This document provides an introduction to computer science, covering key topics such as hardware, software, and the evolution of computers through different generations. It discusses how hardware and software work together, and defines different types of software including system software, application software, and utility software. The document also covers computer classifications based on mode of operation, size, and generation. The five generations of computers - from first to fifth - are outlined, describing the underlying technologies that defined each generation from vacuum tubes to today's artificial intelligence applications.
All types of computer including general and special purpose, Analog,digital, hybrid, microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe computer and super computer.
All types of computer including general and special purpose, Analog,digital, hybrid, microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe computer and super computer.
PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual
user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet
and database management applications. At home,
the most popular use for personal computers is
playing games and surfing the Internet.
Workstation:
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount
of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds
or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently
and supports many simultaneous execution of programs.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are
very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount
of mathematical calculations (number crunching).
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
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THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Mammalian Pineal Body Structure and Also Functions
lecture 2
1. INTRODUCTION TOCOMPUTER SCIENCE
CSC 1302
LECTURE 2
Department of Maths and Computer-
Science
Faculty of Natural and Applied Science
BY
UMAR DANJUMA MAIWADA
2. HARDWARE
It is the physical component of the computer which we
can see and touch.
Hardware is made up of devices or units.
These include: input devices
Processing devices
Output devices
Storage devices
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3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDWARE AND
SOFTWARE
Both of them must work together to make a
computer produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without
supporting hardware.
Software development is very expensive
and is a continuing expense.
A software acts as an interface between the
user and the hardware.
3
4. SOFTWARE
It is the collection of programs in the computer
Which we can see at times but cannot touch
A program is a sequence of instructions written to
solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software; System Software
and Application Software.
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5. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
These are programs that control the
operation of any computer.
Example booting, loading, execution.
System software include OS, language
translators
System software are generally prepared by
computer manufactures.
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6. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
They are designed to perform specific task for us.
All software applications prepared in the computer lab
can come under the category of Application software.
Types of application software include:
Word processing e.g Ms word, word star, word perfect
Spreadsheet e.g Ms excel, LOTUS
Computer graphics e.g photopaint, corel draw, photoshop
Database e.g Ms access,
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8. PERIPHERALS
They are those external devices that must be
attached to the system unit for them to work.
Example: mouse
Lightpen
Printer
Modem
Ups
Scanner
Projector
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9. CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
Speed: Computer carries out every assignment and
processing very fast. It works faster than calculators,
four figure table, etc. it’s internal speed is almost
instantaneous.
Storage: A computer would store information or data
once you instruct it to do so. It stores them inside its
storage devices.
Accuracy: Every instruction is reliably carried out.
Computers can perform operations and process data
faster but with accurate results and no errors.
Versatility: Computer is a versatile machine. They are
used in various fields.
Multitasking: Multitasking is also a computer
characteristic. Computers can perform several tasks at a
time.
Communication: Computers have the ability to
communicate, but of course there needs some sort of
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11. MODE OF OPERATION
Computers can be divided into Analog, Digital and
Hybrid systems.
11
12. ANALOG COMPUTERS
Data is recognized as a continuous measurement
of a physical property like voltage, speed, pressure.
Readings on a dial or graphs are obtained as the
output.
They do not directly interact with numbers
They deal with variables measured along a
continues scale
an analog computer must be able to accept inputs
which vary with respect to time and directly apply
these inputs to various devices within the computer
which performs the computing operations of
additions, subtraction, multiplication, division,
integration and function generation.
12
13. DIGITAL COMPUTERS
These are high speed electronic devices.
These devices are programmable.
They operate on discrete data.
They process data by way of mathematical
calculations, comparison, sorting.
It works basically by directly counting numbers that
represent numerals.
They represent information discretely and use a binary
(two-step) system that represents each piece of
information as a series of zeroes and ones.
They are divided into two
Specific purpose: which has been designed to perform one
specific task.
General purpose: which can store different programs and is
also reprogrammable.
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14. HYBRID COMPUTERS
They combine the speed of analog computers and
accuracy of digital computers.
It is the one in which desirable characteristics of both
the Analog and Digital computers are integrated.
It has the speed of analog computer and the memory
and accuracy of digital computer.
An analog device is used to measures patient's blood
pressure and temperature etc, which are then converted
and displayed in the form of digits. Hybrid computers for
example are used for scientific calculations, in defence
and radar systems.
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16. SUPERCOMPUTER
It is the most powerful
It is the most expensive
They are designed to perform scientific application
Its speed is very important
This is known as parallel processing.
The speed of each address in the location holds 64bits
of information.
The time required to execute a single operation may be
as low as 4 nanoseconds.
It can be accommodated in large air-conditioned
rooms.
Super computers have multiple processors which
process multiple instructions at the same time.
16
17. Uses of Supercomputer
17
• Space exploration
• Earthquake studies
• Weather forecasting
• Nuclear weapons testing
18. Mainframe computer
Main frame computers are very large computers which
process data at very high speeds of the order of
several million instructions per second.
They have the flexibility to operate automatically from
2 to 8 bytes in the same unit of time.
Several microprocessors are used in place of the
single microprocessor used in micro and mini.
The result is that these systems can process data
much faster.
Government organizations uses Mainframes to run
their business operations.
Mainframes can also process and store large amount
of data. Banks, educational institutions and insurance
companies use mainframe computers to store data
about their customers, students & insurance policy
18
19. MINICOMPUTER
It is a small general purpose computers varying in
size from a desktop model to a unit the size of a
four drawer filing cabinet.
They have higher memory capacity and more
storage capacity with higher speeds.
They are mainly used in applications like payrolls,
financial accounting, Computer aided design.
One of the most important uses of minis is in the
distributed data processing networks.
A minicomputer is a multiprocessing system
capable of supporting from 4 to 200 users
simultaneously.
Minicomputers are used by small businesses and
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20. MICROCOMPUTER
They are widely used in day to day applications like office
automation, and professional applications.
They have Smallest memory and less power.
It is the smallest general purpose computer system which
can execute programs to perform a variety of instructions.
It has all the functional elements found in a larger systems.
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant
(PDA), tablets and smartphones are all types of
microcomputers.
These computers are the cheapest among the other three
types of computers.
They are specially designed for general usage like
entertainment, education and work purposes.
20
21. COMPUTER GENERATIONS
The present day computer, however, has also
undergone rapid change during the last fifty years.
This period, during which the evolution of computer
took place, can be divided into five distinct phases
known as Generations of Computers.
Each phase is distinguished from others on the
basis of the type of switching circuits used.
21
22. FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS
1940-1956
Vacuum Tubes
First generation computers relied on machine
language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations,
and they could only solve one problem at a time,
and it could take days or weeks to set-up a new
problem.
They were huge, slow, expensive, and often
unreliable.
They gave off so much heat, even with huge
coolers
Vacuum tubes still overheated regularly
22
23. PUNCHED CARDS FOR DATA INPUT,
PUNCHED CARDS AND PAPER TAPE FOR OUTPUT,
MACHINE LANGUAGE FOR WRITING PROGRAMS,
MAGNETIC TAPES AND DRUMS FOR EXTERNAL
STORAGE.
23
Punch card Vacuum tube
Paper tape
24. SECOND GENERATION
1956-1963
Transistors
The transistors was faster, more reliable, smaller and
much cheaper to build than the vacuum tube.
They gave off no heat compared to vacuum tube.
One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum
tubes.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic
binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly
languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL
and FORTRAN.
These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a
24
25. SIZE OF THE COMPUTERS STARTED REDUCING,
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE STARTED BEING USED IN
PLACE OF MACHINE LANGUAGE,
CONCEPT OF STORED PROGRAM EMERGED,
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES WERE INVENTED.
Transistor
25
26. THIRD GENERATION
1964-1971
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
They carry out instructions in billionths of a
second.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon
chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users
interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run
many different applications at one time with a
central program that monitored the memory.
26
27. PHENOMENAL INCREASE IN COMPUTATION SPEED,
SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTION IN SIZE AND POWER
CONSUMPTION OF THE MACHINES,
USE OF MAGNETIC TAPES AND DRUMS FOR
EXTERNAL STORAGE,
DESIGN-OF OPERATING SYSTEMS AND NEW
HIGHER LEVEL LANGUAGES,
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF COMPUTERS.
27
Integrated circuit Integrated circuit
28. FOURTH GENERATION
1971- Present
Microprocessors
Very large scale Ics which is millions of transistors
put together onto one Ics chip.
More calculation and faster speed could be reached
by computers.
They are used for personal use.
As these small computers became more powerful,
they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. 28
29. USE OF VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION,
INVENTION OF MICROCOMPUTERS,
INTRODUCTION OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS,
NETWORKING,
FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGES.
Very large scale integrated circuit
29
30. FIFTH GENERATION
Present and Beyond
Artificial Intelligence
They are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as voice recognition, that are being
used today.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop
devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.
Computers would be able to accept spoken words as
input (voice recognition).
Two such advances are parallel processing where
many CPUs work as one and advance in
superconductor technology which allows the flow of
electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving
30
Scalability of handover framework to handle increased handovers without compromising latency performance
Flexibility to support various 4G deployments
Mobility framework designed to cover:
all possible deployment scenarios
enable and optimize handover between IEEE 802.16m Bss
handover from an IEEE 802.16e BS to an IEEE 802.16m BS
(note: under a legacy ASN network)
intra-BS zone switch between LZone and Mzone