This document summarizes research showing that certain anaerobic landfill microbes can metabolize expanded polystyrene (EPS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam compositions containing organotitanate or organozirconate additives. These additives provide hydrophilic points of attack for microbes but do not catalyze degradation during normal use. Experiments in simulated anaerobic landfill conditions showed microbial colonies forming on samples and mass loss over time, while control samples remained unaffected. The additives enable anaerobic microbial degradation of normally hydrophobic polymers.
Today the world is facing problem related to spread of plastic all around us which cause infection and pollution. PET {poly(ethylene terephthalate)} is extensively used throughout the world. PET is made from petroleum and is widely used in textile industries and plastic bottles. Most of the PET product simply end up by land filling and never enter the recycling process. About 56 million ton of PET was produce worldwide in 2013 alone. Currently the only PET products being recycled are bottles, but the amount of recycled account are just 37% of the total production volume of PET bottle i.e. 6.13 million tons. Currently the chemical method is being used to recycle PET waste, which is quite energy consuming process and shows only assimilation of PET waste. Various microorganisms have also been reported to assimilate PET waste. However, assimilation is not the final solution of this problem as it is only a partial degradation. Recently, a novel microorganism Ideonella sakaiensis strain 201-F6 has been identified which uses PET as an energy resource and is able to produce environment friendly bi products such as ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Scientists also discovered two enzymes (PETase and MHETase) produced by the strain 201-F6 which hydrolyze PET. Based on the property of PETase and MHETase it is now understood that the strain 201-F6 is capable to use PET as its major energy source and convert it into easily degradable components.
Hydrocarbon are major constituents of crude oil and petroleum. They can be biodegraded by naturally-occurring microorganisms in freshwater and marine environments under a variety of aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The ability of microorganisms - bacteria, archaea, fungi, or algae - to break down hydrocarbons is the basis for natural and enhanced bioremediation. To promote biodegradation, amendments such as nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizer are often added to stimulate microbial growth and metabolism
Today the world is facing problem related to spread of plastic all around us which cause infection and pollution. PET {poly(ethylene terephthalate)} is extensively used throughout the world. PET is made from petroleum and is widely used in textile industries and plastic bottles. Most of the PET product simply end up by land filling and never enter the recycling process. About 56 million ton of PET was produce worldwide in 2013 alone. Currently the only PET products being recycled are bottles, but the amount of recycled account are just 37% of the total production volume of PET bottle i.e. 6.13 million tons. Currently the chemical method is being used to recycle PET waste, which is quite energy consuming process and shows only assimilation of PET waste. Various microorganisms have also been reported to assimilate PET waste. However, assimilation is not the final solution of this problem as it is only a partial degradation. Recently, a novel microorganism Ideonella sakaiensis strain 201-F6 has been identified which uses PET as an energy resource and is able to produce environment friendly bi products such as ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Scientists also discovered two enzymes (PETase and MHETase) produced by the strain 201-F6 which hydrolyze PET. Based on the property of PETase and MHETase it is now understood that the strain 201-F6 is capable to use PET as its major energy source and convert it into easily degradable components.
Hydrocarbon are major constituents of crude oil and petroleum. They can be biodegraded by naturally-occurring microorganisms in freshwater and marine environments under a variety of aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The ability of microorganisms - bacteria, archaea, fungi, or algae - to break down hydrocarbons is the basis for natural and enhanced bioremediation. To promote biodegradation, amendments such as nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizer are often added to stimulate microbial growth and metabolism
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Action on xenobiotics ppt
biodegradation enhance biodegradation
definition of xenobiotic compounds
hazards of xenobiotics
biodegradation ppt
biodegradation of xenobiotics
discovery of xenobiotics
process of xenobiotics
aerobic biodegradation and much more
Lignin is regarded as the most plentiful aromatic polymer contains both non-phenolic and phenolic structures. It makes the integral part of secondary wall and plays a significant role in water conduction in vascular plants. Many fungi, bacteria and insects have ability to decrease this lignin by producing enzymes. Certain enzymes from specialized bacteria and fungi have been identified by researchers that can metabolize lignin and enable utilization of lignin “derived carbon sources. In this review, we attempt to provide an overview of the complexity of lignins polymeric structure, its distribution in forest soils, and its chemical nature. Herein, we focus on lignin biodegradation by various microorganism, fungi and bacteria present in plant biomass and soils that are capable of producing ligninolytic enzymes such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, and dye “ decolorizing peroxidase. The relevant and recent reports have been included in this review. U. Priyanga | M. Kannahi"Lignin Degradation: A Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11556.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/microbiology/11556/lignin-degradation-a-review/u-priyanga
Biodegradation is the chemical dissolution of materials by bacteria or other biological means.
biodegradable simply means to be consumed by microorganisms and return to compounds found in nature
Biodegradation or biological degradation is the phenomenon of biological transformation of organic compounds by living organisms, particularly the microorganisms.
Biodegradation basically involves the conversion of complex organic molecules to simpler (and mostly non-toxic) ones. The term biotransformation is used for incomplete biodegradation of organic compounds involving one or a few reactions. Biotransformation is employed for the synthesis of commercially important products by microorganisms.
Bioremediation refers to the process of using microorganisms to remove the environmental pollutants i.e. the toxic wastes found in soil, water, air etc. The microbes serve as scavengers in bioremediation. The removal of organic wastes by microbes for environmental clean-up is the essence of bioremediation. The other names used (by some authors) for bioremediation are bio-treatment, bio-reclamation and bio-restoration.
It is rather difficult to show any distinction between biodegradation and bioremediation. Further, in biotechnology, most of the reactions of biodegradation/bioremediation involve xenobiotic.
ABSTRACT- Laccase is multicopper oxidases that are widely distributed among plants, insects, fungi and bacteria. Pollution increased with the
time day by day, laccase is an oxido-reductase which plays a significant role in remediation. These enzyme catalyze and one-electron oxidation of a
wide variety of organic and inorganic substrate including mono-, di-, and poly-phenols, amino-phenols, metho-oxyphenols, aromatic amines, and
ascorbate, with the concomitant four electron reduction of oxygen to water. Present study on their use in several industrial application, includes dye
decolorization, detoxification of environmental pollutants and revalorization of waste and waste water etc. this review helps to understand the properties
of these improvement enzymes for efficient utilization for its biotechnological and environmental applications. Now we provide a brief discussion
of this interesting group of enzymes, increase knowledge of which will promote laccase based industrial process in future.
Keywords: Laccase, Biodegradation, Bioremediation and Dye decolorization
biodeterioration, textiles biodeterioration, timber biodeterioration, fuels biodeterioration, glass biodeterioration, stone biodeterioration, concrete biodeterioration, rubber biodeterioration, metal biodeterioration, control of biodeterioration, prevention of biodeterioration
Offshore activity grows for second consecutive quarter
BOURBON revenues Q3 2010 vs Q3 2009: +6.4%
Revenues from directly-owned vessels Q3 2010 vs Q3 2009: +11.9%
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Action on xenobiotics ppt
biodegradation enhance biodegradation
definition of xenobiotic compounds
hazards of xenobiotics
biodegradation ppt
biodegradation of xenobiotics
discovery of xenobiotics
process of xenobiotics
aerobic biodegradation and much more
Lignin is regarded as the most plentiful aromatic polymer contains both non-phenolic and phenolic structures. It makes the integral part of secondary wall and plays a significant role in water conduction in vascular plants. Many fungi, bacteria and insects have ability to decrease this lignin by producing enzymes. Certain enzymes from specialized bacteria and fungi have been identified by researchers that can metabolize lignin and enable utilization of lignin “derived carbon sources. In this review, we attempt to provide an overview of the complexity of lignins polymeric structure, its distribution in forest soils, and its chemical nature. Herein, we focus on lignin biodegradation by various microorganism, fungi and bacteria present in plant biomass and soils that are capable of producing ligninolytic enzymes such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, and dye “ decolorizing peroxidase. The relevant and recent reports have been included in this review. U. Priyanga | M. Kannahi"Lignin Degradation: A Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11556.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/microbiology/11556/lignin-degradation-a-review/u-priyanga
Biodegradation is the chemical dissolution of materials by bacteria or other biological means.
biodegradable simply means to be consumed by microorganisms and return to compounds found in nature
Biodegradation or biological degradation is the phenomenon of biological transformation of organic compounds by living organisms, particularly the microorganisms.
Biodegradation basically involves the conversion of complex organic molecules to simpler (and mostly non-toxic) ones. The term biotransformation is used for incomplete biodegradation of organic compounds involving one or a few reactions. Biotransformation is employed for the synthesis of commercially important products by microorganisms.
Bioremediation refers to the process of using microorganisms to remove the environmental pollutants i.e. the toxic wastes found in soil, water, air etc. The microbes serve as scavengers in bioremediation. The removal of organic wastes by microbes for environmental clean-up is the essence of bioremediation. The other names used (by some authors) for bioremediation are bio-treatment, bio-reclamation and bio-restoration.
It is rather difficult to show any distinction between biodegradation and bioremediation. Further, in biotechnology, most of the reactions of biodegradation/bioremediation involve xenobiotic.
ABSTRACT- Laccase is multicopper oxidases that are widely distributed among plants, insects, fungi and bacteria. Pollution increased with the
time day by day, laccase is an oxido-reductase which plays a significant role in remediation. These enzyme catalyze and one-electron oxidation of a
wide variety of organic and inorganic substrate including mono-, di-, and poly-phenols, amino-phenols, metho-oxyphenols, aromatic amines, and
ascorbate, with the concomitant four electron reduction of oxygen to water. Present study on their use in several industrial application, includes dye
decolorization, detoxification of environmental pollutants and revalorization of waste and waste water etc. this review helps to understand the properties
of these improvement enzymes for efficient utilization for its biotechnological and environmental applications. Now we provide a brief discussion
of this interesting group of enzymes, increase knowledge of which will promote laccase based industrial process in future.
Keywords: Laccase, Biodegradation, Bioremediation and Dye decolorization
biodeterioration, textiles biodeterioration, timber biodeterioration, fuels biodeterioration, glass biodeterioration, stone biodeterioration, concrete biodeterioration, rubber biodeterioration, metal biodeterioration, control of biodeterioration, prevention of biodeterioration
Offshore activity grows for second consecutive quarter
BOURBON revenues Q3 2010 vs Q3 2009: +6.4%
Revenues from directly-owned vessels Q3 2010 vs Q3 2009: +11.9%
Case Study for iGEM 2013 German team (TU-Munich)
2015 Fall Semester/ Energy & Environmental Biotechnology Final Presentation.
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Oxygen Interference in Methane Generation from Biodegradation of Solid Waste ...crimsonpublisherspps
The main solid wastes from tanneries are wet-blue shavings (chrome tanned leather) and sludge emitted mainly from waste-water treatment plants (WWTP). The main degradation process that occurs on solid media is anaerobic digestion. In this process the main products are methane (CH4), which has a high calorific value, and carbon dioxide (CO2); together these gases compose the emitted biogas. Methanogens, which are strict anaerobes, are responsible for the last step of anaerobic digestion and it is through their metabolism that methane is generated
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The development of sustainable bioplastics for new applications in packaging ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— The advantage of biodegradable plastics is their degradation under the influence of biological systems into substances naturally present in the environment, which are then placed in a natural circulation cycle of matter. Moreover, the biodegradable plastics waste not require additional segregation and separation from households, and are collected together with other organic waste and subjected to recycling under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Use of bioplastics reduces the harmful effects of waste on the environment, but does not eliminate it completely.
The article presents the results of (bio) degradation studies under industrial and laboratory (MicroOxymax) composting conditions as well as at atmospheric conditions of commercial disposable dishes from the Nature Works® PLA. Were also carried out investigation of abiotic degradation under laboratory conditions. It was found, from the macro- and microscopic observations, that the tested cups (bio) degraded in the selected environments, wherein in a greater extent under industrial composting conditions than in MicroOxymax. The GPC results, which show significantly reduce in the molar mass of the tested samples after specified incubation times in all environments, indicates that the hydrolytic degradation process occurs predominantly.
In the recent years, bio-based and biodegradable products have raised great interest since sustainable development policies tend to expand with the decreasing reserve of fossil fuel and the growing concern for the environment. Bio-Polymers are a form of polymers derived from plant sources such as sweet potatoes, soya bean oil, sugarcane, hemp oil, and corn starch. These polymers are naturally degraded by the action of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae. Bio-plastics can help alleviate the energy crisis as well as reduce the dependence on fossil fuels of our society. They have some remarkable properties which make it suitable for different applications. This paper tries to give an insight about Bio-plastics, their composition, preparation, properties, special cases, advantages disadvantages, commercial viability, its life cycle, marketing and pricing of these products.
As a result, the market of these environmentally friendly materials is in rapid expansion,
10 –20 % per year.
Similar to Landfill Biodegradation Of Foam Compositions Based On Polymers Not Inherently Biodegradable (2) (20)
Snam 2023-27 Industrial Plan - Financial Presentation
Landfill Biodegradation Of Foam Compositions Based On Polymers Not Inherently Biodegradable (2)
1. Landfill Biodegradation of Foam Compositions Based on Polymers
Not Inherently Biodegradable
By R. F. Grossman, Ph.D.
Abstract lack of specialization, low energy diet and reproduction
through division leads these species to have an appetite
A variety of anaerobic landfill microbes are shown to be for almost anything organic.
able to metabolize expanded polystyrene and polyvinyl
chloride foam compositions containing organotitanate or Experimental
organozirconate additives that provide hydrophilic points
of attack, but do not catalyze degradation during service Landfills used were based on the guidelines of ASTM
in an aerobic environment. D5526 and comprised 90% sterilized sewage (available
commercially as Milorganite ®), plus 10% actively
Background fermenting compost. Such compost is likely to contain a
number of methanogenic bacteria. A number of species of
The interior of a landfill is dark, warmer than ambient and Methanobacterium have been identified, as well as
low in available oxygen [1]. Moisture content varies from Eubacterium and Cellulomonas [9]. No “standard”
about 15 to 45% [2]. At the lower level, not even food compost is available and the extent of microbial variation
waste will biodegrade. The most prevalent ingredient, is largely unknown. This factor introduces a similarly
often 40-50%, comprises paper products; plastics tend to unknown potential for inconsistency. The above mixture
run 1-5% (1). Cellulosics such as paper degrade poorly at was adjusted to 40-45% moisture. Landfills of this type
moisture levels below 50-60%, which are rarely reached have been shown to consume plasticized PVC film and
in commercial landfills [3]. sheet [10]. Although ASTM D5526 calls for use of
distilled water, water from a local pond was used. This
A variety of the aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium eliminates the delay before microbial attack begins [3].
Pseudomonas putida, strain KT2442, has been bred to The use of distilled water in an actual landfill is very
consume petroleum spills [4]. It can also consume unlikely.
expanded polystyrene (EPS), but Pseudomonad bacteria
are (to date) obligate aerobes and have no anaerobic An important factor in the utility of common plastics
capability [5]. Aerobic microbes typically favor sexual is their water resistance, that is, their hydrophobic
reproduction; if food levels become inadequate, they form character. Part of that utility is the defeat of attack by
spores to provide the next generation and die. They are, microbes under ordinary conditions. It was discovered
therefore, modern. A number of bacteria can function that a class of additives can be employed to produce
either aerobically or anaerobically; examples include hydrophilic attachments to points on hydrophobic
Staphylococcus and E. coli. polymers which enable anaerobic but not aerobic
microbial attack [10].
Anaerobic microbes predate the Paleozoic oxygen
explosion [6]. The emergence of cyanobacteria capable of
photosynthesis may have been a significant factor in the
development of the oxygen-rich atmosphere. In addition
to archaeans and bacteria, microbes capable of anaerobic
metabolism include many algae and molds. In the absence
of atmospheric oxygen, food is metabolized using
oxidizing species such as phosphates, sulfates, nitrates [7] In the above example, BIOchem C-3™, a
or even metal oxides [8]. The free energy available from pyrophosphato titanate chelate quat is shown wherein R =
fermentation or other anaerobic metabolic paths is low methyl, R’ = propyl. More specifically, the additive can
compared to aerobic oxidation [1]. The combination of be described as a Di(dioctyl)pyrophosphato ethylene
2. titanate (adduct) N-substituted methacrylamide or a
Titanium IV bis(dioctyl) pyrophosphato-O (adduct) 2 Results and Discussion
moles N, N-dimethylamino-alkyl propenoamide or
Titanate (2-), bis [P,P-dioctyl diphosphato (2-)-кO΄΄, After 21 days in an anaerobic landfill, samples of EPS
кO΄΄΄΄][1, 2-ethanediolato (2-)-кO, кO΄]-, dihydrogen, containing 1% of either the above or similar
branched and linear, compound with N-[3- organotitanates showed flourishing microbial colonies
(dimethylamino) propyl] -2-methyl -2-propenamide (1:2) and loss of sample mass – see Figure 2.
bearing CAS # 198840-66-3. Analogous neoalkoxy
organotitanates and organozirconates are also effective
[11].
In the following experiments, 5 g of EPS (Joy Sports &
Leisure, China) or vinyl foam (3M) were dissolved in 25
ml MEK at room temperature and 50 mg of the above
catalyst added – see Figure 1. The solution was allowed to
evaporate in an aluminum pan and 2 g added to 50 g of
the above landfill in a Petri dish, which was then sealed
with several wraps of 3M #33 electrical tape.
Figure 2 – Catalyzed EPS Is Attacked Rapidly After
Several Weeks Into Test (at 10x). Microbial Colonies
Are Doing Well, Notable Loss of Mass - Dense
Samples Much Slower
After 90 days, these samples had almost completely
vanished into the biomass. Control samples were
unaffected – see Figure 3.
Figure 1 – ASTM D5526 Simulated Landfill:
Landfill = 90/10 sterilized sewage/active compost,
40-50% moisture, 30-35°C, dark incubator, sample ~
5% of landfill mass.
Sample of an EPS article containing 1%
organotitanate catalyst
Gas evolution was measured using micro-
manometers supplied by Carolina Biological. Gas evolved
from 10 g landfill, with or without foam samples, was
measured versus time. Landfills included controls and
those to which cultures had been added. The latter
included Protococcus, Spirulina, Spyrogyra and Cyathus
algae; Chlamydomonas, Anabaena, Fischerella and Figure 3 – After 3 Months
Eucapsis cyanobacteria and the archaean Halobacterium Very Little EPS Left, Colonies Are Dying Back
sp. NRC-3. Gas evolution was also measured using a
landfill that had previously consumed PVC plastisol Vinyl foam samples behaved similarly, except for
based on Geon 121A, with 60 phr DINA and 1 phr leaving small quantities of filler and pigment. Again,
titanate catalyst [3]. Here the sample was either the same control samples showed no effect other than slight
PVC compound, PVC foam or EPS. microbial colonization at the sample edges – see Figure 4.
Experiments using 10 g micro landfills as microbial Note: The foam formulation used 1phr the BIOchem
fuel cells were carried out with a University of Reading C-3™ coupling agent in a typical AZO recipe, urea
(UK) kit. Landfills were kept at 30-35°C using a Boekel activation employing a tin carboxylate stabilizer. Since
Scientific Model 132000 Incubator. the additive functions by enabling microbes to consume
plastics, biocides will inhibit effectiveness. For example,
zinc-based stabilizers inhibit landfill biodegradation
because they are known biocides. Tin carboxylate
3. stabilizers will not interfere with the biodegradation the presence of the above cultures, with those that
mechanism. lowered gas yield, addition of EPS appeared to lower gas
yield slightly more. Addition of 0.4 g plasticized PVC
Phthalocyanine pigments will also inhibit landfill
foam containing catalyst had a similar effect.
biodegradation and should be avoided. In polyolefins,
color forming antioxidants, such as BHT and Bisphenol, Use of a landfill that had previously consumed PVC
should be avoided in favor of high efficiency stabilizers, plastisol increased the rate of gas evolution when a
such as Irganox® 1010. second sample was added. A third experiment did not
provide a further increase. A landfill that had consumed
PVC plastisol also increased the rate of gas evolution
when a PVC foam sample was added, but had no effect on
the gas evolution during EPS consumption. The converse
was also found: a landfill that had consumed EPS did not
increase the rate of gas evolution from degrading vinyl
foam. It is likely, therefore, that microbial modifications
required to metabolize plastics in an anaerobic
environment are, at least in some cases, heritable.
The above observations suggest that the protocol of
ASTM D5526 and related standards where gas evolution
is taken as the measure of biodegradation may be
thoroughly misleading. The observations that are
significant are that an object placed in a landfill supports
Figure 4 – Vinyl Foam, 3 Weeks In Landfill microbial colonization and ultimately vanishes.
Gas evolution began within a few hours – see Figure Addition of 10 g of the above landfill to the cathode
5. A 10 g ASTM D5526 type landfill yielded 0.2 ml gas compartment of the University of Reading microbial fuel
in 24 hours and 0.7-0.8 ml in 72 hours. If the landfill cell (MFC) with 5% Fe (II)/Fe (III) ammonium sulfate
contained a culture of Spirulina, Spyrogyra, Anabaena or solution in the anode compartment to mediate air
Fischerella, gas evolution was reduced to 0.1-0.3 ml after oxidation generated 240-250 mV output – see Figure 6.
72 hours, increasing slowly to 0.5-0.7 ml after 21 days. This is reasonable in view of methanogenesis half cell
Cyathus and Eucapsis had no such effect. On the other reports [12].
hand, landfills containing Protococcus or Halobacterium
did not evolve gas. In these cases, the product of
anaerobic metabolism may be bicarbonate ion. Those
landfills that did not evolve gas had become slightly
alkaline; those evolving methane and carbon dioxide
remained at their original pH, about 6.5.
Figure 6 - Landfill Battery: Landfill + Sample
Supplying 321 mV vs. Fe(II)/Fe(III) Mediated
Reduction of O2
With a sample comprising 9 g landfill and 1 g EPS,
the output, tested daily, rose over 21 days to about 320
mV, then slowly retreated to the original level. It seems
likely, therefore, that the sample provided a higher energy
Figure 5 – Gas Evolution From The Landfill
food source to the anaerobic feeders in this particular
landfill.
Addition of 0.4 g EPS containing organotitanate
catalyst increased the gas yield of the landfill slightly. In The current output of 10 g of the above landfill was
4. about 0.05 mA. A unit of several tons would be required References
to power a useful circuit, for example, to monitor or
operate methane recovery from the landfill. 1. Municipal Waste Disposal in the 1990’s, B.G. Liptak,
Proprietary PVC formulations have been developed Chilton Books, Radnor, PA, 1991, p 26-39.
for commercial signage called BIOflex using subject 2. J.A. Scher, Chem. Eng. Progress, 67(3), 81-84 (1991).
additive. Figure 7 shows the landfill decomposition of 3. R.F. Grossman, J. Vinyl & Additive Tech., 14(3)
BIOflex Vinyl under ASTM D5526 landfill conditions 110-112 (2008).
of 30°C at 50% moisture. 4. N.C.M. Gomes et al, Microbiol. Ecology, 54(1), 21-33
(2005).
5. R.F. Grossman, unpublished results.
6. P.D. Ward, Out of Thin Air, P.D. Ward, Joseph Henry
Press, Washington, DC, 2006, p 38-42.
7. J.D. Coates et al, Nature, 411, 1039-1043 (2001).
8. D.R. Lovley & D.J. Lonergan, Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 56(6), 1858-1864 (1990).
9. A.C. Palmisano & M.A. Barlaz, Microbiology of Solid
Waste, CRC Press, 1996, p 49-72.
10. R.F. Grossman, J.E. Schleicher, Jr. & L. D’Alessio, J.
Vinyl & Additive Tech., 13(3), 132-135 (2007).
11. R.F. Grossman, US 7,390,841
12. R.A. Alberty, Thermodynamics of Biochemical
Figure 7 Reactions, Wiley, 2003, p 162.