Lecture 29
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The document discusses molecular genetics concepts including: - Promoter regions in DNA bind RNA polymerase and transcription factors in eukaryotes. - Termination of transcription occurs when RNA polymerase detaches from DNA and releases mRNA in prokaryotes, and when it continues past the gene in eukaryotes. - In eukaryotes, pre-mRNA is processed and edited in the nucleus by removing introns and adding a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail to form final mRNA.
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Biology trancription translation
Transcription is the process of copying a section of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain by a ribosome, starting at a START codon and stopping at a STOP codon. The document provides an overview of transcription and translation and encourages practicing replicating DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and protein sequences.
Protein Syntesis
This describes how proteins are formed and which is the role of each component in the process, with pictures and complete resume boxes.
Transcription and translation
The document discusses gene regulation and the central dogma of biology. It explains that genes can be switched on or off, with some genes used by cells and others not. A gene has an operator region that binds a repressor protein, preventing RNA polymerase from initiating transcription when the repressor is bound (gene is off). When the repressor is not bound, RNA polymerase can initiate transcription (gene is on). The central dogma holds that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into protein.
RNA Processing
This document summarizes RNA processing. It discusses the key types of RNA - rRNA, tRNA, mRNA - and their roles. rRNA makes up ribosomes for protein synthesis. tRNA transfers amino acids during translation. mRNA carries genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm. The document then explains that primary RNA transcripts undergo processing like 5' capping, 3' cleavage, polyadenylation, splicing, and editing to produce mature RNA molecules. Alternative splicing allows one gene to code for multiple proteins. In summary, this document provides an overview of RNA types and processing mechanisms that generate functional RNA from initial transcripts.
Transcription & Translation
The document summarizes the key steps in protein synthesis:
1) Transcription involves creating an mRNA template from DNA in the nucleus. 2) The mRNA exits the nucleus through nuclear pores and binds to ribosomes. 3) Translation occurs as ribosomes read the mRNA to produce a protein by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons.
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which DNA directs the production of proteins. It involves two main stages: transcription and translation. In transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into mRNA with the help of RNA polymerase. In eukaryotes, the pre-mRNA undergoes processing including 5' capping, splicing, and 3' polyadenylation to produce mature mRNA. Translation then uses the mRNA to produce a polypeptide with the help of ribosomes and tRNA. It involves initiation, elongation through the sequential addition of amino acids, and termination when a stop codon is reached.
rRNA anr tRNA post transcriptional modifications
Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and transfer RNAs (tRNAs) undergo processing in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes after their transcription. In E. coli, the primary rRNA transcripts are cleaved by endonucleases to produce pre-rRNAs, which are then trimmed to produce the mature rRNAs. In eukaryotes, snoRNAs direct site-specific methylation of the large primary rRNA transcript. tRNAs have their extra nucleotides removed and a conserved CCA trinucleotide added to their 3' ends by CCA-adding polymerase.
Post transcriptional modification
1. What is post transcriptional Modification of RNA
2. How is Post Transcriptional Modification of RNA different in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
3. What are the Various Types of Post Transcriptional Modification of RNA
4. What is the Mechanism of 5' Capping of RNA
5. What is the Mechanism of 3' Polyadenylation of RNA
6. What is the Function of 5' Capping of RNA
7. What is Function of 3' Polyadenylation of RNA
8. What is Splicing ?
9. What is the Mechanism of Splicing ?
10. What is Spliceosomes ?
11. What is Sn RNA or Small Nuclear RNA ?
12. What is SnRNP Complex or SNURPs ?
13. Beta Thalessemia because of faulty Splicing ?
14. What is Methylation post transcriptional modification ?
15. What is Alternative Splicing?
16. What is Selective Splicing ?
17. What is Alternative polyadenylation ?
18. What is Alternative 5' donor Splicing ?
19. What is Alternative 3' Donor Splicing ?
20. What is the role of Alternative Splicing ?
21. What is RNA Editing ?
22. How is RNA Editing an Exception to Central Dogma ?
23. Example of Apolipoprotein B Gene for RNA Editing
24. Other Examples of RNA Editing
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Biology trancription translation
Transcription is the process of copying a section of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain by a ribosome, starting at a START codon and stopping at a STOP codon. The document provides an overview of transcription and translation and encourages practicing replicating DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and protein sequences.
Protein Syntesis
This describes how proteins are formed and which is the role of each component in the process, with pictures and complete resume boxes.
Transcription and translation
The document discusses gene regulation and the central dogma of biology. It explains that genes can be switched on or off, with some genes used by cells and others not. A gene has an operator region that binds a repressor protein, preventing RNA polymerase from initiating transcription when the repressor is bound (gene is off). When the repressor is not bound, RNA polymerase can initiate transcription (gene is on). The central dogma holds that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into protein.
RNA Processing
This document summarizes RNA processing. It discusses the key types of RNA - rRNA, tRNA, mRNA - and their roles. rRNA makes up ribosomes for protein synthesis. tRNA transfers amino acids during translation. mRNA carries genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm. The document then explains that primary RNA transcripts undergo processing like 5' capping, 3' cleavage, polyadenylation, splicing, and editing to produce mature RNA molecules. Alternative splicing allows one gene to code for multiple proteins. In summary, this document provides an overview of RNA types and processing mechanisms that generate functional RNA from initial transcripts.
Transcription & Translation
The document summarizes the key steps in protein synthesis:
1) Transcription involves creating an mRNA template from DNA in the nucleus. 2) The mRNA exits the nucleus through nuclear pores and binds to ribosomes. 3) Translation occurs as ribosomes read the mRNA to produce a protein by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons.
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which DNA directs the production of proteins. It involves two main stages: transcription and translation. In transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into mRNA with the help of RNA polymerase. In eukaryotes, the pre-mRNA undergoes processing including 5' capping, splicing, and 3' polyadenylation to produce mature mRNA. Translation then uses the mRNA to produce a polypeptide with the help of ribosomes and tRNA. It involves initiation, elongation through the sequential addition of amino acids, and termination when a stop codon is reached.
rRNA anr tRNA post transcriptional modifications
Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and transfer RNAs (tRNAs) undergo processing in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes after their transcription. In E. coli, the primary rRNA transcripts are cleaved by endonucleases to produce pre-rRNAs, which are then trimmed to produce the mature rRNAs. In eukaryotes, snoRNAs direct site-specific methylation of the large primary rRNA transcript. tRNAs have their extra nucleotides removed and a conserved CCA trinucleotide added to their 3' ends by CCA-adding polymerase.
Post transcriptional modification
1. What is post transcriptional Modification of RNA
2. How is Post Transcriptional Modification of RNA different in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
3. What are the Various Types of Post Transcriptional Modification of RNA
4. What is the Mechanism of 5' Capping of RNA
5. What is the Mechanism of 3' Polyadenylation of RNA
6. What is the Function of 5' Capping of RNA
7. What is Function of 3' Polyadenylation of RNA
8. What is Splicing ?
9. What is the Mechanism of Splicing ?
10. What is Spliceosomes ?
11. What is Sn RNA or Small Nuclear RNA ?
12. What is SnRNP Complex or SNURPs ?
13. Beta Thalessemia because of faulty Splicing ?
14. What is Methylation post transcriptional modification ?
15. What is Alternative Splicing?
16. What is Selective Splicing ?
17. What is Alternative polyadenylation ?
18. What is Alternative 5' donor Splicing ?
19. What is Alternative 3' Donor Splicing ?
20. What is the role of Alternative Splicing ?
21. What is RNA Editing ?
22. How is RNA Editing an Exception to Central Dogma ?
23. Example of Apolipoprotein B Gene for RNA Editing
24. Other Examples of RNA Editing
structure types and function of RNA
RNA is one of the major biological macromolecules essential for life. It has several types that serve different functions. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the catalytic component of ribosomes and is involved in protein translation. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers specific amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during translation.
DNA Replication Sintesis
The document discusses key concepts in DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It explains that DNA replication is semi-conservative, with each new double-stranded DNA molecule containing one original strand and one newly synthesized complementary strand. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA copy of a gene, and translation uses the mRNA to direct protein synthesis via tRNA and ribosomes. The central dogma of molecular biology is presented, with DNA providing the instructions for RNA and proteins.
Protein synthesis project
The document describes the process of transcription and translation in prokaryotic cells. During transcription, RNA polymerase unwinds DNA and synthesizes mRNA using complementary base pairing. The mRNA then exits the nucleus. During translation, the mRNA binds to ribosomes where tRNA matches codons and amino acids are linked together via peptide bonds to form a protein.
Protein Synthesis Notes
Protein synthesis involves DNA being transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA carries amino acids and bonds to mRNA through anticodons, and rRNA makes up ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs. The sequence of codons in mRNA determines the specific amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.
Protein syntheisis 2016
DNA is transcribed into mRNA which carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules match up with mRNA codons through complementary base pairing and bring the corresponding amino acids. The mRNA attaches to a ribosome where tRNA molecules deliver amino acids in the correct order for protein assembly as the ribosome moves along the mRNA. This process of protein synthesis translates the genetic code into proteins that carry out the functions specified by the DNA.
Protein Synthesis
The document summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology and the processes of protein synthesis - transcription and translation. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus, and mRNA is then translated into proteins by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Transcription involves RNA polymerase copying the DNA code into mRNA. Translation involves tRNAs matching their anticodons to the mRNA codons and adding the corresponding amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. The genetic code is universal and degenerate, with multiple codons coding for each amino acid.
Rna And Protein Synthesis Ss
This document summarizes RNA and protein synthesis. It describes that DNA is made of nucleotides and has a double helix structure. During transcription, RNA polymerase builds an RNA strand that is complementary to DNA. The RNA can be messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), or ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome. During translation, mRNA matches up with tRNA to add amino acids together and form a protein according to the mRNA's code.
Wtk apbi och17genetoprotein
This document summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology - that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into proteins. It describes the three types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) and their roles in protein synthesis. The process of transcription in the nucleus and translation on ribosomes in the cytoplasm is explained in detail, including the key steps of initiation, elongation and termination. The roles of various enzymes and molecular players like RNA polymerase, spliceosomes, and signal recognition particles are outlined. Finally, it briefly discusses post-translational modification of proteins and types of mutations that can occur.
RNA processing final eukaryotes.
This document discusses RNA processing in eukaryotic cells. It describes how the primary transcript is modified through capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being exported to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. Capping adds a 5' methylguanosine cap. Polyadenylation adds a poly-A tail to the 3' end. Splicing removes introns and joins exons with the help of spliceosomes that contain snRNPs. These processing steps increase mRNA stability and translatability.
Transcriptionand translation
Transcription is the process of copying information from DNA to mRNA. Translation is the process of using the mRNA code to assemble a protein. The genetic code links codons, which are three nucleotide sequences in mRNA, to specific amino acids. tRNA molecules match codons to their corresponding amino acids and deliver them to the ribosome for protein assembly.
Rna processing
maturation of different types of rRNA,tRNA,mRNA and mechanisms involved in it with clear description and clear pictures and explanation
Transcription
This document provides information about transcription in prokaryotes. It defines transcription as the synthesis of RNA using single-stranded DNA as a template. It describes the basic requirements for transcription including the template, enzyme, regulatory proteins, ribonucleoside triphosphates, and energy. It then explains the three main steps of transcription - initiation, elongation, and termination - and provides details about each step. The document also discusses transcription regulation and inhibitors like rifampicin and actinomycin D.
Protein synthesis with turning point
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids. An amino acid chain is called a polypeptide. DNA is found in the nucleus, while proteins are made in the cytoplasm of cells by ribosomes. The process of protein synthesis begins with transcription of DNA into mRNA, which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. There are three main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis: mRNA carries the genetic code to ribosomes, rRNA makes up ribosomes, and tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.
Protein synthesis
This document discusses RNA and protein synthesis. It describes the three main types of RNA - mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA - and their functions. mRNA carries instructions from DNA to the cytoplasm, rRNA binds to mRNA and helps assemble amino acids, and tRNA supplies amino acids. The document then explains how RNA is made, compares RNA and DNA structures, and outlines the process of transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA.
RNA & Protein Synthesis
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. During transcription, mRNA is produced by copying DNA in the nucleus. The mRNA then transports the genetic code to the cytoplasm for translation at the ribosome. Translation is the process where tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA codons to produce a protein, consisting of a chain of amino acids specified by the DNA.
Protein synthesis
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis which occurs in two main steps: transcription and translation. During transcription, DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the cell nucleus. The mRNA then transports the genetic code to the cytoplasm where ribosomes read the mRNA during translation and assemble amino acids to make a protein based on the code. Transfer RNA molecules deliver amino acids to the ribosome and assemble them into a protein chain based on the mRNA codons.
RNA PROCESSING
RNA processing is the set of post-transcriptional modifications that produce a mature RNA molecule from a primary transcript in eukaryotic cells. This involves adding a 5' cap, polyadenylating the 3' end, and splicing out introns. Polyadenylation involves cleavage of the nascent RNA downstream of the AAUAAA sequence by ribonuclease, followed by addition of around 200 adenine nucleotides to the 3' end by poly(A) polymerase. The spliceosome, composed of small nuclear RNAs and proteins, facilitates splicing by binding to splice sites on the RNA and catalyzing transesterification reactions to remove introns and ligate exons.
Differential RNA Processing & Animal Development
1. Differential RNA processing regulates animal development through two major ways: nuclear RNA selection and differential RNA splicing.
2. Nuclear RNA selection involves selecting which nuclear transcripts are processed into cytoplasmic messenger RNA in different cell types.
3. Differential RNA splicing produces different mRNAs and proteins from the same nuclear RNA by using different combinations of exons through alternative splicing mechanisms like exon skipping, mutually exclusive exons, and alternate 5' or 3' splice sites.
Translation
Translation, transcription, and transduction are processes involved in gene expression and DNA transfer. Translation is the process by which messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide. Transcription is the process where DNA is copied into mRNA by RNA polymerase. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another mediated by bacteriophages through generalized or specialized transduction. These processes play important roles in protein production and genetic exchange.
Post translation modification of RNAs in eukaryotes
This document summarizes post-transcriptional modifications that occur to RNAs in eukaryotes. It explains that in eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus while translation occurs in the cytoplasm, requiring processing of the primary transcript into mature mRNA. This processing includes capping, polyadenylation, splicing, and other modifications. Alternative splicing allows one gene to produce multiple mRNAs and proteins. Other RNAs such as rRNA, tRNA, and ribozymes also undergo processing and modifications. The significance of these post-transcriptional changes is to regulate gene expression and increase proteomic complexity.
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The document summarizes DNA, RNA, the genetic code, and protein biosynthesis. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology whereby DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins. Key steps include DNA replication, transcription, translation, and post-translational processing. The genetic code is explained where codons in mRNA specify amino acids. Recombinant DNA technology allows joining DNA from different sources to produce recombinant proteins.
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DNA Replication Sintesis
The document discusses key concepts in DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It explains that DNA replication is semi-conservative, with each new double-stranded DNA molecule containing one original strand and one newly synthesized complementary strand. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA copy of a gene, and translation uses the mRNA to direct protein synthesis via tRNA and ribosomes. The central dogma of molecular biology is presented, with DNA providing the instructions for RNA and proteins.
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The document describes the process of transcription and translation in prokaryotic cells. During transcription, RNA polymerase unwinds DNA and synthesizes mRNA using complementary base pairing. The mRNA then exits the nucleus. During translation, the mRNA binds to ribosomes where tRNA matches codons and amino acids are linked together via peptide bonds to form a protein.
Protein Synthesis Notes
Protein synthesis involves DNA being transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes, tRNA carries amino acids and bonds to mRNA through anticodons, and rRNA makes up ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs. The sequence of codons in mRNA determines the specific amino acid sequence of the resulting protein.
Protein syntheisis 2016
DNA is transcribed into mRNA which carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules match up with mRNA codons through complementary base pairing and bring the corresponding amino acids. The mRNA attaches to a ribosome where tRNA molecules deliver amino acids in the correct order for protein assembly as the ribosome moves along the mRNA. This process of protein synthesis translates the genetic code into proteins that carry out the functions specified by the DNA.
Protein Synthesis
The document summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology and the processes of protein synthesis - transcription and translation. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus, and mRNA is then translated into proteins by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Transcription involves RNA polymerase copying the DNA code into mRNA. Translation involves tRNAs matching their anticodons to the mRNA codons and adding the corresponding amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. The genetic code is universal and degenerate, with multiple codons coding for each amino acid.
Rna And Protein Synthesis Ss
This document summarizes RNA and protein synthesis. It describes that DNA is made of nucleotides and has a double helix structure. During transcription, RNA polymerase builds an RNA strand that is complementary to DNA. The RNA can be messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), or ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome. During translation, mRNA matches up with tRNA to add amino acids together and form a protein according to the mRNA's code.
Wtk apbi och17genetoprotein
This document summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology - that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into proteins. It describes the three types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) and their roles in protein synthesis. The process of transcription in the nucleus and translation on ribosomes in the cytoplasm is explained in detail, including the key steps of initiation, elongation and termination. The roles of various enzymes and molecular players like RNA polymerase, spliceosomes, and signal recognition particles are outlined. Finally, it briefly discusses post-translational modification of proteins and types of mutations that can occur.
RNA processing final eukaryotes.
This document discusses RNA processing in eukaryotic cells. It describes how the primary transcript is modified through capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being exported to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. Capping adds a 5' methylguanosine cap. Polyadenylation adds a poly-A tail to the 3' end. Splicing removes introns and joins exons with the help of spliceosomes that contain snRNPs. These processing steps increase mRNA stability and translatability.
Transcriptionand translation
Transcription is the process of copying information from DNA to mRNA. Translation is the process of using the mRNA code to assemble a protein. The genetic code links codons, which are three nucleotide sequences in mRNA, to specific amino acids. tRNA molecules match codons to their corresponding amino acids and deliver them to the ribosome for protein assembly.
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maturation of different types of rRNA,tRNA,mRNA and mechanisms involved in it with clear description and clear pictures and explanation
Transcription
This document provides information about transcription in prokaryotes. It defines transcription as the synthesis of RNA using single-stranded DNA as a template. It describes the basic requirements for transcription including the template, enzyme, regulatory proteins, ribonucleoside triphosphates, and energy. It then explains the three main steps of transcription - initiation, elongation, and termination - and provides details about each step. The document also discusses transcription regulation and inhibitors like rifampicin and actinomycin D.
Protein synthesis with turning point
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids. An amino acid chain is called a polypeptide. DNA is found in the nucleus, while proteins are made in the cytoplasm of cells by ribosomes. The process of protein synthesis begins with transcription of DNA into mRNA, which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. There are three main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis: mRNA carries the genetic code to ribosomes, rRNA makes up ribosomes, and tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.
Protein synthesis
This document discusses RNA and protein synthesis. It describes the three main types of RNA - mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA - and their functions. mRNA carries instructions from DNA to the cytoplasm, rRNA binds to mRNA and helps assemble amino acids, and tRNA supplies amino acids. The document then explains how RNA is made, compares RNA and DNA structures, and outlines the process of transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins with the help of tRNA and rRNA.
RNA & Protein Synthesis
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. During transcription, mRNA is produced by copying DNA in the nucleus. The mRNA then transports the genetic code to the cytoplasm for translation at the ribosome. Translation is the process where tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA codons to produce a protein, consisting of a chain of amino acids specified by the DNA.
Protein synthesis
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis which occurs in two main steps: transcription and translation. During transcription, DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the cell nucleus. The mRNA then transports the genetic code to the cytoplasm where ribosomes read the mRNA during translation and assemble amino acids to make a protein based on the code. Transfer RNA molecules deliver amino acids to the ribosome and assemble them into a protein chain based on the mRNA codons.
RNA PROCESSING
RNA processing is the set of post-transcriptional modifications that produce a mature RNA molecule from a primary transcript in eukaryotic cells. This involves adding a 5' cap, polyadenylating the 3' end, and splicing out introns. Polyadenylation involves cleavage of the nascent RNA downstream of the AAUAAA sequence by ribonuclease, followed by addition of around 200 adenine nucleotides to the 3' end by poly(A) polymerase. The spliceosome, composed of small nuclear RNAs and proteins, facilitates splicing by binding to splice sites on the RNA and catalyzing transesterification reactions to remove introns and ligate exons.
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1. Differential RNA processing regulates animal development through two major ways: nuclear RNA selection and differential RNA splicing.
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Translation, transcription, and transduction are processes involved in gene expression and DNA transfer. Translation is the process by which messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide. Transcription is the process where DNA is copied into mRNA by RNA polymerase. Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another mediated by bacteriophages through generalized or specialized transduction. These processes play important roles in protein production and genetic exchange.
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Geneexpression
The document discusses gene expression, which is the process by which genetic information is used to produce the structures and functions of a cell. It describes the central dogma of molecular biology, in which DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein. The key stages of gene expression are explained in detail, including replication, transcription, translation, and post-translational modification. Replication copies DNA, transcription converts DNA into RNA, translation decodes RNA to synthesize protein, and post-translational modifications activate proteins. The document provides a comprehensive overview of the multi-step process of gene expression from DNA to functional proteins.
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Protein synthesis mechanism with reference of Translation and Transcription d...
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Lecture 28
The document summarizes key concepts in molecular genetics including DNA repair mechanisms using nucleases and DNA polymerase, telomeres and their role, transcription which involves copying DNA into mRNA with RNA, differences between RNA and DNA like the sugar and nucleotide uracil, codons and their role in specifying amino acids, and Marshall Nirenberg's experiments concluding that DNA is a universal genetic code and mRNA acts as a template from its 5' to 3' end.
Lecture 25
Thomas Morgan discovered that crossing two garden pea plants with different phenotypes for flower color and pollen length (purple/long vs red/short) resulted in a offspring ratio of 7:1:1:7, demonstrating independent assortment and challenging traditional ideas about heredity. Morgan's work established the field of genetics and the chromosome theory of heredity. His discovery of linkage showed that genes are arranged linearly on chromosomes and the distance between genes can influence inheritance patterns.
Lecture 23
The document discusses several genetics concepts: a dihybrid cross example with seed shape and color, test crosses to determine genotypes, genetic pedigrees using symbols to represent relatives and traits, incomplete dominance in snapdragons where heterozygotes express both alleles, and probability rules including multiplication and addition.
Lecture 26
Fredrick Meischer first isolated DNA in 1869. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, scientists searched for the hereditary material and determined key features of DNA including its ability to replicate, store large amounts of information, and be read. Frederick Griffith discovered in 1928 that a non-virulent strain of bacteria could be transformed into a virulent strain, suggesting a transforming factor, later identified by Avery, McLeod and McCarty in 1944 to be DNA. Erwin Chargaff discovered in 1950 that the amounts of adenine and thymine and guanine and cytosine were always equal in DNA. James Watson and Crick then published the double helix model of DNA in 1953.
Lecture 20
This document discusses sexual reproduction through meiosis. It explains that meiosis involves two divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) that result in four haploid cells being produced from one original diploid cell. Meiosis I involves homologous chromosome pairs separating and moving to opposite poles, resulting in two haploid cells. Meiosis II then follows without an S phase, and involves the separation of sister chromatids to produce four genetically distinct haploid cells.
Lecture 33
This document discusses population genetics and the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. It explains that population genetics studies genetic variation in populations and that the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium occurs when genotype proportions remain unchanged between generations under certain conditions. These conditions include a large population size, random mating, no natural selection or gene flow between populations. The document provides an example using alleles A and a to demonstrate how to calculate genotype proportions both with the long method using actual population numbers and the short method using allele frequencies.
Lecture 31
This document discusses several topics related to molecular genetics including:
- Differential gene expression and how it occurs differently in cells during development.
- The unstable nature of mRNA and how multiple copies of a polypeptide are made before it breaks down.
- Operons, which are control units in DNA that regulate groups of genes, using the examples of tryptophan and lactose operons.
- How eukaryotic cells control transcription through chromatin structure and histone proteins that package DNA, and the role of activators and enhancers.
- Proto-oncogenes that regulate the cell cycle and how their mutation can lead to cancer formation due to environmental and inherited factors.
Lecture 30
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis which includes initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, mRNA binds to the ribosome and the first tRNA. Elongation then adds amino acids one by one via peptide bonds until a stop codon is reached. Termination occurs when a stop codon binds, a release factor is added, and the polypeptide is released. Post-translational modifications may then fold or modify the protein before it reaches its location.
Lecture 27
This document summarizes the process of DNA replication, including that it doubles the DNA content, is semi-conservative, occurs at origins of replication, and involves replication bubbles and forks. It also outlines the key factors needed for replication, such as DNA polymerase, helicase, primase, and ligase, and describes the leading and lagging strands and Okazaki fragments.
Lecture 21
The document discusses different types of life cycles including human, diplontic, dioecious, monoecious, haplodiplontic, and haplontic. It notes that meiosis occurs in the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans, resulting in four haploid cells. Meiosis only occurs in the generation of sex cells, not other cells produced through mitosis. The document also discusses sources of genetic variation from sexual reproduction including independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, and the fertilization event.
Lecture 22
Gregor Mendel performed experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits, developing the concepts of dominant and recessive alleles. Through monohybrid crosses examining a single trait like flower color, and dihybrid crosses of two traits, he discovered that each trait is controlled by discrete hereditary units (genes) that segregate and assort independently during reproduction according to his laws of segregation and independent assortment.
Lecture 19
The document summarizes key aspects of the cell cycle and its regulation:
1) The cell cycle involves duplication of chromosomes through the spindle and cytokinesis to split the cell into two.
2) Cytokinesis differs between animal and plant cells in how the cell divides.
3) Checkpoints at the G1, G2, and M phases determine whether the cell continues the cycle or stops, regulated by kinase and cyclin proteins.
4) External cues like growth factors, density, attachment, and disease can influence whether cells enter or continue the cell cycle.
Lecture 18
This document summarizes the cell cycle process in eukaryotic cells. It explains that the cell cycle consists of interphase, where DNA is replicated, and the mitotic phase where the cell divides. During interphase, cells grow and prepare for division. The mitotic phase includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase where the chromosomes condense and separate, and the cell divides into two daughter cells. The document also provides an overview of DNA replication and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell division.
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Lecture 29
- 1. 11/14/08 Lecture 29 - Molecular Genetics 4 Promoter (regions): regions where RNA polymerase binds. In Eukaryotic cells, promoter contain a sequence of nucleotides called TATA (DNA) box. Transcription factors bind to the promoter before the RNA polymerase can bind. Termination Prokaryotic cells The termination sequence is in the DNA. When RNA polymerase detaches from DNA. The mRNA is released (going to the ribosomes). Eukaryotic cells RNA polymerase continues transcription beyond the coding section of the gene (adding a non- coding signal, usually being AAUAAA). In the prokaryotic cell, mRNA goes directly to the ribosome. In the eukaryotic cell, two kinds of mRNA exist, pre-mRNA and final mRNA. Pre-mRNA has to be proceeded and edited (all happening in the nucleus) to make final mRNA. - Split genes: many sequences are removed from the pre-mRNA. Introns: the pieces of the mRNA strand that are removed. Exons: the pieces of the mRNA that are used in the final mRNA. Both (5' and 3') ends of the mRNA strand are modified. A modified “guanine cap” is added to the 5' end. A “poly A tail” is added to the 3' end. Final mRNA is sent from the nucleus to the ribosome. Translation Transfer RNA (tRNA) is needed for translation. There are many kinds of tRNA. There is 1 tRNA for each codon; the total is 61 tRNA molecules. An anticodon is attached to the bottom loop of the tRNA molecule. Ribosomes Ribosomes are necessary in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They are where polypeptide chains are assembled. Ribosomes consist of 2 sub-units (large and small) rRNA (ribosomal RNA) consist of RNA and a ribosomal protein