2. Learning
We learn new behavior through classical or operant
conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory’).
Learning is an essential aspect of psychology as it helps us
understand how humans acquire new knowledge, skills, and
behaviors. Without learning, we would not be able to adapt to
our environment, solve problems, or communicate effectively
with others. In fact, learning is so fundamental to human
behavior that it is often considered the cornerstone of
psychology.
3. Moreover, studying learning can
provide insights into a wide range of
psychological phenomena, such as
memory, perception, motivation, and
emotion. By examining how people
learn, psychologists can better
understand how the brain processes
information, how individuals differ in
their learning abilities, and how
learning can be optimized for
different populations, such as
students or patients with cognitive
impairments.
4. Types of Learning
Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus
becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a
behavioral response. For example, Pavlov's experiments with dogs
showed that they could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell
because it had been repeatedly paired with food.
Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, such as
rewards or punishments. In this type of learning, behaviors are
strengthened or weakened based on their outcomes. For instance, a
child might learn to clean their room regularly if they receive praise
from their parents for doing so.
Observational learning occurs when individuals learn by watching
others perform a behavior and experiencing its consequences. This
type of learning is often used in socialization, where children learn how
to behave by observing and imitating adults around them.
5. Factors Affecting Learning
Learning is a complex process that can be influenced by a variety of factors. One of the most
important factors is motivation. Motivation can be defined as the driving force behind behavior.
When individuals are motivated to learn, they are more likely to engage in the learning process and
retain information. On the other hand, lack of motivation can lead to disinterest and poor learning
outcomes.
Another factor that can impact learning is attention. Attention refers to the ability to focus on
relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions. Individuals who have difficulty with attention may
struggle to learn new information, as they may become distracted or overwhelmed by irrelevant
information. Therefore, it is important for educators to create an environment that promotes
attention and minimizes distractions.
Memory is also a critical factor in the learning process. Memory refers to the ability to encode, store,
and retrieve information. Individuals with good memory skills are better able to learn and retain new
information. However, memory can be impacted by a variety of factors, such as stress, sleep
deprivation, and aging. Therefore, it is important for individuals to engage in practices that promote
good memory, such as getting enough sleep and managing stress levels.
6. TYPES:
Learning by Associaton or Classical Behaviorism involves two types of
conditioning:
I. Classical Conditioning
II. Operant Conditioning
9. Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning involves the association/use of a stimulus -- such as
the bell in Pavlov's experiments -- that is paired with a reward, resulting in
salivation in the expectation of receiving food.
Over repeated trials, the conditioned stimulus (BELL) causes learning.
By contrast, repeated instances without the reward lead to extinction of the
behavior.
When the conditioned stimulus, the ringing of the bell, happens before the
reward, the person or the animal has time to figure out that the bell ringing
means something and learn or form an association.
10.
11. Two types of stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus or UCS is the object or event that originally produces
the unconditioned and natural response.
Conditioned stimulus:
The conditioned stimulus is like a neutral stimulus that has no response till the
time it gets associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually trigger a
conditioned response.
12. Two types of response
Unconditioned response
An uncondiotioned response is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in
reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response
A response we get when we train something with a neutral or considered response.
17. Simple Flow Chart
Before Conditioning:
Presentation of food (Unconditioned Stimulus)--------response of dog
i.e salivation ( Unconditioned Response)
After Conditioning (introduction/Association of bell):
Ringing of the bell (conditioned Stimulus)--------response of dog i.e.
salivation (Conditioned response)
23. Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning, from psychologist B.F. Skinner's experiments, involves
the use of a schedule of reinforcements, or rewards, and punishments until
the behavior is learned.
For instance, if the dog were to hear the bell and step on a lever, it would receive
the dog biscuit, the reward i.e to make learn a desireable behavior.
Alternatively, punishment, by contrast, would be to take away something, such
as a biscuit, if the dog barks i.e, to unlearn an undesireable behavior.
Law of Effect: the probability that a particular stimulus will repeatedly elicit a particular learned response depends on the perceived consequences of the response.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a fundamental concept in operant conditioning, which involves the use of consequences to shape behavior. It can be either positive or negative, depending on whether a desirable or undesirable consequence is added or removed. Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable consequence, such as praise or a reward, to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement involves removing an undesirable consequence, such as a nagging sound or a punishment, to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
For example, if a child receives praise from their parents for cleaning their room, they are more likely to clean their room again in the future. On the other hand, if a driver's seatbelt warning beep stops when they buckle up, they are more likely to wear their seatbelt in the future. Understanding the different types of reinforcement is essential in shaping behavior and achieving desired outcomes.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping behavior. It involves rewarding desired behaviors to increase the likelihood of their occurrence. For example, a parent might give their child a piece of candy for completing their homework on time. This positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the child will complete their homework on time in the future.
The key to effective positive reinforcement is to choose rewards that are meaningful to the individual being reinforced. What one person finds rewarding may not be the same as what another person finds rewarding. This is why it's important to get to know the person you're trying to reinforce and tailor your rewards accordingly.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus. For example, if a child is crying and their parent gives them a toy to stop the crying, the removal of the crying (the aversive stimulus) reinforces the behavior of crying.
Another example of negative reinforcement is when a person takes pain medication to alleviate a headache. The removal of the headache (the aversive stimulus) reinforces the behavior of taking pain medication.
Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Coffee shops may reward us with a free drink after every 10 purchased. Once conditioned, rats may be reinforced on a fixed ratio of, say, one food pellet for every 30 responses. Once conditioned, animals will pause only briefly after a reinforcer before returning to a high rate of responding (FIGURE 7.11). Variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcers after a seemingly unpredictable number of responses. This unpredictable reinforcement is what slot-machine players and fly fishers experience, and it’s what makes gambling and fly fishing so hard to extinguish even when they don’t produce the desired results. Because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increases, variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of responding. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time period. Animals on this type of schedule tend to respond more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near. People check more frequently for the mail as the delivery time approaches. A hungry child jiggles the Jell-O more often to see if it has set. Pigeons peck keys more rapidly as the time for reinforcement draws nearer. This produces a choppy stop-start pattern rather than a steady rate of response (see Figure 7.11). Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Like the longed-for message that finally rewards persistence in rechecking e-mail or Facebook, variable-interval schedules tend to produce slow, steady responding. This makes sense, because there is no knowing when the waiting will be over (TABLE 7.2).
Punishment
Punishment is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. It can be classified into two types: positive punishment and negative punishment.
Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. For example, if a child hits their sibling and the parent yells at them, the yelling is a positive punishment because it adds an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the hitting behavior being repeated. Negative punishment, on the other hand, involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. For example, if a teenager breaks curfew and their phone privileges are taken away, the removal of the phone privileges is a negative punishment because it removes a pleasant stimulus (access to their phone) to decrease the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment is a concept in operant conditioning that involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. This type of punishment can be controversial because it can lead to negative emotional responses and may not effectively change behavior in the long term.
An example of positive punishment could be giving a child extra chores as a consequence for misbehaving. While the added chores may deter the child from repeating the behavior, it may also create resentment towards the person administering the punishment and may not address the underlying cause of the misbehavior.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment is a concept in operant conditioning where a behavior is decreased by removing or taking away something desirable. For example, if a child misbehaves and their parent takes away their phone privileges, this is negative punishment.
Negative punishment can be an effective way to decrease unwanted behaviors, but it's important to use it appropriately and consistently. It should also be paired with positive reinforcement for desired behaviors to create a well-rounded approach to shaping behavior.