In this paper, an experiment has been carried out based on a simple k-nearest
neighbor (kNN) classifier to investigate the capabilities of three extracted
facial features for the better recognition of facial emotions. The feature
extraction techniques used are histogram of oriented gradient (HOG), Gabor,
and local binary pattern (LBP). A comparison has been made using
performance indices such as average recognition accuracy, overall
recognition accuracy, precision, recall, kappa coefficient, and computation
time. Two databases, i.e., Cohn-Kanade (CK+) and Japanese female facial
expression (JAFFE) have been used here. Different training to testing data
division ratios is explored to find out the best one from the performance
point of view of the three extracted features, Gabor produced 94.8%, which
is the best among all in terms of average accuracy though the computational
time required is the highest. LBP showed 88.2% average accuracy with a
computational time less than that of Gabor while HOG showed minimum
average accuracy of 55.2% with the lowest computation time.
Text Extraction is a process by which we convert Printed document/Scanned Page or Image in which text are available to ASCII Character that a Computer can Recognize.
Machine Learning for Disease PredictionMustafa Oฤuz
ย
A great application field of machine learning is predicting diseases. This presentation introduces what is preventable diseases and deaths. Then examines three diverse papers to explain what has been done in the field and how the technology works. Finishes with future possibilities and enablers of the disease prediction technology.
Text Extraction is a process by which we convert Printed document/Scanned Page or Image in which text are available to ASCII Character that a Computer can Recognize.
Machine Learning for Disease PredictionMustafa Oฤuz
ย
A great application field of machine learning is predicting diseases. This presentation introduces what is preventable diseases and deaths. Then examines three diverse papers to explain what has been done in the field and how the technology works. Finishes with future possibilities and enablers of the disease prediction technology.
We will use 7 emotions namely - We have used 7 emotions namely - 'Angry'๏ , 'Disgust'๏คข, 'Fear'๏ฑ, 'Happy'๏, 'Neutral'๏, 'Sad'โน๏ธ, 'Surprise'๏ฒ to train and test our algorithm using Convolution Neural Networks.
Overview of Artificial Intelligence in CybersecurityOlivier Busolini
ย
If you are interested in understsanding a bit more the potential of Artifical Intelligence in Cybersecurity, you might want to have a look at this overview.
Written from my CISO -and non AI expert- point of view, for fellow security professional to navigate the AI hype, and (hopefully!) make better, informed decisions :-)
All feedback welcome !
Predictive Analytics and Machine Learning for Healthcare - DiabetesDr Purnendu Sekhar Das
ย
Machine Learning on clinical datasets to predict the risk of chronic disease conditions like Type 2 Diabetes mellitus beforehand; as well as predicting outcomes like hospital readmission using EMR RWE data.
Existing model uses structured data to predict the patients of either high risk or low risk.
But for a complex disease, structured data is not a good way to describe the disease.
We propose a new convolutional neural network (CNN)-based multimodal disease risk prediction algorithm using structured and unstructured data from hospital.
In this paper, we mainly focus on the risk prediction of cerebral infarction.
Introduction, Macro Definition and Call, Macro Expansion, Nested Macro Calls, Advanced Macro Facilities, Design Of a Macro Preprocessor, Design of a Macro Assembler, Functions of a Macro Processor, Basic Tasks of a Macro Processor, Design Issues of Macro Processors, Features, Macro Processor Design Options, Two-Pass Macro Processors, One-Pass Macro Processors
Deep learning in healthcare: Oppotunities and challenges with Electronic Medi...Thien Q. Tran
ย
Interested in deep learning for healthcare has grown strongly recent years besides with the successes in other domains such as Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing, Speech Recognition and so forth. This talk will try to give a brief look into the recent effort of research in deep learning for healthcare. Especially, this talk focuses on the opportunities and challenges in using electronic health records (EHR) data, which is one of the most important data sources in healthcare domain.
BIRCHย (balanced iterative reducing and clustering using hierarchies) is an unsupervisedย data-miningย algorithm used to performย hierarchical clusteringย over, particularly large data sets.
Facial recognition using modified local binary pattern and random forestijaia
ย
This paper presents an efficient algorithm for face recognition using the local binary pattern (LBP) and
random forest (RF). The novelty of this research effort is that a modified local binary pattern (MLBP),
which combines both the sign and magnitude features for the improvement of facial texture classification
performance, is applied. Furthermore, RF is used to select the most important features from the extracted
feature sequence. The performance of the proposed scheme is validated using a complex dataset, namely
Craniofacial Longitudinal Morphological Face (MORPH) Album 1 dataset
We will use 7 emotions namely - We have used 7 emotions namely - 'Angry'๏ , 'Disgust'๏คข, 'Fear'๏ฑ, 'Happy'๏, 'Neutral'๏, 'Sad'โน๏ธ, 'Surprise'๏ฒ to train and test our algorithm using Convolution Neural Networks.
Overview of Artificial Intelligence in CybersecurityOlivier Busolini
ย
If you are interested in understsanding a bit more the potential of Artifical Intelligence in Cybersecurity, you might want to have a look at this overview.
Written from my CISO -and non AI expert- point of view, for fellow security professional to navigate the AI hype, and (hopefully!) make better, informed decisions :-)
All feedback welcome !
Predictive Analytics and Machine Learning for Healthcare - DiabetesDr Purnendu Sekhar Das
ย
Machine Learning on clinical datasets to predict the risk of chronic disease conditions like Type 2 Diabetes mellitus beforehand; as well as predicting outcomes like hospital readmission using EMR RWE data.
Existing model uses structured data to predict the patients of either high risk or low risk.
But for a complex disease, structured data is not a good way to describe the disease.
We propose a new convolutional neural network (CNN)-based multimodal disease risk prediction algorithm using structured and unstructured data from hospital.
In this paper, we mainly focus on the risk prediction of cerebral infarction.
Introduction, Macro Definition and Call, Macro Expansion, Nested Macro Calls, Advanced Macro Facilities, Design Of a Macro Preprocessor, Design of a Macro Assembler, Functions of a Macro Processor, Basic Tasks of a Macro Processor, Design Issues of Macro Processors, Features, Macro Processor Design Options, Two-Pass Macro Processors, One-Pass Macro Processors
Deep learning in healthcare: Oppotunities and challenges with Electronic Medi...Thien Q. Tran
ย
Interested in deep learning for healthcare has grown strongly recent years besides with the successes in other domains such as Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing, Speech Recognition and so forth. This talk will try to give a brief look into the recent effort of research in deep learning for healthcare. Especially, this talk focuses on the opportunities and challenges in using electronic health records (EHR) data, which is one of the most important data sources in healthcare domain.
BIRCHย (balanced iterative reducing and clustering using hierarchies) is an unsupervisedย data-miningย algorithm used to performย hierarchical clusteringย over, particularly large data sets.
Facial recognition using modified local binary pattern and random forestijaia
ย
This paper presents an efficient algorithm for face recognition using the local binary pattern (LBP) and
random forest (RF). The novelty of this research effort is that a modified local binary pattern (MLBP),
which combines both the sign and magnitude features for the improvement of facial texture classification
performance, is applied. Furthermore, RF is used to select the most important features from the extracted
feature sequence. The performance of the proposed scheme is validated using a complex dataset, namely
Craniofacial Longitudinal Morphological Face (MORPH) Album 1 dataset
Feature extraction is becoming popular in face recognition method. Face recognition is the interesting and growing area in real time applications. In last decades many of face recognitions methods has been developed. Feature extraction is the one of the emerging technique in the face recognition methods. In this method an attempt to show best faces recognition method. Here used different descriptors combination like LBP and SIFT, LBP and HOG for feature extraction. Using a single descriptor is difficult to address all variations so combining multiple features in common. Find LBP and SIFT features separately from the images and fuse them with a canonical correlation analysis and same procedure also done using LBP and HOG. The SIFT features have some limitations they donรยขรขโยฌรขโยขt work well with lighting changes, quite slow, and mathematically complicated and computationally heavy. The combinations of HOG and LBP features make the system robust against some variations like illumination and expressions. Also, face recognition technique used a different classifier to extract the useful information from images to solve the problems. This paper is organized into four sections. Introduction in the first section. The second section describes feature descriptors and the third section describes proposed methods, final sections describes experiments result and conclusion phase.
HVDLP : HORIZONTAL VERTICAL DIAGONAL LOCAL PATTERN BASED FACE RECOGNITION sipij
ย
Face image is an efficient biometric trait to recognize human beings without expecting any co-operation from a person. In this paper, we propose HVDLP: Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Local Pattern based face recognition using Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) and Local Binary Pattern (LBP). The face images of different sizes are converted into uniform size of 108ร990and color images are converted to gray scale images in pre-processing. The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) is applied on pre-processed images and LL band is obtained with the size of 54ร45. The Novel concept of HVDLP is introduced in the proposed method to enhance the performance. The HVDLP is applied on 9ร9 sub matrix of LL band to consider HVDLP coefficients. The local Binary Pattern (LBP) is applied on HVDLP of LL band. The final features are generated by using Guided filters on HVDLP and LBP matrices. The Euclidean Distance (ED) is used to compare final features of face database and test images to compute the performance parameters.
Selective local binary pattern with convolutional neural network for facial ...IJECEIAES
ย
Variation in images in terms of head pose and illumination is a challenge in facial expression recognition. This research presents a hybrid approach that combines the conventional and deep learning, to improve facial expression recognition performance and aims to solve the challenge. We propose a selective local binary pattern (SLBP) method to obtain a more stable image representation fed to the learning process in convolutional neural network (CNN). In the preprocessing stage, we use adaptive gamma transformation to reduce illumination variability. The proposed SLBP selects the discriminant features in facial images with head pose variation using the median-based standard deviation of local binary pattern images. We experimented on the Karolinska directed emotional faces (KDEF) dataset containing thousands of images with variations in head pose and illumination and Japanese female facial expression (JAFFE) dataset containing seven facial expressions of Japanese femalesโ frontal faces. The experiments show that the proposed method is superior compared to the other related approaches with an accuracy of 92.21% on KDEF dataset and 94.28% on JAFFE dataset.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
SYMMETRICAL WEIGHTED SUBSPACE HOLISTIC APPROACH FOR EXPRESSION RECOGNITIONijcsit
ย
Human face expression is one of the cognitive activity or attribute to deliver the opinions to others.This paper mainly delivers the performance of appearance based holistic approach subspace methods based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA). In this work texture features are extracted from face images using Gabor filter. It was observed that extracted texture feature vector space has higher dimensional and has
more number of redundant contents. Hence training, testing and classification time becomes more. The expression recognition accuracy rate is also reduced. To overcome this problem Symmetrical Weighted 2DPCA (SW2DPCA) subspace method is introduced. Extracted feature vector space is projected in to subspace by using SW2DPCA method. By implementing weighted principles on odd and even symmetrical
decomposition space of training samples sets proposed method have been formed. Conventional PCA and 2DPCA method yields less recognition rate due to larger variations in expressions and light due to more number of feature space redundant variants. Proposed SW2DPCA method optimizes this problem by reducing redundant contents and discarding unequal variants. In this work a well known JAFFE databases
is used for experiments and tested with proposed SW2DPCA algorithm. From the experimental results it was found that facial recognition accuracy rate of GF+SW2DPCA based feature fusion subspace method has been increased to 95.24% compared to 2DPCA method.
Recognition of Facial Expressions using Local Binary Patterns of Important Fa...CSCJournals
ย
Facial Expression Recognition is one of the exciting and challenging field; it has important applications in many areas such as data driven animation, human computer interaction and robotics. Extracting effective features from the human face is an important step for successful facial expression recognition. In this paper we have evaluated Local Binary Patterns of some important parts of human face, for person independent as well as person dependent facial expression recognition. Extensive experiments on JAFFE database are conducted. The experiment results show that person dependent method is highly accurate and outperform many existing methods.
Ensemble-based face expression recognition approach for image sentiment anal...IJECEIAES
ย
Sentiment analysis based on images is an evolving area of study. Developing a reliable facial expression recognition (FER) device remains a difficult challenge as recognizing emotional feelings reflected in an image is dependent on a diverse set of factors. This paper presented an ensemblebased model for FER that incorporates multiple classification models: i) customized convolutional neural network (CNN), ii) ResNet50, and iii) InceptionV3. The model averaging ensemble classifier method is used to ensemble the predictions from the three models. Subsequently, the proposed FER model is trained and tested on a dataset with an uncontrolled environment (FER-2013 dataset). The experiment demonstrated that ensembling multiple classifiers outperformed all single classifiers in classifying positive and neutral expressions (91.7%, 81.7% and 76.5% accuracy rate for happy, surprise, and neutral, respectively). However, when classifying disgust, anger, and sadness, the ResNet50 model alone is the better choice. Although the Custom CNN performs the best in classifying fear expression (55.7% accuracy), the proposed FER model can still classify fear expression with comparable performance (52.8% accuracy). This paper demonstrated the potential of using the ensemble-based method to enhance the performance of FER. As a result, the proposed FER model has shown a 72.3% accuracy rate.
J.K.Jeevitha ,B.Karthika,E.Devipriya "Face Recognition using LDN Code", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Volume2,issue-01 April 2015.e-ISSN:2395-0056, p-ISSN:2395-0072. www.irjet.net
Abstract
LDN characterizes both the texture and contrast information of facial components in a compact way, producing a more discriminative code than other available methods. An LDN code is obtained by computing the edge response values in 8 directions at each pixel with the aid of a compass mask. Image analysis and understanding has recently received significant attention, especially during the past several years. At least two reasons can be accounted for this trend: the first is the wide range of commercial and law enforcement applications, and the second is the availability of feasible technologies after nearly 30 years of research. In this paper we propose a novel local feature descriptor, called Local Directional Number Pattern (LDN), for face analysis, i.e., face and expression recognition. LDN characterizes both the texture and contrast information of facial components in a compact way, producing a more discriminative code than other available methods.
Face Emotion Analysis Using Gabor Features In Image Database for Crime Invest...Waqas Tariq
ย
The face is the most extraordinary communicator, which plays an important role in interpersonal relations and Human Machine Interaction. . Facial expressions play an important role wherever humans interact with computers and human beings to communicate their emotions and intentions. Facial expressions, and other gestures, convey non-verbal communication cues in face-to-face interactions. In this paper we have developed an algorithm which is capable of identifying a personโs facial expression and categorize them as happiness, sadness, surprise and neutral. Our approach is based on local binary patterns for representing face images. In our project we use training sets for faces and non faces to train the machine in identifying the face images exactly. Facial expression classification is based on Principle Component Analysis. In our project, we have developed methods for face tracking and expression identification from the face image input. Applying the facial expression recognition algorithm, the developed software is capable of processing faces and recognizing the personโs facial expression. The system analyses the face and determines the expression by comparing the image with the training sets in the database. We have followed PCA and neural networks in analyzing and identifying the facial expressions.
Face Recognition System Using Local Ternary Pattern and Signed Number Multipl...inventionjournals
ย
This paper presents a novel approach to face recognition. The task of face recognition is to verify a claimed identity by comparing a claimed image of the individual with other images belonging to the same individual/other individual in a database. The proposed method utilizes Local Ternary Pattern and signed bit multiplication to extract local features of a face. The image is divided into small non-overlapping windows. Processing is carried out on these windows to extract features. Test imageโs features are compared with all the training images using Euclidean's distance. The image with lowest Euclidean distance is recognized as the true face image. If the distance between test and all training images is more than threshold then test image is considered as unrecognised image or match not found .The face recognition rate of proposed system is calculated by varying the number of images per person in training database
A Face Recognition Using Linear-Diagonal Binary Graph Pattern Feature Extract...ijfcstjournal
ย
Face recognition is one the most interesting topic in the field in computer vision and image processing.
Face recognition is a processing system that recognizes and identifies individuals human by their faces.
Automatic face recognition is powerful way to provide, authorized access to control their system. Face
recognition has many challenging problems (like face pose, face expression variation, illumination
variation, face orientation and noise) in the field of image analysis and computer vision. This method is
work on feature extraction part of face recognition. New way to extract face feature using LD-BGP code
operator it is like LGS and LBP feature extraction operator. In our LD-BGP-code operator work in two
direction first linear then diagonal. In both direction, its create eight digits code to every pixel of image.
Means of these two directional are taken so that is cover all neighbor of center pixel. First linear direction,
only horizontal and vertical pixel are taken. Second diagonal direction only diagonal pixels taken. In
matching phase, we use Euclidean distance to match a face image. We perform the Linear and diagonal
directional operator method on face database ORL. We get accuracy 95.3 %. LD-BGP method also works
on different type image like illuminated and expression variation image.
A FACE RECOGNITION USING LINEAR-DIAGONAL BINARY GRAPH PATTERN FEATURE EXTRACT...ijfcstjournal
ย
Face recognition is one the most interesting topic in the field in computer vision and image processing.
Face recognition is a processing system that recognizes and identifies individuals human by their faces.
Automatic face recognition is powerful way to provide, authorized access to control their system. Face
recognition has many challenging problems (like face pose, face expression variation, illumination
variation, face orientation and noise) in the field of image analysis and computer vision. This method is
work on feature extraction part of face recognition. New way to extract face feature using LD-BGP code
operator it is like LGS and LBP feature extraction operator. In our LD-BGP-code operator work in two
direction first linear then diagonal. In both direction, its create eight digits code to every pixel of image.
Means of these two directional are taken so that is cover all neighbor of center pixel. First linear direction,
only horizontal and vertical pixel are taken. Second diagonal direction only diagonal pixels taken. In
matching phase, we use Euclidean distance to match a face image. We perform the Linear and diagonal
directional operator method on face database ORL. We get accuracy 95.3 %. LD-BGP method also works
on different type image like illuminated and expression variation image.
A FACE RECOGNITION USING LINEAR-DIAGONAL BINARY GRAPH PATTERN FEATURE EXTRACT...ijfcstjournal
ย
Face recognition is one the most interesting topic in the field in computer vision and image processing.
Face recognition is a processing system that recognizes and identifies individuals human by their faces.
Automatic face recognition is powerful way to provide, authorized access to control their system. Face
recognition has many challenging problems (like face pose, face expression variation, illumination
variation, face orientation and noise) in the field of image analysis and computer vision. This method is
work on feature extraction part of face recognition. New way to extract face feature using LD-BGP code
operator it is like LGS and LBP feature extraction operator. In our LD-BGP-code operator work in two
direction first linear then diagonal. In both direction, its create eight digits code to every pixel of image.
Means of these two directional are taken so that is cover all neighbor of center pixel. First linear direction,
only horizontal and vertical pixel are taken. Second diagonal direction only diagonal pixels taken. In
matching phase, we use Euclidean distance to match a face image. We perform the Linear and diagonal
directional operator method on face database ORL. We get accuracy 95.3 %. LD-BGP method also works
on different type image like illuminated and expression variation image.
PRE-PROCESSING TECHNIQUES FOR FACIAL EMOTION RECOGNITION SYSTEMIAEME Publication
ย
Humans share a universal and fundamental set of emotions which are exhibited through consistent facial expressions. Recognition of human emotions from the imaging templates is useful in a wide variety of human-computer interaction and intelligent systems applications. However, the automatic recognition of facial expressions using image template matching techniques suffer from the natural variability with facial features and recording conditions. In spite of the progress achieved in facial emotion recognition in recent years, the effective and computationally simple feature extraction and classification technique for emotion recognition is still an open problem. Image pre-processing and normalization is significant part of face recognition systems. Changes in lighting conditions produces dramatically decrease of recognition performance. In this paper, the image pre-processing techniques like K-Nearest Neighbor, Cultural Algorithm and Genetic Algorithm are used to remove the noise in the facial image for enhancing the emotion recognition. The performance of the preprocessing techniques are evaluated with various performance metrics.
Unimodal Multi-Feature Fusion and one-dimensional Hidden Markov Models for Lo...IJECEIAES
ย
The objective of low-resolution face recognition is to identify faces from small size or poor quality images with varying pose, illumination, expression, etc. In this work, we propose a robust low face recognition technique based on one-dimensional Hidden Markov Models. Features of each facial image are extracted using three steps: ๏ฌrstly, both Gabor ๏ฌlters and Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) descriptor are calculated. Secondly, the size of these features is reduced using the Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) method in order to remove redundant information. Finally, the reduced features are combined using Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) method. Unlike existing techniques using HMMs, in which authors consider each state to represent one facial region (eyes, nose, mouth, etc), the proposed system employs 1D-HMMs without any prior knowledge about the localization of interest regions in the facial image. Performance of the proposed method will be measured using the AR database.
Similar to K-nearest neighbor based facial emotion recognition using effective features (20)
Convolutional neural network with binary moth flame optimization for emotion ...IAESIJAI
ย
Electroencephalograph (EEG) signals have the ability of real-time reflecting brain activities. Utilizing the EEG signal for analyzing human emotional states is a common study. The EEG signals of the emotions arenโt distinctive and it is different from one person to another as every one of them has different emotional responses to same stimuli. Which is why, the signals of the EEG are subject dependent and proven to be effective for the subject dependent detection of the Emotions. For the purpose of achieving enhanced accuracy and high true positive rate, the suggested system proposed a binary moth flame optimization (BMFO) algorithm for the process of feature selection and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for classifications. In this proposal, optimum features are chosen with the use of accuracy as objective function. Ultimately, optimally chosen features are classified after that with the use of a CNN for the purpose of discriminating different emotion states.
A novel ensemble model for detecting fake newsIAESIJAI
ย
Due the growing proliferation of fake news over the past couple of years, our objective in this paper is to propose an ensemble model for the automatic classification of article news as being either real or fake. For this purpose, we opt for a blending technique that combines three models, namely bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM), stochastic gradient descent classifier and ridge classifier. The implementation of the proposed model (i.e. BI-LSR) on real world datasets, has shown outstanding results. In fact, it achieved an accuracy score of 99.16%. Accordingly, this ensemble learning has proven to do perform better than individual conventional machine learning and deep learning models as well as many ensemble learning approaches cited in the literature.
K-centroid convergence clustering identification in one-label per type for di...IAESIJAI
ย
Disease prediction is a high demand field which requires significant support from machine learning (ML) to enhance the result efficiency. The research works on application of K-means clustering supervised classification in disease prediction where each class only has one labeled data. The K-centroid convergence clustering identification (KC3 I) system is based on semi-K-means clustering but only requires single labeled data per class for the training process with the training dataset to update the centroid. The KC3 I model also includes a dictionary box to index all the input centroids before and after the updating process. Each centroid matches with a corresponding label inside this box. After the training process, each time the input features arrive, the trained centroid will put them to its cluster depending on the Euclidean distance, then convert them into the specific class name, which is coherent to that centroid index. Two validation stages were carried out and accomplished the expectation in terms of precision, recall, F1-score, and absolute accuracy. The last part demonstrates the possibility of feature reduction by selecting the most crucial feature with the extra tree classifier method. Total data are fed into the KC3 I system with the most important features and remain the same accuracy.
Plant leaf detection through machine learning based image classification appr...IAESIJAI
ย
Since maize is a staple diet for people, especially vegetarians and vegans, maize leaf disease has a significant influence here on the food industry including maize crop productivity. Therefore, it should be understood that maize quality must be optimal; yet, to do so, maize must be safeguarded from several illnesses. As a result, there is a great demand for such an automated system that can identify the condition early on and take the appropriate action. Early disease identification is crucial, but it also poses a major obstacle. As a result, in this research project, we adopt the fundamental k-nearest neighbor (KNN) model and concentrate on building and developing the enhanced k-nearest neighbor (EKNN) model. EKNN aids in identifying several classes of disease. To gather discriminative, boundary, pattern, and structurally linked information, additional high-quality fine and coarse features are generated. This information is then used in the classification process. The classification algorithm offers high-quality gradient-based features. Additionally, the proposed model is assessed using the Plant-Village dataset, and a comparison with many standard classification models using various metrics is also done.
Backbone search for object detection for applications in intrusion warning sy...IAESIJAI
ย
In this work, we propose a novel backbone search method for object detection for applications in intrusion warning systems. The goal is to find a compact model for use in embedded thermal imaging cameras widely used in intrusion warning systems. The proposed method is based on faster region-based convolutional neural network (Faster R-CNN) because it can detect small objects. Inspired by EfficientNet, the sought-after backbone architecture is obtained by finding the most suitable width scale for the base backbone (ResNet50). The evaluation metrics are mean average precision (mAP), number of parameters, and number of multiplyโaccumulate operations (MACs). The experimental results showed that the proposed method is effective in building a lightweight neural network for the task of object detection. The obtained model can keep the predefined mAP while minimizing the number of parameters and computational resources. All experiments are executed elaborately on the person detection in intrusion warning systems (PDIWS) dataset.
Deep learning method for lung cancer identification and classificationIAESIJAI
ย
Lung cancer (LC) is calming many lives and is becoming a serious cause of concern. The detection of LC at an early stage assists the chances of recovery. Accuracy of detection of LC at an early stage can be improved with the help of a convolutional neural network (CNN) based deep learning approach. In this paper, we present two methodologies for Lung cancer detection (LCD) applied on Lung image database consortium (LIDC) and image database resource initiative (IDRI) data sets. Classification of these LC images is carried out using support vector machine (SVM), and deep CNN. The CNN is trained with i) multiple batches and ii) single batch for LC image classification as non cancer and cancer image. All these methods are being implemented in MATLAB. The accuracy of classification obtained by SVM is 65%, whereas deep CNN produced detection accuracy of 80% and 100% respectively for multiple and single batch training. The novelty of our experimentation is near 100% classification accuracy obtained by our deep CNN model when tested on 25 Lung computed tomography (CT) test images each of size 512ร512 pixels in less than 20 iterations as compared to the research work carried out by other researchers using cropped LC nodule images.
Optically processed Kannada script realization with Siamese neural network modelIAESIJAI
ย
Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that allows computers to recognize and extract text from images or scanned documents. It is commonly used to convert printed or handwritten text into machine-readable format. This Study presents an OCR system on Kannada Characters based on siamese neural network (SNN). Here the SNN, a Deep neural network which comprises of two identical convolutional neural network (CNN) compare the script and ranks based on the dissimilarity. When lesser dissimilarity score is identified, prediction is done as character match. In this work the authors use 5 classes of Kannada characters which were initially preprocessed using grey scaling and convert it to pgm format. This is directly input into the Deep convolutional network which is learnt from matching and non-matching image between the CNN with contrastive loss function in Siamese architecture. The Proposed OCR system uses very less time and gives more accurate results as compared to the regular CNN. The model can become a powerful tool for identification, particularly in situations where there is a high degree of variation in writing styles or limited training data is available.
Embedded artificial intelligence system using deep learning and raspberrypi f...IAESIJAI
ย
Melanoma is a kind of skin cancer that originates in melanocytes responsible for producing melanin, it can be a severe and potentially deadly form of cancer because it can metastasize to other regions of the body if not detected and treated early. To facilitate this process, Recently, various computer-assisted low-cost, reliable, and accurate diagnostic systems have been proposed based on artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, particularly deep learning techniques. This work proposed an innovative and intelligent system that combines the internet of things (IoT) with a Raspberry Pi connected to a camera and a deep learning model based on the deep convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithm for real-time detection and classification of melanoma cancer lesions. The key stages of our model before serializing to the Raspberry Pi: Firstly, the preprocessing part contains data cleaning, data transformation (normalization), and data augmentation to reduce overfitting when training. Then, the deep CNN algorithm is used to extract the features part. Finally, the classification part with applied Sigmoid Activation Function. The experimental results indicate the efficiency of our proposed classification system as we achieved an accuracy rate of 92%, a precision of 91%, a sensitivity of 91%, and an area under the curve- receiver operating characteristics (AUC-ROC) of 0.9133.
Deep learning based biometric authentication using electrocardiogram and irisIAESIJAI
ย
Authentication systems play an important role in wide range of applications. The traditional token certificate and password-based authentication systems are now replaced by biometric authentication systems. Generally, these authentication systems are based on the data obtained from face, iris, electrocardiogram (ECG), fingerprint and palm print. But these types of models are unimodal authentication, which suffer from accuracy and reliability issues. In this regard, multimodal biometric authentication systems have gained huge attention to develop the robust authentication systems. Moreover, the current development in deep learning schemes have proliferated to develop more robust architecture to overcome the issues of tradition machine learning based authentication systems. In this work, we have adopted ECG and iris data and trained the obtained features with the help of hybrid convolutional neural network- long short-term memory (CNN-LSTM) model. In ECG, R peak detection is considered as an important aspect for feature extraction and morphological features are extracted. Similarly, gabor-wavelet, gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM), gray level difference matrix (GLDM) and principal component analysis (PCA) based feature extraction methods are applied on iris data. The final feature vector is obtained from MIT-BIH and IIT Delhi Iris dataset which is trained and tested by using CNN-LSTM. The experimental analysis shows that the proposed approach achieves average accuracy, precision, and F1-core as 0.985, 0.962 and 0.975, respectively.
Hybrid channel and spatial attention-UNet for skin lesion segmentationIAESIJAI
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Melanoma is a type of skin cancer which has affected many lives globally. The American Cancer Society research has suggested that it a serious type of skin cancer and lead to mortality but it is almost 100% curable if it is detected and treated in its early stages. Currently automated computer vision-based schemes are widely adopted but these systems suffer from poor segmentation accuracy. To overcome these issue, deep learning (DL) has become the promising solution which performs extensive training for pattern learning and provide better classification accuracy. However, skin lesion segmentation is affected due to skin hair, unclear boundaries, pigmentation, and mole. To overcome this issue, we adopt UNet based deep learning scheme and incorporated attention mechanism which considers low level statistics and high-level statistics combined with feedback and skip connection module. This helps to obtain the robust features without neglecting the channel information. Further, we use channel attention, spatial attention modulation to achieve the final segmentation. The proposed DL based scheme is instigated on publically available dataset and experimental investigation shows that the proposed Hybrid Attention UNet approach achieves average performance as 0.9715, 0.9962, 0.9710.
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GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
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Session Overviewโ
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K-nearest neighbor based facial emotion recognition using effective features
1. IAES International Journal of Artificial Intelligence (IJ-AI)
Vol. 12, No. 1, March 2023, pp. 57~65
ISSN: 2252-8938, DOI: 10.11591/ijai.v23.i1.pp57-65 ๏ฒ 57
Journal homepage: http://ijai.iaescore.com
K-nearest neighbor based facial emotion recognition using
effective features
Swapna Subudhiray, Hemanta Kumar Palo, Niva Das
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Siksha 'o' Anusandhan (Deemed to be University),
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Oct 22, 2021
Revised Jul 23, 2022
Accepted Aug 21, 2022
In this paper, an experiment has been carried out based on a simple k-nearest
neighbor (kNN) classifier to investigate the capabilities of three extracted
facial features for the better recognition of facial emotions. The feature
extraction techniques used are histogram of oriented gradient (HOG), Gabor,
and local binary pattern (LBP). A comparison has been made using
performance indices such as average recognition accuracy, overall
recognition accuracy, precision, recall, kappa coefficient, and computation
time. Two databases, i.e., Cohn-Kanade (CK+) and Japanese female facial
expression (JAFFE) have been used here. Different training to testing data
division ratios is explored to find out the best one from the performance
point of view of the three extracted features, Gabor produced 94.8%, which
is the best among all in terms of average accuracy though the computational
time required is the highest. LBP showed 88.2% average accuracy with a
computational time less than that of Gabor while HOG showed minimum
average accuracy of 55.2% with the lowest computation time.
Keywords:
Histogram of oriented gradients
K-nearest neighbor
Local binary pattern
Recognition of facial
expression
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Swapna Subudhiray
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Siksha 'o' Anusandhan (Deemed to be
University)
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Email: swapnaray89@gmail.com
1. INTRODUCTION
Among many modalities of human affective states, the facial expression remains a significant mode
of communicating an individual's state of mind. Facial expression accounts for 55% of the entire emotional
information as compared to 38% by discourse, and 7% by language [1], [2]. Among these modalities, the
recognition of emotions using facial expression (RFE) remains a complex domain of research due to the
absence of standard best features adequately describing these states. It remains significant in the area of
human-machine interaction and design acknowledgment [3]โ[5].
There are two major approaches to facial emotion recognition as appearance and geometric-based
model [6], [7]. However, the techniques based on geometric models do not consider the skin surface
adjustments such as the significant wrinkles displaying the outward appearance. On the contrary, appearance-
based techniques utilize the whole face or unequivocal zones in the facial image to represent the shrouded
information [8]โ[10].
In this regard, the Gabor Filter is an appropriate strategy to recognize human expressive states with
promising results earlier. The technique is suitable for extracting information on multi-scale, multi-course
changes in an expressive facial surface while not disturbing the changes in brightness. It targets the
prominent features of emotion by focusing on the variation in the edge and texture of an image [11], [12]. On
2. ๏ฒ ISSN:2252-8938
Int J Artif Intell, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 2023: 57-65
58
the contrary, the histogram of oriented gradient (HOG) process develops the histogram corresponding to each
cell comprising several pixels by estimating the luminance gradient of each pixel. It is a geometric-based
approach in which, the luminance gradient utilizes all the adjacent pixels such as the top, bottom, left, and
right, to compute the magnitude and the direction of the variation in color intensity of a cell. The main
properties of local binary pattern (LBP) are obstruction against brilliance changes and their computational
ease [13]. However, the applicability of the HOG and LBP technique in RFE as compared to the Gabor filter
under different training and testing data, orientation and Kappa coefficients can provide new insights to
researchers, thus investigated here [14].
Classification algorithms play an important role in the identification of facial expressions (FE).
Earlier literature in RFE has explored several classification mechanisms such as random forest, naive Bayes,
support vector machine (SVM), Hidden Markov model (HMM), AdaBoost, multilayer neural networks,
decision tree, K-nearest neighbors, and deep neural networks with excellent results [13]โ[15]. Nevertheless,
reliable, comprehensive, and faster classification algorithms are often chosen which should address the
challenges of subject-dependency, variation in illumination, and the position of the head during the affective
states [16].
Here Section 2 investigates the chosen feature extraction techniques in detail. Section 3 briefs the
choice of the database whereas the reason for choosing the k-nearest neighbor (kNN) classifier has been
provided in section 4. The simulation results using the chosen classifier and the extracted feature sets have
been explained in section 5 and lastly, section 6 concludes the work with future directions.
2. FEATURE EXTRACTION METHOD
The facial image identification modeling is shown in Figure 1. It comprises several components
meant for image acquisition, pre-processing, feature extraction, and classification. After clicking an FE
image using a camera, it is pre-processed to minimize any variation due to the environment and other
sources. The pre-processing step involves image-scaling, adjustment of contrast and brightness, and image
enhancement. As the facial images of the chosen Japanese female facial expression (JAFEE) and Cohn-
Kanade (CK+) database have already been pre-processed, it is not required to involve this step here. This
work explores the Gabor filter, LBP, and HOG. Feature extraction techniques to classify the FE states using
facial images. The feature extraction techniques have been briefly explained in the following subsections.
Figure 1. The facial image identification modeling
2.1. Histogram of oriented gradients
HOG technique is considered here as it focuses on both local and global facial expression attributes
in different orientations and scales. The features are sensitive to variations in the shape of an object unless the
shape is consistent [17]. This piece of work utilizes nine bin histograms representing the directions and
strength of an edge using 4ร4 cells corresponding to each patch. These features of each active facial patch
are appended to extract the desired feature vector [18].
For the pixel ๐ง(๐ , ๐ก), the gradient is computed in the HOG approaches,
๐บ๐ = ๐ง(๐ โ 1, ๐ก) โ ๐ง(๐ + 1, ๐ก) (1)
๐บ๐ = ๐ง(๐ , ๐ก โ 1) โ ๐ง(๐ , ๐ก + 1) (2)
The gradient magnitude is given by,
3. Int J Artif Intell ISSN:2252-8938 ๏ฒ
K-nearest neighbor based facial emotion recognition using effective features (SwapnaSubudhiray)
59
๐บ = โ๐บ๐
2
+ ๐บ๐
2
(3)
The orientation of the bin is given by,
๐ = ๐๐๐๐ก๐๐(๐บ๐ ๐บ๐
โ ) (4)
Where ๐ denotes the bin angle. Both the magnitude and the bin angle are used to form the HOG
feature vector. In this work, the size of each HOG cell is fixed at 8 ร 16 pixels. This way, it is possible to
focus on the variation of the shape of the eyes, mouth, and eyebrows that change more vertically during an
emotional outburst. To choose the cell size, we begin with 2๏ด2 pixels to 64๏ด64 pixels using all the possible
variations in both vertical and horizontal dimensions and noting the RFE accuracy. The cell size of 8๏ด16 has
provided the highest accuracy, and hence is kept for further processing. It is observed that with an increase in
cell size, there is a loss of image details, and the computation time increases. On the contrary, the feature
vector dimension remains small and the computation time becomes faster with smaller-sized cells.
2.2. Local binary pattern
LBP is a very popular, efficient, and simple texture descriptor that is used for many computer vision
problems [19]. It can capture the spatial pattern along with the grayscale contrast using a simple thresholding
technique, where the intensities of the neighboring pixels are compared with that of the center pixel resulting
in a binary pattern termed LBP [20]. The basic LBP operation with a 3 ร 3 window is expressed and
demonstrated.
๐ฟ๐ต๐(๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐) = โ ๐ (๐๐ โ ๐๐)2๐
7
๐=0 (5)
Where ๐๐ corresponds to the intensity of the central pixel (๐ฅ๐, ๐ฆ๐), ๐๐ corresponds to the gray values of the
eight closed pixels, and if ๐๐ โ ๐๐> 0, then ๐ (๐๐ โ ๐๐) = 1, else ๐ (๐๐ โ ๐๐) = 0.
The mathematical form is donated as,
๐ฟ๐ต๐๐,๐
๐2
= โ ๐(๐๐ โ ๐๐)2๐
๐โ1
๐=0 (6)
where the gray value of the jth pixel is ๐๐ and the gray value of the ith pixel is ๐๐ respectively, S(x) is a unit
step function defined.
๐(๐ฅ) = {
1, ๐๐(๐ฅ โฅ 0)
0, ๐๐(๐ฅ < 0)
The multi-goal examination can be accomplished by picking various estimations of R and P.
Figure 2 shows three diverse sweeps of LBP administrators. From left to right, they are ๐ฟ๐ต๐4,1
๐2
, ๐ฟ๐ต๐8,1
๐2
,
and ๐ฟ๐ต๐8,2
๐2
operators respectively.
Figure 2. An example of a basic LBP operation
After applying the LBP operator to an image, the histogram is calculated,
๐ป๐ = โ ๐ผ(๐1(๐ฅ, ๐ฆ) = 1), i = 0, . . . , n โ 1
๐ฅ,๐ฆ (7)
Here n= different labels and,
๐ผ(๐ด) = {
1, ๐ด ๐๐ ๐๐๐ข๐
0, ๐ด ๐๐ ๐น๐๐๐ ๐
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Int J Artif Intell, Vol. 12, No. 1, March 2023: 57-65
60
2.3. Gabor filters
Gabor filter is a linear filter and is described by the spatial and frequency domain representation of
the signal. It can provide important information on emotions as the filter can approximate the human's
perception adequately [21]. It can be expressed as a combination of the complex exponential function and the
2D Gaussian function.
๐(๐, ๐) = ๐๐ฅ๐ (โ
๐1
2+๐พ2๐1
2
2๐2 ) ๐๐ฅ๐ (๐ (2๐
๐1
๐
+ ๐)) (8)
Where ๐1 = ๐๐๐๐ ๐ + ๐๐ ๐๐๐ and ๐1 = โ๐๐ ๐๐๐ + ๐๐๐๐ ๐. Here ๐, ๐, ๐, ๐, and ๐พ denotes the orientation in
degrees, wavelength, phase offsets, standard deviation, and the spatial aspect ratio respectively. Using the
real component of (8), the expression for the Gabor filter becomes,
๐(๐, ๐) = ๐๐ฅ๐ (โ
๐1
2+๐พ2๐1
2
2๐2 ) ๐๐๐ (2๐
๐1
๐
+ ๐) (9)
this work develops the Gabor filters using a 39 ร 39 size pixel window. Earlier researchers in this direction
have employed approximately seven or eight different values of ๐ and four to five different values of ๐.
However, for our purpose, three different values of ๐ = {3, 8, 13} and four different values ๐ = {0,
ฯ
4
,
๐
2
, ๐}
have been chosen after a few iterations while keeping the parameters ๐พ = 0.5, ๐ = 0.56๐, and ๐ = 0 as
constant [22]. The input image ๐ผ is convolved with Gabor filter ๐ to extract the Gabor features ๐น for a
specific ๐ and ๐.
๐น๐,๐ = ๐ผ โ ๐๐,๐ (10)
3. PROPOSED METHOD
3.1. Japanese female facial expression (JAFFE) database
The JAFFE database is easily accessible and has been chosen by several researchers in the RFE,
which makes the comparison platform uniform, hence considered here. The images are stored on a grayscale
with a resolution of 256 ร 256. The happy, disgust, fear, angry, neutral, sad, and surprising emotional
expression samples from the JAFFE database has been provided in Figure 3. We have considered 188 images
consisting of six basic emotions in this work.
Figure 3. Sample images of the JAFFE database
3.2. CK+ database
The extended CK+ information base contains outward appearances of 123 college students. In the
information base, we chose 928 picture groupings from 123 subjects, with 1 to 6 feelings for every subject.
There are 928 images comprising 135 anger, 207 joy, 84 sad, 249 surprises, 75 fears, and 177-disgust FEs.
Figure 4 provides the sample images of CK+ emotional expressive states.
3.3. Classification
kNN is a non-parametric supervised learning algorithm meant for classification as well as
regression. It relies on the concept of feature similarity to classify new data meaning. In this, the new data
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K-nearest neighbor based facial emotion recognition using effective features (SwapnaSubudhiray)
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will be assigned a class based on how closely it matches the data in the training set [23]. It allocates the
feature variable to the designated class based on a distance measure such as the Euclidean norm. For vectors
๐ = (๐1, ๐2 โฆ โฆ โฆ ๐๐) and ๐ = (๐1,๐2 โฆ โฆ โฆ ๐๐), the distance norm can be expressed as,
๐(๐, ๐) = โโ (๐๐ โ ๐๐)
2
๐
๐=1 (11)
Figure 4. Sample images of CK+ emotional expressive states
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The kNN classifier has been utilized to order the extracted feature sets into six different basic
emotions. Different training and testing data division ratios such as 70%/30%, 60%/40%, 50%/50%,
40%/60%, and 30%/70% have been trialed from the chosen JAFFE and CK+ database to access the best
possible recognition accuracy with the classifier. A data division ratio of 70%/30% has provided the desired
level of accuracy and hence retained for this work. Figure 5 compares kNN accuracy using the extracted
feature sets with different data division ratios for JAFEE and CK+ Dataset. Figure 5 (a) shows the kNN
accuracy for the JAFEE dataset whereas Figure 5 (b) shows the accuracy for the CK+ dataset.
(a) (b)
Figure 5. The comparison of kNN accuracy using the extracted feature sets with different data division ratios
for, (a) JAFEE dataset and (b) CK+ dataset
Training and testing were carried out on three sets of features, i.e., HOG, LBP, and Gabor with a
kNN classifier separately. The performance of the classifier was found on each feature set independent of the
others with CK+ as well as the JAFFE database. The feature potential can be measured indirectly from the
execution of the classifier as far as average recognition accuracy, overall accuracy, precision, recall and
kappa coefficient. All these can be calculated from the confusion matrix, which reflects the number of
correctly identified facial emotions along the diagonal. Sample confusion matrixes displaying the classifier
performance with HOG and LBP features are displayed in Figure 6 for the CK+ database. Figure 6 (a)
provides the kNN confusion matrix using the HOG feature vector, whereas Figure 6 (b) shows the confusion
matrix using the LBP vector. Similarly, Figure 7 (a) displays the confusion matrix using Gabor features for
the CK+ database whereas Figure 7 (b) shows the matrix for the JAFFE database. The confusion matrices
have been computed for the kNN classifier for the JAFFE dataset with the HOG vector in Figure 8 (a) and
LBP features in Figure 8 (b).
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62
(a) (b)
Figure 6. The testing confusion matrix using kNN classifier for CK+ dataset using, (a) HOG feature set and
(b) LBP feature set
(a) (b)
Figure 7. The testing confusion matrix using kNN classifier with Gabor feature set for, (a) CK+ dataset and
(b) JAFFE dataset
(a) (b)
Figure 8. The testing confusion matrix using kNN classifier for JAFFE dataset using, (a) HOG feature set and
(b) LBP feature set
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The proposed schemes have been implemented on an intel ยฎ core โข i3-2330M CPU, 220 GHz
laptop with 4GB RAM, and 64-bit OS using MATLAB R2018b. The various performance parameters used in
this paper are defined. From this, we will better discriminate the features.
a. Overall Accuracy โ it is the ratio of the number of correctly classified individuals to the total number of
individuals tested.
OA=
๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐ + ๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐
๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐+ ๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐+ ๐น๐๐๐ ๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐+๐น๐๐๐ ๐๐๐๐๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐
b. Average Accuracy โ Average accuracy can be written as the sum of accuracies of each class divided by the
total number of the available classes present.
c. Precision โ Precision is given as,
Precision =
๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐
๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐+ ๐น๐๐๐ ๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐
d. Recall โ it is given as,
Recall =
๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐
๐๐๐ข๐๐๐๐ ๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐+ ๐น๐๐๐ ๐๐๐๐๐๐ก๐๐ฃ๐
e. Kappa Coefficient (K) โ Kappa coefficient is a statistic used to measure the agreement between two or
more observers [24]. The value of ๐พ < 0 conveys no unity, the gain lying 0โ0.20 indicates low unity, the
gain value lying 0.21โ0.40 conveys good unity, the gain lying 0.41โ0.60 gives moderate unity, the gain lying
0.61โ0.80 gives substantial unity, and the gain lying 0.81โ1 gives almost best unity [25].
f. Testing Time โ Total time required for testing samples. Table 1 and Table 2 show the recognition
accuracies of individual emotions for kNN based on three different feature schemes for CK+ and JAFFE
datasets respectively. The surprise state has shown the highest accuracy using kNN+HOG and kNN+LBP as
observed in Table 1. However, the fear and happy states have outperformed other chosen states using the
Gabor+kNN for both the datasets when Table 1 and Table 2 are compared.
Table 3 and Table 4 display all the performance parameters of the three schemes used for the CK+
and JAFFE databases respectively. From these Tables, it is clear that the Gabor feature yields around 94%
recognition accuracy which is the best among all and may be attributed to the image-enhancing capability of
the Gabor transform, thus making the task easier for the classifier. The recognition accuracy of HOG based
scheme is the lowest due to its limited structural information while the LBP-based scheme falls in between. It
can also be observed that computation time has been highest for the scheme based on the Gabor feature
because of its multi-resolution capability whereas it has been lowest for the HOG-based scheme.
Table 1. The percentage recognition accuracy of
individual emotion for the CK+ database
Table 2. The percentage recognition accuracy of
individual emotion for the JAFEE database
Emotions kNN+HOG kNN+LBP kNN+Gabor
Anger 87.5 92.5 92.5
Happy 83.9 94.4 100
Disgust 84.9 68.1 73.9
Sad 60.0 88.7 93.5
Fear 73.9 84.0 100
Surprise 94.7 98.6 96.0
Emotion kNN+HOG kNN+LBP kNN+Gabor
Anger 33.33 88.88 100
Sad 44.44 55.55 88.88
Happy 60.00 90.00 100
Disgust 12.50 87.50 87.50
Surprise 66.66 77.77 100
Fear 55.55 77.77 77.77
Table 3. Performance comparison of three different feature extractors for CK+ database
Feature Overall accuracy Average accuracy Precision Recall Kappa Coefficient Computation Time in sec.
HOG 84.53 80.81 0.80 0.82 0.80 2.1
LBP 90.65 90.31 0.90 0.92 0.88 2.2
Gabor 94.24 92.66 0.92 0.94 0.92 4.0
Table 4. Performance comparison of three different feature extractors for JAFFE database
Feature Overall accuracy Average accuracy Precision Recall Kappa Coefficient Computation Time in sec.
HOG 46.29 45.41 0.45 0.47 0.35 1.6
LBP 79.62 79.58 0.79 0.81 0.75 2.1
Gabor 92.59 92.36 0.92 0.94 0.91 4.5
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5. CONCLUSION
This paper is an outcome of a survey conducted on three prominent feature extraction techniques
used in PC vision and image processing issues for the task of emotion recognition from FE image datasets.
The extracted feature sets from the JAFFE and CK+ datasets have been used to simulate the simple kNN
classifier due to its ease of implementation and faster response. The application of the Gabor filter to binary
images enhances the image to the desired standard, thus making the emotional models reliable and simple.
Though there exist several challenges in the RFE system, a tremendous scope still exists. These developed
models can be utilized effectively in automated teller machine (ATMs), identifying fake voters, passports,
visas and driving licenses. It can also be applied in defense, identifying students in competitive exams as well
as in private and government sectors. It can be inferred that the multi-resolution Gabor filters remain
computationally expensive as compared to simple filters such as HOG and LBP, however, it has an improved
recognition accuracy. The result can be extended in the future to other efficient feature extraction techniques
that can describe facial expressive states adequately.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Swapna Subudhiray received the M. Tech degree in Electronics and
Communication Engineering in Electronics Communication Engineering from the Lovely
Professional University, Jalandhar, India in 2012. She is currently working towards a Ph.D.
degree at the Siksha 'O' Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Odisha, India. Her current
research interests include Image Processing, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and Artificial
Intelligence. She can be contacted at email: swapnaray89@gmail.com.
Hemanta Kumar Palo received a Master of Engineering from Birla Institute of
Technology, Mesra, Ranchi in 2011 and a Ph.D. in 2018 from the Siksha 'O' Anusandhan
(Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. Currently, he is serving as an
Associate Professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at the
Institute of Technical Education and Research, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. His area of research includes signal processing, speech and
emotion recognition, machine learning, and analysis of power quality disturbances. He can be
contacted at email: hemantapalo@soa.ac.in.
Niva Das completed her B. Tech, M. Tech, and Ph.D. from N.I.T Rourkela and
BPUT, India. She has been working as a professor in the Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering at Siksha 'o' Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, India since
2010. Her research interest includes pattern recognition, machine learning, blind signal
processing, biomedical signal processing, and document processing. She can be contacted at
email: nivadas@soa.ac.in.