English 23 language research

LANGUAGE RESEARCH
RESEARCH is the investigation of a particular topic
using a variety of reliable, scholarly resources.
RESEARCH is the systematic process of collecting
and analyzing information to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon under study.
RESEARCH is the systematic investigation into and
study of materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.

Nature of RESEARCH
NATURE OF RESEARCH
SYSTEMATIC. Plan, identify, design, collect data,
evaluate
LOGICAL. Examine procedures to evaluate
conclusions.
EMPIRICAL. Decisions are based on data
(observation)
REDUCTIVE. General relationships are established
from data
REPLICABLE. Actions are recorded

THREE MAJOR GOALS OF RESEARCH
* Establishing facts;
* Analyzing information; and
* Reaching new conclusions.
THREE MAIN ACTS OF DOING RESEARCH
* Searching for;
* Reviewing; and
* Evaluating information.
Nature of RESEARCH

TYPES OF RESEARCH SOURCES
1. Knowledge as Belief
Conclusions are not based on empirical
investigation, but on common sense; they should
be considered as bases for forming hypotheses
rather than established knowledge about second
language acquisition and learning.
Nature of RESEARCH

2. Knowledge as Authority
Certain conclusions become acceptable since they
come from a source whose views on a
phenomenon in his/her field of research are
regarded as educated judgement, thereby gaining
popularity. Some methods that were accepted and
became popular on the basis of authority were the
Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and Community
Language Learning.
Nature of RESEARCH

3. A Priori Knowledge
It resembles beliefs, but this type is usually based
on previous systematic investigation, as in the
theory of language acquisition that ‘to make input
comprehensible to learners and to lead ultimately
to successful classroom acquisition’ modified
interaction is important. (Doughty and Pica 1986)
In second language research, theories begin with
a priori knowledge
Nature of RESEARCH

4. Knowledge as Empirical Knowledge
Knowledge is a result of empirical study which
goes through the process of observation and
experiment. The researcher interacts with the real
world. Observes the phenomenon, before he
draws conclusions. Theories are tested carefully
and proven by other researchers who are actually
involved in language research by which they
gather and validate data collected.
Nature of RESEARCH

KINDS OF RESEARCH
1. Basic Research
Also known as “pure” research and is directed
towards the development of a scientific
2. Applied Research
Considered as an action research and is directed
towards practical application of the scientific
knowledge, It attempts to explain certain problems
brought about by certain phenomenon; it modify,
improve an existing theory, or develop a new
theory
Nature of RESEARCH

KINDS OF RESEARCH
3. Practical Research
Directed towards materials development gained
from practical knowledge or experience.
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
How does common sense differ
from research?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
Nature of RESEARCH
What are the different sources
of knowledge?

DISCUSSION POINTS
Nature of RESEARCH
Discuss how the three kinds of
research, contribute to further
understanding and knowledge of
language acquisition and learning
phenomena.

DISCUSSION POINTS
Nature of RESEARCH
Think of a linguistic theory that
might have influenced the
development of methods

NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH
Language Research
Requires consideration of many factors such as
language use, type of users, acquisition process,
setting, research methodology, and related
disciplines.
Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Language Use
Determines primarily whether the language is first,
second, or foreign to the speaker.
A research on the acquisition of either one of these
three uses of language will greatly vary from one
to another.

Type of Users
These takes into accounts the age and
characteristics of the learners. These are closely
tied up with the language acquisition process. It is
a common belief that the young learner acquires
language faster than the adult.

Language Setting
Identifies the environment within which language is
acquired. A native speaker acquires it in a natural
environment – at home, with family members, with
playmates; a second or foreign language learner
acquires it in the classroom under the supervision
of a teacher.

Research Methodology
Determined by the researcher’s philosophy,
motivation for conducting the research and
conditions under which the research is conducted.
A study like this will most likely use tools such as
survey questionnaire and interview.

Related Discipline
Pertain to areas that influences language study
like education, psychology, sociology,
anthropology, and others. A language acquisition
research may consider pedagogy (education),
students’ motivation (psychology), the role of
language in society (sociology), or the origin and
development of the language (anthropology).

FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH
Parameter 1: Approaches
Refers to how one views the language research to
be conducted. It may be viewed in general or
specific perspective.

Considers language as whole in order to get a
clearer picture of the relationship of the parts.
For instance, the researcher is interested in finding the general
difficulties of Chinese students in learning the English language or
an aspect of the language, like its phonology.
1.1 General View

Considers one small part of the language with a
view of fitting it into a coherent view of the whole
problem.
In the study on the difficulties of Chinese students in learning the
phonology of English, the researcher may want to target only the
vowel system, or the consonant system of English.
1.2 Specific Perspective

Parameter 2: Objectives
Concerned with the purpose of the research. It
may aim to discover a certain language
phenomenon and postulate a theory about it
afterwards or it may test an already existing theory,
providing or disapproving it later.
The former is hypothesis-generating; the latter is
hypothesis – testing.

Parameter 2: Objectives
A study investigating the difficulties of Chinese students in
learning the English phonology may later show specific
sounds that the students find difficult in general. From the
findings the researcher may later postulate a theory that
Chinese students find pronouncing sounds of foreign
language that are absent in their first language. In the
study several nationalities were taken as subjects, whose
difficulties were noted and correlated with their first
languages. The results may prove the theory true or false.

Parameter 3: Research Design
Establishes the method used in conducting the
study. It deals with the handling of factors such as
scope, variables, form, and writer’s point of view.
These, in effect, are influenced by approaches and
objectives. A study using general approach aimed
at generating hypothesis may deal with a broad
scope, few variables, less attention to form, and an
objective point of view.

Parameter 3: Research Design
For instance, going back to the earlier example of
a research on the difficulties of Chinese students
in pronouncing English sounds, the scope is broad
because the approach is general; the variables are
limited only to age, and first language; the form
includes all English sounds, and the researcher
relies mostly on his/her interpretative abilities,
making subjectively high.

Parameter 4: Data Collection and Analysis
Data in language research may constitute
observed behaviors such as language
performance, written oral; information provided by
subjects of the study, such as attitude, beliefs,
perceptions; records of language proficiency from
test, class ratings, etc.

DISCUSSION POINTS
How different is language
research from other kinds of
researches? Why is it a
complex process?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
What constitute a language
research paradigm? How do the
parameters of the research
relate to one another?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
Differentiate general from
specific approaches;
hypothesis-generating from
hypothesis testing objectives.
Nature of RESEARCH

Activity #1
Get a language study and identify its
four parameters. Explain your answers
Nature of RESEARCH
Select a topic and outline a plan for it
identifying the four parameters.

Parameter 4: Data Collection and Analysis
After identifying the data needed to pursue the
study, the researcher proceeds to pursue the
study, the researcher proceeds to identifying the
method/s of collecting and analyzing these data
The tools commonly used in gathering language
data are tape, observation, attitude questionnaire,
and metalinguistic test.

STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES
1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem
A. Sources of a Research Problem. A research
topic may be derived from 3 sources: the
researchers experience and interest, other
language researches; researches on allied
disciplines.
PREPARATORY STAGES

A. Sources of a Research Problem
PREPARATORY STAGES
1. Researchers experience and interest. A research
problem may come from the researcher’s personal
experience with the study of language which
he/she finds interesting.

PREPARATORY STAGES
2. Other Language Researches. Most studies
recommend a list of other research topics. From this
list, a researcher may get ideas on interesting topics
to work on.

PREPARATORY STAGES
3. Researches on allied disciplines. Language
study is closely linked with other disciplines as
mentioned earlier. Reading researches in Psychology,
Education, Sociology, Anthropology can provide the
researcher a rich source of topics from which a
research problem may be chosen.

B. Focusing a research problem
PREPARATORY STAGES
After selecting a general topic, the next task to
consider is how to narrow down the topic into
something that can be done within the limits of the
researcher’s environment such as time, resources,
researcher’s expertise. And other conditions under
which the study would be conducted. At this point, the
researcher has to decide whether to work on a
general or specific topic.

C. Formulating the general and specific questions
PREPARATORY STAGES
Having decided to work on a specific aspect of the
topic, the researcher now has to translate this choice
into general and specific questions which will
constitute the research statement of the problem. One
general problem that expresses the entire goal of the
study will be formulated followed by three to five
specific questions inquiring on the particulars of the
general problem.

2. Deciding the appropriate methodology and procedure
A. Choosing the appropriate methodology and
procedure. Decisions on the appropriate method of
research to use depend on the research approach and
objectives used in the study. There are many
methodologies used in language research, but the
common ones are descriptive, and experimental
PREPARATORY STAGES

procedure.
PREPARATORY STAGES
Examples of a descriptive language study are the oral
proficiency of college students in a certain university,
correlation between grades in English and grades in
other academic subjects among high school students,
comparison of difficulties in learning English among
foreign students in the Philippines.

procedure.
PREPARATORY STAGES
Examples of an experimental language study are
effectiveness of multi-intelligence method in teaching
freshman English in college, validation of an
instructional material for teaching English on-line,
comparison of the English proficiencies of regular and
on-line students.

3. Reviewing related literature and studies
A. Reason for review. A review of related literature
and studies is necessary for two primary reasons:
PREPARATORY STAGES
1. To broaden the researcher’s perspective of the
research problem and
2. To help him/her focus the problem into a workable
research question.

A. Sources of related literature and studies
PREPARATORY STAGES
1. Libraries. School and other institution libraries are
the primary provider of information for the review.
2. On-line. Today, much information is provided by the
internet which has boosted research. The researcher
must however, very judicious in selecting materials
because not all information posted online is reliable.

PREPARATORY STAGES
3. Professional Organizations. Some valuable
materials on their specific disciplines are kept by
professional organizations. Attending their conferences
will provide access to these materials.

PREPARATORY STAGES
4. Foreign embassies. Some researches, especially
in social sciences, will find valuable materials in
embassies. A letter requesting access to these
materials endorsed by the student’s adviser and dean
can help facilitate research in these libraries.

DISCUSSION POINTS
What are the preparatory
stages in conducting research?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
How does a researcher decide
on his research topic?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
What criteria should be
considered in focusing the
problem?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
Why is review of related
literature and studies important?
Nature of RESEARCH

DISCUSSION POINTS
Where can related literature and
studies be found?
Nature of RESEARCH

A. TOPIC SELECTION
1. Identifying a Research Topic
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF RESEARCH
1. Identifying a Topic. A research topic focuses the
study to a defined, manageable size. It provides
structure for the steps in the scientific method and is
discussed in many ways by identifying the research
question, the research problem and the purpose of the
research.

A. TOPIC SELECTION
1. Identifying a Research Topic
a. Theory. An organized body of concepts,
generalizations and principles that can be subjected
to investigation. It provides conceptually rich topics
and confirmation of some aspects of the theory
b. Personal Experience
c. Replication
d. Library Immersion
Main Sources of Topic

A. TOPIC SELECTION
2. Narrowing Topic
Problems encountered with broad topics: enlarging the review
of the literature beyond reason, complicating the organization
of the review of the literature itself, and creating studies that
are too general, too difficult to carry out, and too difficult to
interpret.
To help narrow the topics, it might help to talk to experts in the
field like professors in college or department or researchers
known, or to read secondary sources that provide overviews of
the topics such as handbooks and reviews of literature.

A. TOPIC SELECTION
2. Narrowing Topic
There is a difference between narrowing quantitative from
qualitative studies. Quantitative studies tend to narrow the
topic initially while qualitative studies tend to narrow the topic
throughout the research process itself.

A. TOPIC SELECTION
3. Making a Formal Statement of Quantitative and
Qualitative Research Studies
Quantitative research topic identifies the variables of interest
and the nature of the participants, and describes the specific
relationship between the variables.
Qualitative research topic emerges over the course of the
study. It begins as an initial statement that tends to be stated
as a general issue or concern and becomes focused as more
is learned about the context, participants, and phenomena of
interest. It is typically stated late in a written study.

A. TOPIC SELECTION
4. Formulating Researchable and Non-Researchable
Topics
Researchable topics can be investigated through collection
and analysis of data. They have theoretical or practical
significance and have been conducted ethically. They
contribute to the educational processes and can be adequately
researched given the expertise, resources, and time
constraints of the researcher.

A. TOPIC SELECTION
4. Formulating Researchable and Non-Researchable
Topics
Non-Researchable topics address philosophical or ethical
issues. They cannot be resolved through the collection and
analysis of data. They address “should” questions. Ultimately,
these are matters of opinion.

Sample Research Titles:
A phonological Awareness Program for
Indigenous Students of Government
Schools With Hearing Disabilities.
Nature of RESEARCH

Gaming as an Instructional Strategy: Its
Effect on the Enhancement of Learning
for Baccalaureate Education Students
Nature of RESEARCH

Language Teachers’ Use of Audio-lingual
and Grammar-translation Methods of
Foreign of Language Arts.
Nature of RESEARCH

Mnemonic Devices: Their Effect on the
Academic Performance of Students with
Learning Difficulties
Nature of RESEARCH

Review of literature involves the systematic identification,
location, and analysis of documents containing information
related to the research problem.
It is the process of collecting, selecting, and reading books,
journal articles, reports, abstracts, and other reference
materials, including electronic sources about the problem
under investigation.
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Referring to various sources, the following information may be
collected:
 Background information about the problem and related
concepts.
 Theories that explain the existence of the problem and the
possible connection between certain factors and the problem.
 Data that confirm the existence and seriousness to the
problem.
 General and specific findings of studies related to the
problem.
 Recommendations for further study given in related studies.

1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:
a. It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem.
A new problem may arise from research problem. A new
problem may arise from vague results, conflicting findings, or the
inability of study variables to adequately explain the existence of
the problem.

b. It helps justify the need for studying a problem. When findings
of related studies are not clear or do not provide
adequate/conclusive answers to certain issues or questions,
then the conduct of a study is justified.

c. It helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a study. There
are many research problems that are already “over studied:
and yet, similar studies are still being conducted. If a
researcher has adequately reviewed related literature about
his/her study, unnecessary duplication can be avoided.

d. It can be a source of theoretical basis for the study.
Correlation studies usually use or generate theories to explain
the research phenomenon under study. Researchers may use
or adopt the same theory of theoretical framework used in the
related studies.

e. It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a
research problem and properly identify and operationally define
study variables.

f. It provides a basis for identifying and using appropriate
research design. It also helps in the formulation or refinement
of research instrument.
g. Results of related studies provide lessons for data analysis
and interpretation. Findings of a study can be compared to
findings of related studies.

2. Functions of a Review
Specifically, the review seeks to:
a. Determine what has been done already;
b. Provide insights necessary to develop a logical framework
into which the topic fits;
c. Provide the rationale for the hypotheses being investigated
and the justification of the significance of the study;
d. Identify potentially useful methodological strategies; and
e. Facilitate the interpretation of the results.

3. General guidelines for the scope of the review
When considering the scope of one’s review, the researcher
should be reminded of the following guidelines:
a. Bigger does not mean better.
b. Heavily researched topics provide enough references to
focus only on the major studies.
c. Lesser researched topics require reviewing any study
related in some meaningful way even if this means
searching related fields.

4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:
a. Identifying words to guide the search. It is important to
experiment with several keywords and combinations of
them. “Legal” key words used for particular data bases like
the ERIC Thesaurus which can be accessed through the
ERIC homepage.

b. Identifying sources. This may be classified as primary and
secondary or empirical and opinion. It is important to use
secondary sources such as handbooks, encyclopedias, and
reviews early in the review process because they broaden and
narrow keyword searches.

c. Abstracting the information found in the references. To
summarize references, there are seven steps suggested:
1. Read the article abstract;
2. Skim the entire article;
3. Record complete bibliographic information;
4. Classify and code the article;
5. Summarize the article;
6. Identify thoughts about the article you believe important and
7. Indicate direct quotes properly.

c. Abstracting the information found in the references
1. Begin with the most recent references and move toward the
most dated;
2. Record all bibliographic information such as author, date of
publication, title, journal name or book title or website name,
volume and issue, pages, library call number or URL;
3. Identify direct quotes and record page numbers;
4. Identify main ideas.

c. Analyzing, organizing and reporting
This is the time to make important decisions regarding the
following: the outline review, and the technical nature of
reporting which includes the use of formal language and
adherence to prescribe style (e.g., APA)

c. Analyzing, organizing and reporting
The review may be grouped by topics, analyzed for similarities
and differences within subheadings and discussed from the
most relevant studies, to the least relevant studies. It must
include a discussion on the implication related to the research
problem.

C. PARTS OF THE REVIEW
1. Introduction
The introduction briefly describes the nature of the researcher
problem and explains what led the researcher to investigate
the question. The summary presents the main topics covered
in the literature review section.

2. Body
The body of the review briefly reports what experts think or
what other researchers have found about the research
problem. Studies done on one key element or factor of the
research problem are reviewed under that topic followed by
studies done on other aspects of the problem. The common
findings of several studies are summarized in one or two
sentences and only when necessary, some specific findings of
each study may be presented.

3. Summary/Synthesis
The summary/synthesis of the literature review “ties together”
the major findings of the studies reviewed. It presents a
general picture of what has been known or thought of about
the problem to date. It points out similar results, as well as
conflicting findings.

4. Conclusion
This part presents the course of action suggested by the
literature. Based on the state of knowledge revealed by the
literature, the researcher could further justify the need for
his/her study.

A. RESEARCH PLAN
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH
1. The Necessity of a Research Plan
A research plan is detailed description of the procedures that
will be used to investigate your topic or problem. It is a
justification for the hypothesis or exploration of the research
problem. It is a detailed presentation of the steps to be
followed in conducting the study.
A research plan forces the researcher to think through every
aspect of the study. It facilitates the evaluation of the
proposed study and provides detailed procedures to guide the
conduct of the study.

A. RESEARCH PLAN
2. Qualitative Research Plan
Qualitative studies are characterized by open-ended,
emergent designs. Research plans must be responsive to the
context and setting as well as the flexibility of the design. Prior
fieldwork influences the research plan of qualitative studies.
The authors recommend pre-proposal fieldwork to help
understand the socio-cultural context of the setting.
Alternatives include drawing on one’s own experiences or the
literature.

A. RESEARCH PLAN
2. General Issues to Consider When Developing a
Research Plan
There are three important issues to consider in a research
plan: Ethics of research, general considerations and legal
restrictions.
The five ethical principles are: a) Beneficence and non-
malfeasance, b) fidelity and responsibility, c) integrity and e)
respect for people’s rights and dignity.

B. VARIABLES
1. Definition of Variables
A variable is a concept that stands for a variation within a
class of objects or persons. It is a characteristic or property
that can take different values or attributes. Variables are the
basic elements which are measured in a study. They are
observable and measurable.

B. VARIABLES
1. Definition of Variables
The operational definition gives a specific meaning to the
variable . The definition clarifies how a variable or term is
used and measured in the study. A. variable must be defined
in terms of events/units of measurement that are observable
by the senses. These events/units of measurement serve as
indicators of the variable.

B. VARIABLES
2. Types of Variables
a. Dependent Variable. The “assumed effect” of another
variable. It is the change that occurs in the study population
when one or more factors are changed or when an
intervention is introduced. Usually dependent variable is the
problem itself.

B. VARIABLES
b. Independent Variable. The “assumed cause” of a
problem. It is assumed reason for any “change” or variation in
a dependent variable. An independent variable is sometimes
treated as “antecedent” variable (the variable before).
Likewise, an “antecedent” variable may be treated as an
“independent” variable.

B. VARIABLES
c. Intervening Variable. A factor that works “between” the
independent variables. It can weaken (decrease) or
strengthen (increase) the effect of the independent on the
dependent variables. It is also called a “facilitating variable,”
“moderator” or a “control variable”

C. HYPOTHESIS
1. Defining a hypothesis
A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess or a tentative
answer to a question. It is a statement about an expected
relationship between two or more variables that can be
empirically tested.
It is a researcher’s tentative prediction of the results of the
research formulated on the basis of knowledge of the
underlying theory or implications from the literature review.
Testing a hypothesis leads to support of the hypothesis or lack
thereof.

C. HYPOTHESIS
2. Two views of hypothesis
a. Inductive. A generalization made from a number of
observations. It is typical of qualitative studies.
b. Deductive. Derived from theory and aimed at providing
evidence to support, expand, or contradict aspects of that
theory. It is typical or quantitative studies.

C. HYPOTHESIS
3. Functions of a hypothesis
a. A single hypothesis might state that an independent
variable is associated with a dependent variable.
b. Sometimes a hypothesis specifies that, under certain
conditions (x, y, and z), variable A is associated with or can
influence variable B.
c. Some hypotheses may state that a particular characteristic
of a person or object varies according to another variable.

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
Hypotheses can be classified either as null or alternative
hypothesis, directional or non-directional hypothesis, and
quantitative or qualitative hypothesis.

C. HYPOTHESIS
A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates the
absence of a relationship/correlation between two variables,
an absence of a significant difference between the proportions
of two groups of people or objects possessing a particular
characteristic or an absence of difference between or among
the means of two or more groups with respect to a particular
variable.
a. Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis

C. HYPOTHESIS
An alternative hypothesis, also called the research
hypothesis. It may state the presence of a significant
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables, or the presence of a significant difference between
two means or two proportions.
A null hypothesis is a statistical statement that states that no
statistically significant relationship or difference exists
between variables.
a. Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis

C. HYPOTHESIS
A directional hypothesis states whether the relationship
between two variables is direct or inverse or positive or
negative. A positive or direct relationship is present when the
value of one variable increases with the increase in the value
of another. The relationship is negative when the value of one
variable increases as the value of another decreases.
b. Directional vs Non-directional Hypotheses

C. HYPOTHESIS
Directional hypothesis is a statement of the expected direction
of the relationship or difference between variables
Non-Directional is a statement that no relationship or
difference exists between the variables.
Non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction of
relationship between variables. It merely states the presence
or absence of a relationship between two variables or that one
variable influences another, or there is a significant difference
in the mean values of the two variables.
b. Directional vs Non-directional Hypotheses

C. HYPOTHESIS
A good quantitative hypothesis is based on sound reasoning.
It provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted
outcome. It clearly and concisely states the expected
relationships between variables. It is testable.
b. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Hypothesis

C. HYPOTHESIS
MATRIX OF SAMPLE HYPOTHESIS
Types of Hypotheses
Types of Independent Variables
Qualitative (Categorical) Quantitative (Continuous)
Directional Group differences exist; one
group expected to perform
better than the other groups
(2).
Example: Group A will do
better than Group B.
Either a positive or negative
relationship will exist.
Example: Higher scores on A
are associated with higher
scores on B.
Example: Higher scores on A
are associated with lower
scores on B

C. HYPOTHESIS
Types of Hypotheses
Non-Directional Group differences exist; but it
is not clear which group will
do better.
Example: There will be a
difference between groups A
and B
Relationship will exist, but it is
not clear if it will be positive or
negative.
Example: Variable A
associated with variable B.

C. HYPOTHESIS
Types of Hypotheses
Null No difference expected;
groups will do the same.
Example: There is no
difference between groups A
and B.
No relationship expected.
Example: Variable A is not
associated with variable B.

C. HYPOTHESIS
5. How to Write Hypothesis
In writing hypotheses, one must remember the following:
a. Hypothesis, must be written in simple understandable
language.
b. Hypothesis must focus on the variables. One must keep in
mind the distinction between independent and dependent
variables.

A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research is heuristic and not deductive, since
decisions about research questions or data are made before
the study begins based on observations and not focus on a
hypothesis based in existing theory like ethnographic
methodologies.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Qualitative Research may be utilized in language research
when the researcher is concerned with ‘discovering and
describing language acquisition’ in the natural situation where
it cannot be predicted specifically how an activity will affect
certain linguistic behavior. The ultimate goal, therefore, is to
discover patterns of language behavior not yet explained such
that behavior is understood from the perspectives of the
language.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Researchers engaged in qualitative research are participant –
observers themselves. They participate and record their
observations and experiences in diaries while participating in
the very act they are describing. In some cases, the study
involves non-participant observation. The researcher records
his observations of the linguistic events, but without the use of
a questionnaire or other research tools (Long 1983). It aims to
‘reconstruct’ accurately what the language issues from the
perspective of the subjects themselves.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Qualitative Methods are useful, not only in providing rich
descriptions of complex phenomena, but in constructing or
developing theories or conceptual frameworks, and in
generating hypotheses to explain those phenomena.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Main Types of Qualitative Research
Case Study
Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-
depth a single case example of the phenomena. The case
can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an
institution.
Grounded Theory
Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data
acquired by a participant-observer.
Phenomenology
Describes the structures of experience as they present
themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory,
deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Main Types of Qualitative Research
Ethnography
Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field
observation of socio cultural phenomena. Typically, the
ethnographer focuses on a community.
Historical
Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses
concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that
may help to explain present events and anticipate future
events. (Gay, 1996)

RESEARCH DESIGN
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research
 Naturalistic inquiry, or ethnography, has its roots in
anthropology and sociology and involves long-term
exposure to a setting or a group of people. It is used when
situations are unique or complex, when the level of
uncertainty about the questions to ask is high and when
there is a little or no theory to direct the investigator,

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Case studies copes with the technically distinctive situation
in which there will be many more variables of interest than
data points, and as one result relies on multiple sources of
evidence, with data needing to converge in triangulating
fashion. The case study approach can involve a single
event or multiple cases and can be short or long term.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Structured Observations of meetings. This involves
attending meetings of the group that you wish to research
on. This can also be extended to observation of individuals
in their daily work routine or on special tasks. The purpose
of observing is to learn what is going on at the meeting and
witness the group dynamic in process. This can be a rich
information source as it can give researchers insight into
the group.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Content analysis of documents. This is a non-intrusive
form of research. This involves reviewing documents,
memos or other pieces of written information for content
and themes. By examining written word, the researcher is
studying one type of communication that occurs in the
selected sample.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Collection and analysis of other archival administrative
and performance data. This method also is non-intrusive.
Information that has been previously collected, or
secondary data, are reviewed to gain a better
understanding into the topic. This information is part of the
organization’s history and can be a valuable key to
understanding the past.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Focus groups usually explore specific issues. Focus
groups, unlike individual interviews, provide the added
dimension of the interactions among members. It is often
combined with more quantitative approaches such as
surveys that can be administered at different points in the
group discussion and even used as grist for additional
discussion.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Cognitive Interviews are typically used in survey
development. One-on-one interviews are conducted as the
individuals complete the instrument of being tested. This
method helps the investigators understand how people
perceive and interpret language and their own experiences
as they refine the survey intruments.

RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Process of Conducting Qualitative Research
a. Define the phenomenon or problem situation of language to
be described.
At the beginning of the study, the focus of the research
situation may not be definite, however, as the investigation
progresses, narrowing the scope of the observations as
regards what specific areas of the language activity to be
studied is essential.

RESEARCH DESIGN
b. Use qualitative methods to gather data.
Data collection may range from observations, tapes,
questionnaires, interviews, case histories, and field notes. The
variety of sources of data provides insights not available in an
experimental method. Moreover, it facilitates “validation and
triangulation” of data.

RESEARCH DESIGN
d. Validate initial conclusions by returning to the data or
collecting more data.
Once pattern have been established, the researcher must
verify the findings through triangulation, i.e. confirming the
findings by re-inspection or demonstrating the same findings
through different sources. Replication of the study will show
whether there are variables in the initial investigation that
might have caused the language learning behavior different
from what it would be if not studied.

RESEARCH DESIGN
e. Return to step 1 and repeat the cycle to redefine the area of
focus based on the first cycle.
Although the data have been analyzed in the initial stage, it is
still important ‘to redefine’ and to gradually narrow down the
focus of the study. This can be done by re-examining the data
or collecting additional data utilizing the same methods but
‘more focused methods.

B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Scope of Descriptive Research
Descriptive research, on the other hand, can be heuristic or
deductive. The investigation employs existing data or non-
experimental research with a preconceived hypothesis. The
researchers begin with a specific focus or general and specific
questions regarding the problem-situation to be studied.
In summary, descriptive methods when used in language
research provide information and insights related to language
development which may serve as bases for drawing essential
universal conclusions about language acquisition and learning.

RESEARCH DESIGN
2. Uses of Descriptive Research
Should a researcher be interested in describing in detail the
language performance in particular grammatical forms of an
individual, a case study is most appropriate.

RESEARCH DESIGN
3. Tools in Descriptive Research
To collect data in descriptive research, Seliger and Sholamy
suggest the following tools:
a. Surveys and questionnaires are useful tools to gather data
from a large group of respondents. The questions may vary
depending on the relevance of the data to the study goals. It is
also important that the variables of the study should be evident
in the content of the questionnaire.

RESEARCH DESIGN
b. Self-reports and questionnaires are utilized to describe the
‘language status’ of the learner during the period of language
learning situations. Since the study is based on preconceived
hypothesis, only identified data may be selected.

RESEARCH DESIGN
c. Language Tests may take in the forms of writing
assignments or communicative classroom activities. These
activities are carefully planned to elicit specific data such as
the learner’s proficiency to use wh-questions or any identified
language forms. Standardized tests may also be used.

RESEARCH DESIGN
d. Observations are used normally to gather data already
identified before the investigation begins. However, the
collection of data should be well-planned, including the design
of the observation instrument, to ensure the reliability of the
observations.

RESEARCH DESIGN
4. Steps in conducting Descriptive Research
1. Identify the specific problem which you want to describe;
2. Be definite on the size of the respondents of the study; for
case studies one or two will do;
3. Decide on method/s of data gathering based on the types
of data to be elicited;
4. Gather data, utilizing the field –tested instrument chosen;
lastly
5. Organize and analyze the data from which conclusions
may be drawn.

C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Scope of Experimental Research
 The experimental research must always be analytic.
 The experimental method is the only resign design that can
truly test hypothesis concerning cause and effect
relationship since investigation is rigorous, intensive and
exacting.
 The experimental method also involves a more thorough
analysis of variable factors
 This type of research also involves manipulation of and
control of variables, specifically the independent variables,
to measure both internal and external validity.

RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Scope of Experimental Research
Control refers to the efforts of the researcher to get rid of the
influence of any variable other than the independent variable
which might influence the performance of the dependent
variable. It is important since the purpose of the research is to
determine which treatment is most effective in the language
learning performance of the learners.

RESEARCH DESIGN
2. Major Components of Experimental Research
a. The population. An experiment research involves two
groups: an experimental group and a control group. The
experimental group receives treatment under investigation –
as in receiving multiple intelligences – based instructional
approach – and the control group receives another treatment
or the usual approach used by the language teacher.

RESEARCH DESIGN
b. The Treatment. This refers to the independent variable in
the research, such as the exposure of the experimental group
to the MI-based instructional approach to determine its effect
on the language achievement of the students. The effect of the
manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent
variable (language achievement) is observed or measured.

RESEARCH DESIGN
c. Measurement or observation may be done by means of a
language test or communicative tasks.
Campbell and Stanley (1963) established the following
components of experimental designs where:
X – represents an experimental treatment, e.g. exposing a
group of students to instructional materials designed applying
metacognitive strategies,

RESEARCH DESIGN
c. Measurement or observation may be done by means of a
language test or communicative tasks.
O – symbolizing the observation or the effects of the treatment
being measured in relation to the language achievement of the
students
R - refers to the random grouping of the respondents

RESEARCH DESIGN
3. Categories of Experimental Research
 One-spot Case Study: X= treatment; O = observation
This research design is considered a pilot study or pre-
experimental design, in which one group receives a treatment
(X) and then observed and given a post test (O). The defect of
this design is it is devoid of control over the variables involved.
a. Single Group Designs

RESEARCH DESIGN
 One-spot Case Study: X= treatment; O = observation
Example: A second language teacher employs a task-based
approach in enhancing the English proficiency of the learners.
After a month of exposing the subjects to the approach, a
post-test is administered to the students. The results reveal
that the learners perform well.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 One-Group Pre-test – Post – test Design: O1=; X =
treatment; O2
This design is preferred than the single –spot case study
design. The group is exposed to a certain experimental
treatment, but before the start of the study, the group is given
a post-test. It involves only one group, so it does not need to
be compared or matched to another group. Subjects are
observed, or tested twice on the dependent stimuli.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 One-Group Pre-test – Post – test Design: O1=; X =
treatment; O2
Example: A language instructor would like to determine the grammatical
knowledge and fluency of the students on embedding sentences into
word, phrase, and clause modifiers which becomes the experimental
factor. Thus, the teacher gives the group a pre-test for the target
grammatical structure which serves as a ‘base line norm’ of the extent of
the respondents’ knowledge on the structure being measured. After the
instruction or the treatment is given, a post-test is administered to the
same group of students.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Time-Series Designs
Respondents are subjected to a series of observations and
measurements before and after a treatment is administered. This
procedure allows the researcher to disregard any events, such as
incidental exposure to a language material outside the classroom
instruction, that occur between the series of measurements over an
extended period of time, The researcher establishes a normal pattern of
change emerging from the series of measurements spaced over several
weeks.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Time-Series Designs
Example: To investigate the efficacy of the instruction in relation to the learners’
accuracy and fluency on the correct form and usage of the three degrees of comparison
of adjectives and adverbs, a treatment consisting of lessons on the subject of the study
designed. Before the treatment, the learners are given series of writing descriptive
paragraph exercises in which students’ usage of the language forms is tallied and
measured. Likewise, after the treatment the same group of learners are given writing
assignments on descriptive paragraphs and their usage of adjectives and adverbs are
observed and measured. Any noticeable difference the observation prior to the
treatment is ascribed definitely to result from the treatment.

RESEARCH DESIGN
 The Static-Group Comparison
This design in which a group which has experienced treatment
is compared with a group which has not received treatment,
for the purpose of determining the effect of the X (treatment).
b. Control Group Designs

RESEARCH DESIGN
 The Pretest-Posttest Control Group
This design involves two groups formed by randomization. This
procedure allows a better control of the variables that may influence the
internal validity. Randomization of subjects distribute the effect of
extraneous variables equally to both group, particularly if the subject
population is large. Both groups are pretested and posttested, but only
one group receives the experimental treatment. The second group
representing the control group prevents the treats to internal validity.
Selection is taken care by randomization.
b. Control Group Designs

RESEARCH DESIGN
Factorial means that two or more independent variables are
being investigated. Factorial designs allow the researcher to
measure the main effect of each independent variable on the
dependent variable as well as the interaction effects of these
independent variables.
The pretest establishes the level of the subjects’ proficiency
before they were exposed to the experimental task.
c. Factorial Designs

RESEARCH DESIGN
The design is considered quasi-experimental since there is
difficulty in controlling variables. These designs involve just
one group, pretested and posttested four times. The multi-
testing prevents the incidence of maturation, testing, ang
regression as threats to internal validity.
d. Quasi-experimental Designs

RESEARCH DESIGN
Quasi-experimental research is best appropriate for pilot
studies and classroom based research because it is designed
under conditions familiar to the existing situations on real
language classroom setting, thus it is met with less resistance
by language teacher.
d. Quasi-experimental Designs
See for Language Research samples from pp. 68-76

A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
1. Data Collection by Observations
The use of observation as a tool in gathering data has gained
increasingly in classroom-based research studying second
language learning and teaching processes. It is aimed at
investigating classroom situations and learners and teachers’
behaviors toward a language phenomenon. An example is
establishing the frequency and types of intrasentential and
intersentential code switching among students and teachers.

1. Data Collection by Observations
Observations may be structured or unstructured. It is said to
be structured if the researcher has pre-determined what data
he/she wishes to look for in the research situation like
classroom interaction analysis. Data are obtained using a
checklist, numerical scales and rating scales. On the other
hand, open observations are considered unstructured since
the researcher records all behaviors happening
simultaneously, without establishing specifically in advance
what aspects of the language behavior will be observed.

2. Data Collection through Interviews
Interviews are used to gather data about the language
learners’ attitude and motivation for learning the target
language. Researchers have also employed interviews in
determining learners’ strategies in acquiring and learning a
second language in different situations.

2. Data Collection through Interviews
In summary, the nature of the interview will determine the data
obtained which in turn will dictate the procedure for analyzing
the data. Data collection through interviews may yield higher
response rate, greater chance to evaluate validity of reports;
minimal instance of questions without response, and
opportunity for more in-depth probing of phenomenon being
investigated.

3. Data Collection through Verbal Reports
Verbal reporting may be elicited through thinking aloud,
introspection, and retrospection.
Thinking aloud yields rich information kept in short term
memory while learners are engaged in a particular language
task since they are instructed to say aloud everything they
think. (Hayes and Flower 1980)

3. Data Collection through Verbal Reports
Verbal reporting may be elicited through thinking aloud,
introspection, and retrospection.
Introspection requires the learners to observe and report how
their minds work while performing a particular task.
Retrospection investigates thoroughly the subjects for
information after they have performed a particular language
task. The learners are asked to describe their cognitive
strategies and mind processes while they were performing the
task.

4. Data Collection through Questionnaires
Questionnaires consist of pre-arranged questions requiring
written responses from the respondents of the study. This
procedure is usually used with interviews and other
procedures to collect data on behavior not easily observed and
to establish background information about respondents’
language learning.

Open Questionnaires will elicit more descriptive responses like
essays and narratives. The structured questionnaires require
respondents to mark responses or to select from among a
number of choices. However, it is possible to combine open
and closed types of questions in the instrument.

To facilitate collection using questionnaire, Catane (2000) suggests that
the questionnaire includes the following:
1. The purpose of the study – for what reason the data obtained will be
used.
2. Statement affording protection to the confidentiality of the
respondents’ responses.
3. Endorsement of the institution behind the research
4. Legitimacy of the researcher by identifying his name and position
5. Request for cooperation
6. Specific instructions on how the responses to the question may be
marked or answered.

5. Data Collection through Tests
Test are generally used to gather data regarding the respondent’s lexical,
semantic and grammatical knowledge and proficiency focusing on the
features and usage of the second language.
Like other data collection procedures, language tests vary depending on
the degree of explicitness.
It is also important to consider that in choosing and adapting an
instrument, revisions to be made in existing standardized tests should
change the principles or theory from which the measurement is based.

B. STAGE OF DATA COLLECTION
Developing instruments for data collection entails 6 stages:
1. Operationalizing abstract variables into concrete and measurable
ones;
2. Identifying variables which can be quantified and interpreted based on
current language theories;
3. Choosing data collection procedures suitable to the type of data to be
measured;
4. Putting together items and tasks to be administered to the
respondents;
5. Pilot testing and trying out the instrument for revision and
improvement; and
6. Removing and modifying items to suit the time period of the
administration of the instrument and using the instrument.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
Descriptive research generally uses different types of
descriptive statistics: frequencies, central tendencies or
average, variability. Descriptive statistics provides insights and
information on how language elements like structures, lexicon,
and speech acts are commonly used by varied learners in
different contexts, and the relationship of the different aspects
of the data.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
Frequencies (f) indicate the number of occurrences of a
language phenomenon, as well as provide meaningful
information and initial insights/impressions, and better
understanding of the learners’ proficiency on the language
elements which are the focus of the study. Data may be
presented on a frequency table, graph, or crossbreak table.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
Measures of Central tendencies include the mean, mode and
median. These measures provide information about the
average and typical behavior of the language learners as
regards the linguistic elements being investigated. The mean
Refers to the measure obtained by adding all scores which
occur most frequently in the large group of respondents. The
median is the score which divides the population into two in
which half of the scores are above and half are below it.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
Measures of variability provide information on the dispersion
of the behaviors among the population of the study. The most
commonly used is standard deviation (S.D) which refers to the
deviation of scores from the mean . Specifically, it is ‘the
square root of the average square distance of the scores from
the mean’. Another measure of variability is the variance which
is a measure of dispersion of the set of scores and which is
used in analyzing data from experimental and multivariate
research.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
The t-test analysis is the comparison of the means of two
groups of two groups of respondents. It helps the researcher
establish whether or not the difference between the two
groups samples, and that the results of the treatment oare not
merely due to chance.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
One way analysis of variance examines the differences in
more than two groups and it results in an F value which
indicates the level of significance of the differences between
the two groups. A significant F occurs when the variability
among the groups is greater than the variability among or
between the groups, the F value is insignificant.

C. DATA ANALYSIS
Chi-Square data analysis procedure is used to test
significant differences between a set of expected values and a
set of values observed in a sample. This technique is widely
used in analyzing data in second language (L2) acquisition
studies, since many issues in L2 acquisition investigation of
frequencies of particular language behaviors by varied types of
L2 learners in different context.

DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH
INITIAL PAGES
* Title Page
* Approval Sheet
* Acknowledgement
* Dedication
* Table of Contents
* List of Tables
* List of Figures

TITLE PAGE
The following information needs to be on the title page:
* The title (and possibly the subtitle) of your research
paper
* First name and surname of the author(s)
* Faculty and department
* Place and date of completion

APPROVAL SHEET
* This is to prove that the authors have passed the
requirements needed for the research paper.
* This is signed by the research instructor, panel and
the Dean.
* This also states the grade obtained by the author/s.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
* This is a page focused on expressing gratitude to
organizations, agencies or individuals who, in one way
or another, have aided the researchers in finishing the
research paper.

DEDICATION
* This is a page for dedicating the research paper to
certain people or groups who have inspired the
researchers while doing the research paper.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
* The table of contents is essentially a topic outline of
the research.
* It is compiled by listing the headings in the research
paper down to whichever level you choose.

LIST OF TABLES/LIST OF FIGURES
* Include a list of figures (illustrations) and a list of
tables if you have one or more items in these
categories.
* Use a separate page for each list.
* List the number, caption, and page number of every
figure and table in the body of the research paper.

TITLE OF CHAPTERS
* Problem and Its Background
* Review of Related Literature and Studies
* Methodology of the Study
* Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
* Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

LANGUAGE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 1The Problem and Its Setting

A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:
a. Introduction. This provides general information about the
topic chosen, its role or importance in society and discusses
the reason why the researcher became interested in the study.
For example. If the study pertains to Social and Cultural
Implications of Name-Calling in the name-calling practices of
Filipinos where, when and how they originated, and why was
the writer interested in the phenomenon.
(Refer to Sample Researches in Module VI for examples of introduction)

b. Setting of the Study. It specifically gives information
regarding the location of the study, which may include the
country, the province, the city, or the institution where the study
was conducted.
For example, refer to page 109

d. Statement of the Problem. It is usually stated in one broad
statement followed by specific questions that relate to the
problem.
For example, refer to page 110

d. Statement of the Problem. Answers to the questions when
put together provide answer to the general problem.
 Begin with a broad statement expressing the general
concern of the study.
 Ask a series of three or more questions related to the
general problem.
 Arrange questions in logical order.
 Avoid yes/no questions.
(Refer to Sample Researches in Module VI

e. Assumption of the Study. Some extraneous factors in the
study are beyond the control of researcher. He/She can only
assume that his/her study was conducted under required
conditions.
For example, he/she has to assume that the questionnaires
were answered honestly and that the records provided by
certain sources are true and accurate.
(Refer to the Sample in page 112

f. Hypotheses. These are statements drawn regarding the
outcome of the study before the conclusion is reached.
For example, the researcher might state that there is no
significant difference in the perceptions of respondents
regarding the social and cultural implications of their name-
calling practices. The statement is usually given in the null or
negative form.

g. Significance of the Study. The researcher must justify
his/her choice of problem by showing its practical importance
especially to the intended readers of the study.
What benefit for example, will society derive from a study on
name-calling practices in the Philippines.

h. Scope/Delimitation and Limitations of the Study. It
states that what the study covers and fix its boundaries.
Limitations specify certain constraints in the study which are
essential, but which the researcher may state that his/her
study is concerned only with the name-calling practices among
Filipinos (scope) in a rural community (delimitation). It will not
include Filipinos in an urban community (limitation).

i. Definition of Terms. It is necessary to clarify terms used in
the study by defining them contextually or operationally. It may
also include newly invented or coined words, technical terms,
or terms with special meaning.

LANGUAGE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 2Review of Related Literature

2. Chapter 2 contains review of related literature and studies
which is divided into the following sub-sections:
a. Local Literature. This includes books, magazines, newspapers,
journal articles written by local authors.
b. Foreign Literature. This includes the same type of materials in the
local literature but written by foreign authors.
c. Local Studies. These are studies that refer to graduate and
undergraduate these or dissertations. Those written by local authors
are classified as local literature; those by foreign authors are foreign
studies.
d. Foreign Studies. The are the same as local studies except that they
are done by foreign researchers.

LANGUAGE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 3Methods and Procedure

3. Chapter 3 explains the methods and procedure which
contain the following:
a. Method of Research. This specifies the research methodology of the
study, explains how the method will be used and how it will be
applied in the study. Most language researches use descriptive,
experimental or correlational method.
A description of a language proficiency of a particular group is
descriptive; testing the effectiveness of a teaching strategy in language is
experimental; showing the relationship of academic grades in English
with board examination ratings is correlational.

c. Sampling Technique. This is important when the total population is
big and the researcher decides to use only a representative group for
practical reasons. The common types of sampling techniques are
random, purposive, and stratified. Using odd numbers in the list of
students to choose the respondents is a random sampling technique.
Setting specific criteria such as academic grades, age, nationality, etc.
for selecting the respondents is purposive. Getting a proportional
number to represent specific groups like year level, regional
classification, etc. is stratified sampling.

d. Procedure of Data Gathering. This explains the sources
of data. If different instruments were used in collecting data,
the study should describe how they were utilized. For
instance, a survey study using a questionnaire should state
whether it is an adapted or an original instrument. Either way,
the researcher should describe how it was adapted or
constructed and validated.

e. Statistical Treatment of Data. This enumerates the
formulas used for interpreting the data and explains why they
are necessary. It also includes the scale and verbal
interpretation of scores. If professional help was sought in
statistical processing of data, the name of the office or
agency or person taking charge of it should be mentioned.

LANGUAGE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 4Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
arranged in the same order as the specific questions in the
statement of the problem in Chapter 1. This is the part of the
study where tables are often constructed to help clarify or
simplify the presentation specifically if the data consist of a
large number of statistical and numerical items.

 How to phrase a Table Heading
a. A table heading is generally expressed in phrase or clause
form. It should be short and simple.
Examples:
Table 1: Percentage and Frequency Distribution of Students by
School/College (Redundant)
Table 2: Classification of Students by School/College
(Preferable)

b. Table headings should follow a logical order. Demographic
tables are presented first, followed by non-demographic items
in the questionnaire.

c. Headings should be expressed in parallel forms. Parallelism
is the deliberate use of similar grammatical elements in similar
constructions to ensure consistency of expression.
Examples: (Parallel)
Table 3: Students’ Attitude towards the English Subject as
Perceived by their Teachers
Table 4: Students’ Attitude towards the English Language as
Perceived by their Teachers

Examples: (Non-Parallel)
Table 3: Students’ Reading Proficiency based on their English
Proficiency Test
Table 4: The Students’ Proficiency in Grammar According to
their English Proficiency Test

 How to Phrase a Body Entry
The same rules that apply to phrasing a table heading also
apply to body entries, except that in the body, items may be
expressed in complete sentences. Entries in the body should
also follow a logical order and should be expressed in parallel
form.

 How to Format Tables
a. Spacing. Tables placed within the text should be spaced 3
spaces above the last line of the paragraph and 2 spaces
before the next line. Table numbers should be separated from
titles with a double space. Titles should be separated from the
first line of the table also with a double space. Titles of two or
more lines should be single-spaced.

b. Capitalization. Titles of tables should capitalize all
important words. Unimportant words such as articles,
coordinate conjunctions, prepositions such as, and, in and to,
in an infinitive should NOT be capitalized. Headings and body
entries should capitalized only the first word. Proper nouns or
adjectives should also be capitalized.

c. Format. Three formats may be followed in the numbers and
titles of the tables: inverted pyramid, paragraph and block
styles.
Examples: (Inverted Pyramid Style)
Table 8. Teaching Techniques Used by Language
Teachers as Perceived
by their Pupils

styles.
Examples: (Paragraph Style)
Table 8. Teaching Techniques of Language Teachers
as Perceived by their Pupils

styles.
Examples: (Block Style)
Table 8. Teaching Techniques of Language Teachers
as Perceived by their Pupils

LANGUAGE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 5Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions, and
recommendations
a. Summary of Findings. Findings of the study are
summarized according to the questions asked in the
Statement of the Problem. The findings may be headed by
the same questions asked in the Statement or topics
pertinent to findings. Where figures are given, only the
highest or lowest figures and their implications are
repeated in the summary. Findings are stated using the
past tense.
(See sample researches on pages 68-76)

recommendations
b. Conclusions. These should evolve from the findings of the
study. They state in general terms what are true about certain
phenomena investigated in the study. For instance, a study on
comparing the reading proficiencies of Grade 1 pupils in public
and private schools manifested lower reading proficiency than
those in private schools. From this finding, the researcher may
conclude that pupils in public schools have lower reading
proficiency than those in private schools.

recommendations
c. Recommendations. The researcher should make
recommendations based on the conclusions drawn. In the
above conclusion, the researcher may recommend to the
Department of Education some measures to improve the
reading proficiency of Grade 1. A last recommendation is often
directed to future researchers suggesting other topics related
to the study for research.

B. RESEARCH REPORT DOCUMENTAQTION
recommendations
There are many types of documentations, and among the
most commonly used in schools are the Campbell Style, the
Chicago Manual Style and the Modern Language Association
of America (MLA) Style. For scientific researches published in
journals, the trend is to use the American Psychological
Association (APA) Style. Most referred journals prefer APA
since there is an increasing demand in colleges and
universities to have researches referred, this module has
included in the Appendix simplified guidelines on the use of the
format based on Dewey (2003).

B. RESEARCH REPORT DOCUMENTAQTION
recommendations
Every style has a guide handbooks which are available in
libraries and bookstores. Most of the time, when a research is
a part of an institution, the format is decided upon by the
institution. The choice of style and format does not really
matter as long as the chosen format is followed consistently.

English 23 language research

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