ones listed above, to describe the tone. The tone of a poem
has direct effect on the mood.
Mood: It is the author’s or poet’s state of mind at the
time of writing his poem. Put differently, it is the
emotional attitude of the poet to his theme.

Rhythm: Is a word derived from a Greek word. It means
movement from one part to another part. Sounds are expected
to flow in poetry. As we unstressed or stressed word in a
line of poem, flow of sound is generated. Briefly put,
rhythm is that element which gives a poem its musical
quality.
Stanza: It is an Italian word for stopping place. Stanza in
a poem is a group of lines considered as one unit. Each
stanza contains a single thought or idea. Stanzas are to
poem as paragraphs are to a prose. Stanzas are usually
separated by spaces. A stanza may be named according to the
number of lines it contains.
1. Couplet: a stanza of two lines
2. Tercet: a stanza that has three lines
3. Quatrain: a stanza that contains four lines
4. Cinquain: a five-line poem
5. Sestet: a six-line stanza
6. Heptastich: a seven-line stanza
7. Octave: a stanza of eight lines
Imagery: It is a language that produces pictures in the
mind of a reader or a listener. In other words, it is a
form of language which calls up picture in the mind.
Imagery appeals to the following senses
1. Visual sense (sight)

2. Aural sense (hearing)
3. Olfactory sense (smell)
4. Gustatory sense (taste)
5. Tactile sense (touch)
6. Thermal sense (heat)
7. Motion
POETIC DEVICES
Figures of Speech: These are expressions commonly used by
poets in composing poems in order to arouse feelings
through evoking images in the mind. Figures of speech
include: metaphor, simile, synecdoche, allusion, symbolism
hyperbole, meiosis, euphemism and apostrophe.
Most of the examples used in this chapter are drawn from
some prescribed poems for SSCE and JAMB candidates.
Meiosis: Also termed understatement, is a deliberate
understatement to achieve humour and satirical effect. It
is a direct opposite of hyperbole
A. Hyperbole: It is an overstatement. An exaggeration of
fact for the purpose of emphasis e.g.
1. His head is bigger than a mountain.
2. All the perfume of Arabia cannot take away her body
odour
3. I am so thirsty that I can drink all the water in the
Atlantic Ocean

B. Simile: This is a figure of speech used to compare two
things which are different in their nature but are alike in
having the quality mentioned. It usually uses ‘as’ ‘like’
in comparing things. E.g.
1. He is as strong as a lion
2. We know the knife scars serrating down your back and
front like beak of the sword fish
3. The Nile and Nyaza lay like two twins
4. Clothes wave like tattered flags
It should be noted that it is not simile when the
comparison is between two similar things. For example, the
following is not simile; my car is like your car.
C. Metaphor: it is a direct comparison between two unlike
things. This figure of speech is like simile. The
difference is that while simile says something is like
something or as something, metaphor says something is
another thing. We can also define metaphor as the transfer
of attributes (qualities) of one object to another. ‘It is
a compressed simile. E.g.
1. He is a palm tree
2. Ojo is a lion
3. I am the squirrel teeth, cracked the riddle of the palm
4. Thou’rt slave to fate
5. The pelting march

6. My vegetable love
Metaphor has two elements: The tenor and the vehicle.
Tenor: It is the idea being expressed
Vehicle: It is the medium or image employed in expressing
the idea e.g in example (2) above lion is the vehicle while
strength of the of the lion is the tenor (idea expressed)
D. Personification: It is a figure of speech that gives
qualities of animate objects (living things) to inanimate
objects (non-living things). We can also define
personification as the giving of human qualities to non-
human beings.
When we speak of things like the sun, night, moon, fish or
stars as doing or saying things just as we talk of human
beings we are giving human qualities to them. Examples:
1. The sun smiles on the earth. The sun is smiling. But it
is not a human being that can smile thus we give it the
human quality of smile.
2. The wind is friendly tonight
3. Death knocks at his door.
4. Clouds come hurrying with the wind
5. Pregnant clouds ride stately on its back
6. The wind whistles by
7. Jagged blinding flashes, rumble tremble and crack
8. Thus though we cannot make our sun

Stand still, yet we will make him run
E. Euphemism
It is a figure of speech by which we use a mild or indirect
expression to avoid the direct statement of harsh or
unpleasant truth.
Examples
1. The man passed away (to mean the man died)
2. Jacob got Okiemute laid
3. Each day a weary pony dropped
4. Each afternoon a human skeleton collapsed
F. Apostrophe
It is a figure of speech by which someone, abstract object
or non-living thing is addressed directly as if it could
hear or it were present even though it is
absent. It is simply described as direct address to
inanimate object.
The speaker talks to an imaginary second person who is not
present or
cannot hear, directly.
Examples
1. Death be not proud-(john Donne)
2. Oh JAMB why do you treat me like this!
G. Synecdoche

It is a figure of speech by which we use part to refer to a
whole. In other words a part is used to represent a whole
or a whole make to stand for a part.
Examples;
1. All hands on deck
2. He is a mender of soles
3. He has many mouths to feed
4. We need ten hands
5. Okotete has several fingers
N.B: all hands in example one is used to mean human beings.
Hands are part of human being
Example2; soles are part of shoes hence used to refer to
shoes
Example 3.mouths refer to people since mouth is part of
human beings
Example 4.hands here refer to workers
Example5-fingers refer to children
F. Allusion
It is a reference to a popular event in the past or an
object bearing similarity to what is being described. It
mentions another person or topic in an indirect manner.
There are two types of allusions; biblical allusion and
literary allusion.

Biblical allusion is a reference to events in the bible.
While literary allusion is a reference to other literature
books.
Examples
A Daniel comes to judgment (The Merchant of Venice, William
Shakespeare). The above statement is used by Shylock to
refer to the story of Daniel in the bible. In that story,
Daniel who acted as a judge over the case of a woman
accused of adultery, was able to give the right verdict
being a wise man
1. John is a prodigal son- prodigal son here refers to the
parable of prodigal son by Jesus in the bible.
2. Our relationship is that of Hut-Tutsi-this refers to
hostile relations between Hut and Tutsi tribes, both in
Rwanda, which culminated in genocide.
H. Symbolism
It is a figure of speech that makes use of symbols to
represent ideas. The use of an object to suggest a meaning
not clearly connected to that object. E.g.
Ekpo bore his cross patiently-in this example cross is a
symbol of suffering.
In her womb from east to west
Big volcanoes cough and blink
Belching streams of liquid fuel

N.B: womb in the first line of the poem symbolizes the
earth while volcanoes represent oil wells
I. Contrast
It is a device by which one object or idea is placed in
opposition to another to highlight the contrasted idea. It
is usually for the purpose of emphasis.
Figures of Thought: These are also literary devices
employed by mostly poets to convey their messages in a more
aesthetic form. By surprising the reader at first reading,
figures of thought stimulate the reader’s thinking ability.
They include, oxymoron, metonymy and paradox
A. Metonymy
It is a literary device by which we refer to something by
another thing closely associated with it.
Examples
1. My boss employs anything in skirt. Here skirt is used to
represent girls since it is only girls that wear skirt.
2. Crown gives up the ghost. Crown in this example is used
to mean king since it is closely associated with kings.
3. The pen is mightier than the sword. Here the pen refers
to intellectuals while the sword represents violent people.
B. Oxymoron
It is a literary device which places side by side opposite
qualities, often than not for the purpose of sharp

emphasis. It is also described as the juxtaposition of two
apparently contradictory ideas which modify each other in a
sentence.
Examples
1. Loving hatred-Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare
2. I have a bitter sweet experience
3. He maintained eloquent silence during the seminar
4. Pregnant virgin
5. An open secret
C. Paradox
It is a statement that appears impossible, absurd or self-
contradictory but contains much wisdom and it is true.
Examples;
1. The child is the father of the man. This simply means
that the child who is now being cared for and provided for
by the father, will one day grow up, and when his father is
old and cannot provide for himself the child would provide
for him like a father.
2. More haste less speed. Sometimes we hurry to get certain
things done. But in the process we omit or forget things
that will make us start all over again. In such a situation
our haste has only slowed down our speed at completing the
required assignment.
3. The more you look the less you see.

4. Death, thou shall die
D Antithesis: Literary device in which ideas are
contrasted by the use of diametrically opposed
statements. In other words, it is the placing side by
side of opposite or contrasting statements. Examples;
Prosperity doth best discover vice
But adversity doth best discover virtue.
Bacon
Figures of Sound
These are expressions employed to give sound effect to a
piece of literary work.
A. Alliteration
It is the repetition of similar consonant sounds at the
beginning of words in a line of poetry. Consonants sounds
include: b, p, b, d, f, g, h, j k, l, t, w, m, n, s, q, v,
z etc
Examples of alliteration
1. Motherly moon
2. Sitting on stool outside mud hut
3. Let life lead
4. Bleeding blood
5. Singing song of solemn companionship
B. Assonance
[

It is the repetition of two or more similar vowel sounds in
a line of poem. E.g.
1. Coffee to keep the PS awake on return journey
2. Green dreams
C. Consonance: It refers to the repetition of consonant
sounds in a line of poetry in the middle or the end of
words E.g.
D. Repetition
It is a rhetorical device that repeats something for the
purpose of emphasis or clarity.
E.g.
Man has ceased to be man
Man has become beast
Man has become prey
(Nightfall in SOWETO, Oswald Mtshali M.)
In this poem man and has are repeated.
E. Onomatopoeia
It refers to words whose sound suggests their meanings.
Examples;
1. The vehicle zoomed past
2. Catastrophic crisis
3. A Dominion dominated by deceit is doomed
CHAPTER THREE
DRAMA

Drama is one of the three genres of literature. It is
defined as a work of art acted on the stage before an
audience. We can also define drama as the recreation of
life on the stage. A Greek philosopher called Aristotle
also defines drama as “imitated human action”. This
definition implies that what is acted on stage as drama,
copies actual life situations.
Play is often mistaken for drama. A play cannot be termed a
drama until it is produced on stage before an audience. A
play is therefore defined as a piece of writing designed
for the stage.
Professor J.M. Manly listed three essential elements in
drama. They are:
a. A Story (b) Told in action (c) By actors who impersonate
the characters of the story. We appreciate the story, the
plot and the themes of a drama through the actions and
conversations of the characters.
TYPES OF DRAMA
Comedy: It is a kind of drama which amuses and ends
happily. It strives to provoke laughter e.g. the following
are types of comedy. TheTempest, written by William
Shakespeare.
Comedy of manners: It ridicules people who violate the
social tradition and order of the society. Every society at

any given time, has laid down pattern of behaviour that
people have to abide to. Comedy of manners deals with the
traditions, relations and intrigues of people in a given
society. Examples
(a) Love’s Labour’s Last and (b) Much Ado About Nothing,
both by William Shakespeare
Romantic Comedy: It is a kind of comedy which deals with
love affairs that involve a beautiful and idealized central
female character who is sometimes disguised as a man. This
love affair is usually rough but all difficulties are
overcome in the end and it ends happily. It was practiced
by Shakespeare and some of his contemporaries during
Elizabethan’s period. Examples:
Midsummer Night’s Dream, William Shakespeare.
Satiric Comedy: A comedy that ridicules philosophical
doctrines or political policies, or attacks the disorder of
society by ridiculing people who violate the standards of
manners or morals.
Tragedy: It is a form of drama which end is usually sad.
The leading character or the character we admire most in a
tragedy ends tragically, sorrowfully, or gets involved in a
situation that arouses sympathy. According to Aristotle,
the purpose of tragedy is to arouse feelings of pity and
fear, as a result, produces in the audience a catharsis

Modern tragedy is derived from Greek and medieval tragedy.
The Greek tragedy originated from rituals of life and
death. Medieval tragedy on the other hand, originated from
the representation of the life, death and resurrection of
Christ Jesus.
Examples of Tragedy
1. The gods are not to Blame, Ola Rotimi
2. Julius Ceasar, William Shakespeare
3. Macbeth, William Shakespeare
4. Hamlet, William Shakespeare
5. Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare
Features of Tragedy
1. A protagonist or hero who commands respect in the
society
2. A hero who undertakes an action of a certain size or
seriousness
3. Through the action of the protagonist he falls into
trouble or faced a physical suffering.
Tragic-Comedy: This is a drama /play which have both
qualities of a tragedy or comedy. It may begin with a
tragic plot but ends happily. Its action appears to be
leading to a catastrophe until an unexpected turn of
events, usually in the form of abrupt happy end changes
everything.

Farce: A humorous play in which the characters make silly
mistakes meant to make people laugh. Its action and events
deviate from reality.
Melodrama: A play that is full of exciting sensational
actions or events and in which the characters and emotions
appear too exaggerated to be real.
ELEMENTS OF DRAMA
They include story, plot, characters, act, scene, Dialogue,
settings, stage, Audience, Catastrophe, Denouncement and
comic relief. (Setting, plot, story, characters have been
discussed under elements of literature)
Stage: A platform usually in theatre, where actors and
actresses, dancers perform. A stage is otherwise described
as the physical representation of the world of the play.
Audience: A group of people watching a performance of a
play on stage. Drama is an audio-visual literary work. The
audience sees and hears the dialogue of the actors who
translate a play to drama on the stage. The audience serves
as the element of measuring the success or failure of the
play.
Dialogue: This means conversation between the characters or
actors and actresses in a play or drama. Dialogue is also
found in other literary works like poetry and prose. It has
the following stylistic values:

(a) It advances the action in a given way and is not used
as mere ornamentations
(b) It reflects the social position, character and special
interest of the speakers. It changes expressions and tone
according to the speaker’s nationalities, dialect,
occupations and social standards.
(c) Although it is not a word for word record of what was
actually said in real life, it gives the impression of
naturalness.
(d) It does not only give the interplay of ideas and
personalities among the characters speaking, but also
provides a conversational give-and-take as opposed to
series or remarks of alternating speakers.
(e) It varies in diction, phrasing, and rhythm e.t.c
Before 1558, the tradition was: nobles and elevated
characters speak in Blank verse and high rhetoric while
minor characters (underlings) speak in prose firm.
Act: It is a major division in the action of play just as
the novel has chapters so also a play is divided into ACTS.
This division was introduced by dramatist of the Elizabeth
period. These Elizabethan dramatists imitated a Roman
playwright, by dividing the actions into five acts.

However, during the 1900’s many writers imitated Chekhov by
structuring plays in four acts. Whereas in the 1900’s some
plays were written in three acts.
Scenes: Sir Edmond Chambers describes scenes as a
continuous section of action in an unchanged locality.
Simply put, a scene is a logical unit into which an act is
divided. In today’s plays, a scene usually consists of
units of actions in which there is no change of place or
break in the continuity of time.
In constructing a scene, climatic arrangement is the most
important principle. A scene may also be that of relief, or
dialogue scene, battle scene, court scene, and monologue
scene e.t.c
Comic Relief: It is a humorous scene or funny incident or
speech in a serious drama. In a tragedy such humorous
scenes are usually introduced to provide relief from
emotional intensity. This can as well, increase the
seriousness of the story.
Catastrophe and Denouement: This refers to the turning
point in the life or actions of the protagonist in an
unfolding play. This turning point may result in success or
failure for the protagonist. The misery is solved or the
misunderstanding is cleared away at this point in the play.
If the play is a tragedy, this turning point is termed

catastrophe. But in both tragedy and comedy, this change of
event is commonly referred to as Denouement. Denouement is
also called Resolution.
Denouement may involve reversal (peripety, According to
Aristotle) in the hero’s fortunes. The reversal may be to
the protagonist’s failure or destruction as we have in
tragedy.
CHAPTER FOUR
PROSE
This is the third genre of literature. Prose is written in
the ordinary spoken or written language of man. The message
of the prose is often conveyed without acting. A prose work
may be fiction or non-fiction.
Fiction; is an imaginary story created or invented by a
writer. E.g., The Joys of Motherhood. .
Non-fiction; a true-life story. Historical novel is an
example of non-fiction.
. Autobiography; It is non-fictional prose written by
somebody about himself. Simply put, it is the life history
of a person written by the person himself. For example if
Mary writes a novel that tells the story of her life, such
a story is called autobiography. African Child written by
Camara Laye and Second Class Citizen by Buchi Emecheta are
examples of autobiography.

Biography; This is the life story of somebody written by
another person. For example if Efe writes the story of
Okoro’s life such a story is Biography. This type of story
may be written while the person is alive or dead.
UNSEEN PROSE
Unseen prose refers to a passage usually adapted from a
prose work which is not among the prescribed Prose works.
This section in the SSCE Literature Paper I requires
students to answer some questions based on the passage.
For a candidate to do well in this section he needs basic
literary appreciation skills which are discussed in this
textbook.
TYPES OF PROSE
1. Novelette: It is generally known as a narrative, longer
than a short story but shorter than a novel, especially a
romantic novel which is considered to be badly written.
2. Short Story: It is a narrative of event or many related
events, which is less complex than novel.
3. Anecdote: It is a short humorous or interesting story
about a real person or event. It can show a single aspect
of personal life or event. E.g.
There was a man called Tony who went to his friend’s party.
When it was dancing time, Tony like other people went to
the middle of the arena to dance. He noticed something as

he was dancing: the people behind him applauded and hailed
him tumultuously, while those at his front just watched in
silence. He thought that his backside was doing more
wonders than his front-side. He decided to turn his
backside in every direction so that he could gain the
applause of all, which he enjoyed very much. By the end of
the party almost everybody had seen his backside.
He decided to dance before a large mirror when he got home
from the party to know for himself how wonderfully he
looked behind when dancing. It was then he saw in the
mirror that his trousers was torn behind. And since he had
gone to the party without underwear, his private part was
in full view. It swung helplessly while he danced and that
was the cause of the uproar he had mistaken for applause.
4. Novel: It is a long narrative fiction that has a more
complex plot than a short story. It can also be described
as an ‘invented prose narrative of great length and a
certain complexity that deals imaginatively with human
experience usually through a connected sequence of events
involving a group of persons in a specific setting’. The
novel shows life through plot, story, characters, conflict
and realism. The plot of a short story or novelette is
simple and straight forward. While that of a novel is
complex and always include sub-plots.

Types of Novel
1. Picaresque
2. Epistolary
3. Gothic
4. Romantic
5. Realist
6. Historical
7. Psychological Novel
8. Political novel
9. Detective novel
10. Sociological Novel
11. Novel of character
12. Novel of manners
1. Picaresque Novel: It deals with a sequence of adventures
of a rogue or outcast. It was common between 17th and early
18th centuries. It is usually exciting and lusty.
2. Novel of manners: It deals with problems of personal
resolution resulting from the complex restrictions of
highly formalized ‘codes’ of etiquette in good society.
3. Sentimental Novel: A form of novel which emphasizes the
importance of building and nurturing emotionality, and a
sentimental understanding of simple ways of life; the
beauties of nature and cordiality(friendship) between
people of refined sensibilities”

4. Gothic Novel: A kind of novel common in the 18th
centuries. It described romantic adventures in frightening
or mysterious environments.
The first gothic novel was published in 1764 by Horace
Walpole. The mystery of Udolpho, by Ann Redeliffe is
another example.
5. Historical Novel: It is a novel that deals with past
events. In historical novels, some notable figures in the
past are brought to life fictionally and characters are
invented to help reader understand how past events affected
people.
6. Sociological novel: It deals with the state and the
impact of social factors on the characters in a certain
society. In this way we get to understand the reason behind
character’s behavior in the society. Sociological novel
offer a thesis and supports it as an answer to a social
problem.
7. Detective Novel: It is a form of novel in which a crime,
usually crime of murder, is committed and the criminal or
perpetrators are unknown until a detective unravels the
mystery behind the crime. Most of James Hardley Chase
novels fall under this category.
8. Psychological novel: It stresses the inner life of
characters. A psychological novelist focuses on the inner

life of the character, assesses his motives and explores
such psychological characteristics which led to external
actions.
9. Novel of character: It stresses the creation and
building of character instead of unity of plot, structure
and exciting story.
10. Novel of incident: A type of novel in which action in
almost unrelated episodes dominate while characters and
plot are subordinate. There is more emphasis on thrilling
incident than characterization or sustained curiosity.
Robinson Crusoe, written by Daniel Defoe is a good example.
ELEMENTS OF NOVEL
Elements of Novel
1. Setting
2. Character
3. Story
4. Realism
CHAPTER FIVE
LITERARY TERMS AND TECHNIQUES
Some terms used in the language of literary criticism and
techniques employed in literary works are discussed in this
chapter. Understanding them will be of great help to senior
school certificate Examination and JAMB candidates.
DRAMATIC CONVENTIONS

A. Suspension of disbelief: This is a dramatic convention
which demands that we pretend that the people and event we
see in a drama are real. In the performance of a play,
actors imitate the characters in the play. For example,
when your school decides to act Wedlock of the gods or
stage Women of Owu, or our Husband has gone Mad Again, your
classmates we act as the characters in the story. While the
drama unfolds, you believe that your classmate who is
playing the role of Uloko or Oguoma is actually Oguoma or
Uloko.
In other words, you suspend disbelieving that your
classmate is not the characters mentioned. Suspension of
disbelieving helps audience to get the mental and emotional
appeals the drama puts forward
B. Soliloquy: It refers to a speech made by a character to
himself in a play. It occurs when a character says aloud
his thoughts to the hearing of the audience i.e. when a
character is thinking aloud. It is aimed at revealing to
the audience what is going on in the mind of the character.
Example:
Hamlet soliloquizes as follows in the play; Hamlet, written
by Shakespeare William.
To be, or not to be- that is the question whether it’s
nobler in the mind to suffer

The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them?-to die- to sleep-
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to; is a consummation
Devoutly to be wished. Top die-to sleep
To sleep! Perchance to dream.
C. Interior Monologue or Aside: This is a convention in
which a character talks to himself to the hearing of the
audience. The other characters are to pretend they do not
hear even though they hear what the character is saying to
himself. The audience also suspends their disbelief that
the audiences do not hear.
D. Unity of Time: It is a dramatic concept that demands
that the time in a play should be limited to specific
number of hours. It could be 12 hours or even more. That is
to say that a play should not contain events that happened
over a long period of time. But some playwrights do not
abide by this idea.
E. Unity of Action: It is most important of the three.
Originally, this idea was advanced by Aristotle. It
is however, later expanded to include unities of time
and place. Aristotle holds the view that all the

actions in a play should have unity. Drama, he
believes, is an imitation of complete action of a
given size. A whole should have beginning, middle and
the end with a causal relationship in the aspects of
the play so that if an aspect is detached, the
actions become disjointed. That is to say, a plot of
an action should be naturally conceived to derive all
its part from a common action that unifies them. Put
differently, all the plots in a play should be
properly connected to a major one
F. Unity of Place: It is an idea that all the actions in
a play should take place in one location. Put
differently, that all the actions in a play should be
united in a certain city or town or locality. A play
is not supposed to unite actions that took place in
far locations. Shakespeare does not abide by the
rule.
Didactic Literature: It is a literary work meant
to teach moral, branch of theoretical, religious
or practical knowledge various forms of satire
are didactic.
Satire: It is a literary work which lampoons
human follies and frailties or vices as well as
institutions with a view to correcting them.

Allegory: Imaginary narratives in which human
beings and events have a symbolic meaning (i.e.
represent ideas such as justice or freedom). The
narrative may talk about something but has
another thing in focus.
Epistolary: It is a novel written in the form of
letter
Fable: A short story used to illustrate moral
lessons in which animals talk and act like human
beings
Foreshadowing: It is sometimes referred to as
unconscious prophesy. A character may say
something which gives clue about a future event
casually, or an event which foretells what would
happen later in the literary work or may take
place. When this occurs, we call it
foreshadowing.
Euphony: It is the pleasantness of sound.
Atmosphere: this is the overall emotional
feeling that the details a writer uses create.
An atmosphere can be described as sad,
frightening or mysterious etc. A writer creates
atmosphere by the way he describes his settings,
characters and events. The writer chooses his

words carefully so that the readers or audience
will be affected by his writing in the way he
wants them to be affected. For example, a writer
who wants to stir the feeling of terror in a
reader may use the details below:
It was midnight. Joan moved on the bed suddenly as
if startled. Her room was pitch black. Sinister
weeping of an owl was paving the way for the
booming of gun by her window.
Cacophony: Harshness or unpleasantness of sound
Diction: It simply means choice of words of a
poet or choice of words of other literary
writer.
Pun: Play on words that have more than one
meaning. For example, bank (of a river), bank
(where one saves money), bark (noise makes by a
dog), bark (cover of a tree). A writer may play
on the meanings of these words. When such occur,
we describe it as pun.
Epic: It is a long narrative poem.
Characterization: It refers to the creation of
characters in a literary work by giving blood
and flesh to fictitious people. The writer is
the creator of his characters. He kills them if

he wants them to die. He defends them if he
wants them to be protected. He makes them behave
the way he wants them to behave. Hence a young
girl in novel can woo a young man in a novel and
even sustain his love without reservation even
though if it may not be possible in real life.
Methods of characterization: (a) explicit method/telling
method and (b) dramatic/ action method. By the explicit
method, the writer makes us know a character via the
authors description, this description include what the
character says about himself and other characters says
about him
The dramatic method: We get to know the character through
what he does or how he handles things and what he says.
Here there is no direct exposition by the author.
Types of Characters
1. Round Characters—they are like real human beings.
They are complex, showing many aspects to their
personality. They change and grow as the story
unfolds.
2. Flat Characters—they have only one side and
usually show a single personality quality. They
remain the same throughout the story.

Elements of Character: to write a note on or analyse a
character, the following elements should be considered:
1. Appearance of the character- what does the character
look like? What kind of clothes does the character normally
wear? What do the above things say about the character?
2. Background of the Character-describe where the character
grows up. Talk about the character’s experiences. Talk
about the character’s education and the occupation of the
character. Mention the hobbies of the character.
3. Personality- is the character shy or outgoing? Is he
emotional or rational? Is he caring or cold? Honest or
dishonest? A leader or follower
4. Motivation- mention what makes the character act as he
acts, what he likes and what he hates as well as his
wishes, dreams, goals, desires, dreams and needs
5. Relationship-describe how the character is related to
other characters in the story; how he interacts with these
relatives, what resulted from these interactions.
6. Conflict-say whether the character is involved in any
conflict, mention the kind of conflict (is it conflict
within him or conflict between him and other characters?)
7. Type of Character-state whether the character changes in
the course of the story; whether he learns and grows or
just remains the same throughout the narration

Flashback: It is a technique used to recall events
that happen before the point at which the work
begins or events that occurred earlier. This
technique is used in the Joys of Motherhood. The
first chapter tells about Nnu Ego running to commit
suicide and how she is prevented from taking her
life. In chapter two the writer continues to recall
all the past events for us to understand what led to
the actions in chapter one.
Flashback is of two types: Narrative flashback and dramatic
flashback. A narrative flashback is that type that relates
the events as a story. While the dramatic flashback is
acted. It is this form that is employed in drama.
Protagonist: It refers to the leading character in a
prose work or drama. It is a word derived from a
Greek word, AGON
Antagonist: The chief character who opposes the
leading character, e.g. in the Merchant of Venice by
William Shakespeare, Shylock is the antagonist.
Suspense: It is a technique used by a writer to
arouse curiosity in the reader. This he may do by
mentioning an important event that occurred without
stating its cause. He gradually reveals what led to

the event as the work unfolds. Suspense is usually
used to sustain the interest of the reader.
Prompter: Somebody who stays behind a scene to
remind actors who forget their lines.
Playwright: Somebody who writes play
Dramatist: A person who writes a play and takes part
in the action.
Novelist: One who writes a novel.
Poet: A person who writes a poem
Poetic licence: It is the freedom a poet has to
enable him use words out of their ordinary usage in
order to achieve special effect
Poetic Justice: Comeuppance on character in a
literary work is called poetic justice.
Narrator: The person who explains what is happening
in a work of literature.
Motif: A dominant or repeated idea in a work of art.
It is also defined as the formula idea or pattern
which forms the main base on which a work of
literature is made or developed.
Parody: A poem meant to amuse which copies the
style, characters and content of a know poet or
writer to mock him.

Pathos: A quality which arouses feeling of pity,
sorrow and sympathy from audience
Actor: A male acting in the performance of a play
E.g. Pete Edochie (Okonkwo) is a popular Nig actor.
Actress: A female who acts in drama. Example:
Genevieve Nnaji is a popular Nigerian actress.
Anthology: A book containing collection of poems
written by different poets.
Bathos: If is a literary device in which word or
ideas are arranged in descending order of
importance, form the sub line to the ridiculous.
E.g. she was once managing director, later his wife
and now his house help.
Anti – Climax: Otherwise termed bathos. It is the
opposite of climax. It is the arrangement of event
or ideas in descending order, i.e. from highest to
lowest, Example: Okoh lost his one million Naira,
his wallet and his handkerchief. Ojo lost his wife,
his building and motorcycle.
Burlesque: It is a poem that ridicules ideas or
objects.
Consume irony: It is also called irony of fate. It
occurs in a literary work in which god or divine
force is presented as if deliberately dominating the

affair of the chief character, giving him false
hopes only to frustrate and humiliate him at the
end.
Anthonomesia: A literary device that employs the
name of a well known person or place to represent
some quality in a similar person, place, event or
object E.g.
(1) Lagos is the New York of Africa (2) wole Soyinka is the
William Shakespeare of Africa.
Caricature: It is the ridiculous imitation of one
person of another person’s manner and character.
Enjambment: It is also referred to as run-on-line.
Enjambment occurs
When ideas or thought unit run from one line of a poem into
another without pause. The line flows on and on into the
one following it.
Mime: It is a drama performed without speaking. The
actors use only gestures and gesticulations in
acting the play.
Malapropism: It is the wrong use of a word which is
far from the meaning of what you want even though
the word sounds like the correct one. It simply
means the inappropriate use of words. E.g. somebody
may want to say Arsenal conceded a goal but say

conceived because he does not know the difference
between them since they sound alike.
Inversion: It is the technique use in turning a
sentence upside down against the normal grammatical
order of the clause, phrase or sentence. E.g. For
man’s salvation Jesus died.
Lineation: It is the arrangement of poem in lines
Catharsis: It is a term used to describe the
purgation of emotion. It is otherwise described as
transfer of feeling from actors to the audience in
a play performance
Cast: A group of people who represent character on
a stage performance.
Epigram: A shot witty poem. Example
A Christian is a man.
Who goes to church on Sunday to confess the sins he
commuted on Saturday which he would continue on
Monday
Prologue: It is defined as short speech at the
beginning of a literary work. It also means
introductory part of work of literature
Meiosis: A figure of contrast that reduces
somebody or an object to an inconsequential size
or status even though the person or object is

actually bigger than what is suggested. This is
used mainly for the sake of comic irony. E.g.
Thompson is but an eye of Marcus.
Exposition: It is the act of explaining and making
clear the background of event or actions that
will occur in advance so as to capture the
audience or reader’s attention.
Anagnorisis: It is an element of tragedy. A point
at which a tragic hero discovered for the first
time, the trap set for him. He is usually
helpless against his fate at this point, hence he
cannot retrace his steps Example: The point at
which Macbeth discovers that Macduff was not born
of a woman.(Macbeth, William Shakespeare). The
three witches had earlier assured him that no man
born of a woman could kill him thus when he
realized that Macduff was not born of a woman, it
dawned on him that he could be killed by him yet
it was two late for him to retrace his steps.
Tragic Flaw: It is also called harmatia. It the
weakness or fault in hero which, exploited by
forces against him, often causes his down -fall
Interlude: It refers to an interval or breaks
between two parts of a drama or play

Epilogue: It is a short speech at the end of a
literary work.
Dues ex Machina: It is the sudden turn of event in
a literary work.
Clown: A character who dresses in a funny manner
and tries to amuse people by his jokes, actions
and tricks.
Climax: It is the peak or highest point in a work
of art where feelings are most intense. It also
means the arrangement of ideas or events in
ascending order. E.g. I came, I saw, I conquered-
Shakespeare William.
* Theatre: It is the arena, structure or a space where play
are performed.
* Prop: It refers to the stage property.
* Costume: It means the clothes or style of dress actors
and actresses wear on stage.
* Pastoral poem: A poem about village or rural life.
* Cloak Room: A room where in which stage property are
kept.
* Stage manager: A person who supervises and provides
general instructions on the production or performance of a
play.
* Aphorism: A brief saying that is true or full of wisdom

* Comedian: A person who acts in comedies or somebody who
tells jokes to entertain people. A female comedian is
termed a comedienne
* Directions: This means all the information or
instructions provided by a writer of a play about the
settings and actions of the characters in a play. These
instructions are usually written in italics and brackets.
The directions in a play tell us whether a character smiles
or smiles sardonically or even cry e.t.c.
* Stage Directions: The instructions telling the actors or
performers what to do. Stage Direction is usually provided
by stage Director.
* Apparent Interrogation: It is similar to rhetorical
question. It means a question which does not need answer
but has literary effect. E.g. “Who disputes that hard-work
leads to success?”
* Foil: A character that contrasts with the virtues of
another character and as such emphasizes the qualities of
the other character.
* Eponym or Eponymous Character: The character mentioned in
the title of a literary work. E.g. Romeo and Juliet are
eponymous characters of the great tragedy by William
Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet. Hamlet is also an eponymous
name used in Hamlet by Shakespeare.

* Autobiography: It is the life history of a person written
by himself. Biography which is mistaken for Autobiography
means the life history of another person written by another
person. For instance, if Juliet writes the life history of
Henry, such a book written by Juliet is called biography.
* Caesura: A pause near the middle of a line of poetry. It
is introduced by a punctuation mark
* Producer: Somebody who is in charge of the financial and
practical responsibilities of making a film/movie or a
play.
* Prolepsis: It refers to mentioning future action in a way
that seemed that the action had been performed or had taken
place E.g. ‘I eat little and I am satisfied’
* Tragedian: Is one who acts a tragedy. Tragedienne is a
female equivalent of tragedian
* Panegyric: A poem that praises and extols somebody’s
qualities (Virtues)
* Epyllion: A narrative poem that is shorter than epic.
* Epithalamion: A poem written in celebration of marriage.
* Prothalamion: A poem in celebration of an independent
marriage.
* Prosody: It is the patterns of sounds and rhythms in
poetry. It is also the study of the pattern in which poetry
is written (versification)

* Exemplum: It is a short story highlighting morals
* Sarcasm: The use of words that are opposite of what you
mean with the intentions to hurt or to be unpleasant to
somebody or to make fun of them
Examples:
(i) James is such a very good student that all his
beautiful classmates are afraid to stay alone with him in
the class.
(ii) The commissioner has embarked on noble capacity
building which include the buying of ‘Okada’ for law
graduates
* Symbol – An object, a sign or person used to represent
another E.g. Candle, water (to represent life), cross (to
represent suffering) e.t.c. whereas symbolism is the use of
symbol to represent somebody, something or a place or an
idea.
* Nostos: A poem whose a subject-matter describes return
journey.
* Synopsis: A brief summary of major events in a story or
play.
* Epitaph: An inscription or words written on a dead
person’s gravestone or tomb.
* Epithet: It is an adjective or phrase used to describe a
person or an object either to praise or criticize.

* Transferred Epithet: An epithet transferred from what it
rightly belongs to another it does not belong. Examples: He
lied all night on a sleepless pillow (Sleepless which
belongs to he, is transferred to pillow (2) Margaret had a
happy Easter holiday (here happy which belongs to Margaret
is transferred to Easter holiday)
* Prosiast: somebody who writes a prose.
* Roman a clef: A novel based on real events and people
with pseudonyms.
* Saga Novel: A prose work that explores the story of a
family or social group over successive generations.
* Travesty: A work of literary which imitates another
literary work in a ridiculous manner to provoke laughter
* Opera: It is a play or drama in which words or most of
the words are meant to be sung.
* Soap Opera: A type of opera that tells a story of the
lives, and problems of a group of people. It is usually
broadcast on the television from time to time.
* Anthimeria: It refers to the use of another part of
speech in place of another. For example an adjective may be
used in place of another part of speech like verb. Or verb
used as noun.
e.g.1. “Gift him with a novel for Valentine “in this
example gift, a noun is used in place of verb.

2. “He worked his did” here did is used as a noon.
* Beggars Opera: a kind of opera which mocks the futility
and vanity of consumption of lace materials.
* Realism: A style that depicts persons or objects in
Literature as they are in real life. It also means the
quality of resembling real life.
* Verisimilitude: this is similar to realism. It is the
quality of appearing to be real or true. A novel that lacks
verisimilitude is termed Romance.
*Travelogue: it is a literary work depicting a person’s
travel experiences.
Curtain Raiser: short play staged before the main action in
a theatre.
Hero: A main male character in the work of art.
Heroine: The Female equivalent of a hero
Tragic Hero: the chief character in a work of Art whose
weakness contributed to his downfall
Anti-Hero: The main character in a story who does not
possess the qualities of a typical hero. He is either
unpleasant or more like an ordinary person.
PAST QUESTIONS
1. A definition that limits Literature to writings negates-
--

(a). Literature of Nigeria (b). literature of pre-
literates societies(c). Literature of Africa (d).
Literature of societies.
2. Literature is derived from a Latin word---
a. littera b.litra c.liffera d.little
3. According to Professor Egudu, Literature is--- a. medium
of expression b. manner of expression c. mode or method of
expression d. idea of expression
4. Literature is a mimetic art means --- a. Literature
imitates life b. Literature is an important Subject c.
Literature is Fine Art d. literature is an Art.
5. The three genres of Literature are --- a. prose, poem
and drama b. play, prose and poetry c. drama novel and
poetry d. drama, poetry and prose
6. Drama is work of art meant for --- A. the theatre B.
stage C. home D. video
7. As listed by Professor J. M. Manley the following are
elements of drama---
A. story, told in action and by actors who impersonate the
characters of the story B. drama poetry and play C. Plot,
conflict and setting D. comic relief, anaphora and
cacophony

8. According to Aristotle Tragedy is meant to arouse the
feelings of --- A shame and fear B. Fear and pity C. Pain
and anger D. love and fear
9. A prose work is usually divided into---
A. Acts B. scenes C. chapters D. stages
10. The following are elements of poetry except---- A.
Stages B. blank verse C. tunes D. conflict
11. The central idea of a literary work is ---
A. its theme B. its idea C. its subject-matter D. its
discussion
12. The ability to understand, enjoy and evaluate a given
literary work is termed ----
A. literature understanding B. understanding literature C.
Literary appreciation D. literature knowledge
13. The four elements of literature include---
A. characters and setting B. characters and theme C.
characters and point of view D. characters and people
14. Pleasantness of sounds in poetry is termed---- A.
cacophony B. euphony C. Anaphora D. Rhymes
Unseen Poetry
Whenever Richard went down town
We people on the pavement looked at him
He was a gentleman from sole to crown
Clean favoured and imperially slim

And he was always quietly arrayed
And he was always human when he talked
But still he fluttered pulses when he said
Good morning; and he glittered when he walked
And he was rich-yes richer than a king
And admirably schooled in every grace
In time, we thought he was everything
To make us wish that we were in his place
So on we worked and waited for the light
And went without the meat, and cursed the bread
And Richard Cory one calm summer night
Went home and put bullet through his head
15. The above poem is written in---
A quatrains B. two good stages C. four stages D. scenes
16. The rhyme-scheme of stage one of the poems is …..
A.abab B. acbd C.aabb D. abda
17. According to the poem, Richard Cory---
A. put a bullet into his head B.commits crime C. commits
suicide D. dies
18. We can understand from the poem that from his head to
his sole of his feet Richard Cory is ---
A. radical man B. troublesome fellow C. talkative D. a
gentleman
19. The themes of this poem include –

A, all that glitters is gold B. all that glitters is not
gold C. somebody dies D. Richard Cory, walking down the
street
20. The last stanza of the poem has the mood of---
A. disturbance B. happiness C. disillusionment D.
resignation
21. A literary work in which action and characters
represent ideas is A. an allusion B. an epigram C. an
allegory D. an innuendo
22. ‘‘Peter’s pretty partner paid the bills’’ is an example
of A. alliteration B. rhyme C. satire D. digression
23. ‘‘O happy torment’’ is an example of A. oxymoron B.
synecdoche C. innuendo D. simile
24. A question which does not require an answer is A.
discourse B. rhetorical C. ironic D. flashback
25. A literary work written in form of a letter is A.
creative B. romantic C. tautological D. epistolary
26. The lawyer addressed the bench” illustrates A. metonymy
B. alliteration C. simile D. oxymoron
27. The concluding part of a play where the conflict is
resolved is the A. resolution B .enjambment C. denouement
D. climax
28. Pick the odd item out of the underlisted A. ode B.
elegy C. sonnet D. simile

29. ‘‘pregnant clouds” is an example of A. cliché B.
litotes C. metaphor D. synecdoche
30. A writer’s choice of words is his A. diction B. Mood C.
tone D. setting
31. The act of creating fictional personages constitutes A.
point of view B. characterization C. narrative technique D.
symbolism
32. Dream is meant to A. teach manner only B. criticize C.
educate and entertain D. be read and acted only
33. A piece of writing which teaches morals is A. serious
B. didactic C. playful D. analytical
34. A poem of fourteen lines is A. an elegy B. a dirge C. a
sonnet D an ode
35. A piece of writing or speech at the beginning of a work
of art is the A. prologue B. dialogue C. monologue D.
epilogue
Read the poem and answer question
At the onset of the rain
The drought-stricken land
Suck up the wetness
And the gates to the filed
Are flung widely open
It is the signal for joyous toiling
At various time of the dayS

The hard and erect hoe
Would thrust and dig deep
Into the receiving wet soil.
Seed in different quantities
Seed of varying potency
Are broadcasted in layers
Into the womb of the earth
With tine and much labour
The seed now transformed
Blossoms and grows into new life!
36. The subject matter of the entreat is A. harvesting B.
rain C. time D. farming
37. The dominant device used in the extract is A. metaphor
B. paradox C. symbolism D. simile
38. ‘‘The hard and erect hoe” connotes A. uprooting of
weeds B. the sowing of seeds C. digging of the soil D.
farming implements
39. ‘‘Joyous toiling” is an example of A. onomatopoeia B.
oxymoron C. irony D. metaphor
40. The last line of the extract suggests the A. growth of
seed B. birth of child C. harvesting of fruits D.
flourishing of flowers
It is here,….., thou art slain;
No medicine in the world can do thee good;

In thee there is not half an hour of life;
The treacherous instrument is in thy hand,
Unabated and envenom’d: the foul practice
Hath turn’d itself on me; lo, here I lie,
(Act 5, scene Two, lines 298-303)
41. The speaker is A. fortinbras B. Guildenstern C. Laertes
D. hamlet
42. The queen has just A. left the scene B. died C. run
away D. arrived
43. The character being addressed is A. Hamlet B. the queen
C. the king D. fortinbras
44. The addressee later A. kills him self B. sleeps off C.
runs away D. stabs the king
45. The setting is A. a hall in the castle B. the
battlefield C. a platform in front of the castle D. the
queen’s room
46. The speaker is A. Polonius B. the king C. hamlet D. the
queen
47. The character being addressed is A. Horatio B.
Marcellus C. Polonius D. Leartes
48. The speaker is suffering from A. malaria B. headache C.
tumor D. hallucination
49. The other character in the scene is A. the king B.
Marcellus C. Polonius D. the queen

50. The character that just left the scene is A. Hamlet and
Horatio B. Rosencrantz and the queen C. the king and the
queen D. the king and the Guildenstern
I shall the affect of this good lesson keep,
As watchman to my heart, but, good my brother
Do not, as some ungracious pastor do,
Show me the step and thorny way to heaven;
While, like a puff’s and reckless libertine,
Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads,
And recks not his own rede.
(Act I, scene Three, Lines 45-51)
51. The speaker is A. Getrude B. Ophelia C Reynaldo D.
Guildenstern
REFERENCES
1. L.A. Hill et al, English Language Teaching Games
2. E. B. Castle, The Teacher
3. Richard .J. Smith and Max .F. Schulz, Journeys, a
Reading and Literature Programme, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich Publishers,(Newyork,1982)
4. Benson Omonode, Background To Literature,
University Press, 1992 Benin City
5. Nanyen Ojukwu, Literature in English, Hybrid
Publishers, 1997, Onitsa

6. Tony .O. Uche,Modern English and Literature,
Primasecter Publications,2001 Enugu Nigeria
7. Chinweikpe Iwuchukwu, Mastering of Literature, 2001
8. Sylvanus Igwebuike, Jamb selected prose and Drama
including Literary appreciation Elites publishers,
2000 Onitsa Nigeria
9. William Shakespeare, the Merchant Of Venice, Longman
ltd, 1962, England
10. West Africa Examination Council, Senior School
Certificate Examination, 2008 Literature-In-English
Questions
11. Prentice Hall, Literature, Silver, Annotated Teachers’
Edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

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