This document provides an overview of sources that can be used to study the Indian Mutiny of 1857. It discusses literary sources like books, newspapers, letters, and documents as well as archaeological sources like buildings, monuments, tools, and paintings. Specifically, it examines sources related to key sites of the mutiny, including the Red Fort and Northern Ridge in Delhi. It also includes an excerpt from a book describing the brutal suppression of the mutiny by British forces. The document aims to outline different types of primary sources that can help provide insight into this major historical event in India.
Myths and misconceptions exclusion an important cause etc-part 4Agha A
Major Agha H Amin is a retired Pakistani Army tank corps major who has written extensively on military and political issues in Pakistan and Afghanistan. He has authored several books and served as editor for several journals. He currently heads the think tank Centre for Study of Intelligence Operations.
The document discusses various causes and impacts of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny in India against British colonial rule. It argues that exclusion of Indians from higher ranks and government positions was a main cause of resentment. After the rebellion, the British took steps to include more Indians in government to prevent further unrest. However, the British also adopted policies favoring feudal landowners over taxing the agricultural classes more heavily, shifting taxation burdens to urban professional classes instead
The document provides a detailed overview of the Rebellion of 1857 in India. It covers the origins, timeline, suppression, interpretations, patterns, and leadership of the rebellion. It also discusses the roles of sepoys, peasants, artisans, and the state of Awadh in the revolt. The document outlines the end of Mughal rule, grievances against British colonialism, the search for alternative power structures, and images/depictions of the rebellion in paintings, prints and films. It concludes with the administrative changes the British implemented in response like new laws, policies of repression, and portraying the rebellion as a mutiny to consolidate imperial power.
China has a long history as an empire ruled by emperors for over 2000 years. In the early 20th century, China was divided between two rival factions - the Kuomintang led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong. From 1934-1935, Mao and the Communist Red Army embarked on the famous Long March across China to escape the Kuomintang, covering nearly 10,000 kilometers and surviving harsh conditions, though most soldiers perished. They eventually reached their destination of Yan'an with only 10,000 surviving soldiers out of the original 87,000. This established the Communist Party as a force to be reckoned with in China.
The Revolt of 1857 was the first major challenge to British rule in India. It was caused by exploitative colonial policies that hurt Indian agriculture, increased taxes, and limited employment. Religious and political reforms antagonized many. The revolt began with soldier mutinies over rumors about new gun cartridges and bread. It spread from Meerut to Delhi and other major cities, with Bahadur Shah Zafar declared the emperor. Though some civilians joined, there was no true all-India revolt or central leadership. The British used superior weapons and leadership to eventually suppress the revolt in major cities by September 1857.
The 1857 revolt was a major uprising against British rule in India that involved many disgruntled groups. It was sparked by both long-standing political, economic, social and religious grievances as well as more immediate triggers. Key causes included the annexation of states, the doctrine of lapse, high taxation, loss of jobs and status for Indians, introduction of new firearms, and activities of Christian missionaries. The revolt began with mutiny by sepoys in Meerut and spread to Delhi and other regions, but lacked strong centralized leadership and coordination. It was eventually suppressed by the British through superior weapons and communication, though it highlighted weaknesses in colonial control and had important impacts like transferring power to the British government.
The document summarizes the history of partitions in the Punjab region of South Asia after the establishment of British rule. It discusses three major partitions:
1. The formation of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in 1901, which separated Pashto-speaking districts from Punjab province.
2. The partition of British India in 1947 which divided Punjab between newly-independent India and Pakistan.
3. The division of Punjab in 1964 which created the states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.
For each partition, it outlines the events leading up to the partition, the process undertaken, and the aftermath. It provides historical context on the establishment of British Punjab and the various administrative changes that
This document provides an overview of sources that can be used to study the Indian Mutiny of 1857. It discusses literary sources like books, newspapers, letters, and documents as well as archaeological sources like buildings, monuments, tools, and paintings. Specifically, it examines sources related to key sites of the mutiny, including the Red Fort and Northern Ridge in Delhi. It also includes an excerpt from a book describing the brutal suppression of the mutiny by British forces. The document aims to outline different types of primary sources that can help provide insight into this major historical event in India.
Myths and misconceptions exclusion an important cause etc-part 4Agha A
Major Agha H Amin is a retired Pakistani Army tank corps major who has written extensively on military and political issues in Pakistan and Afghanistan. He has authored several books and served as editor for several journals. He currently heads the think tank Centre for Study of Intelligence Operations.
The document discusses various causes and impacts of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny in India against British colonial rule. It argues that exclusion of Indians from higher ranks and government positions was a main cause of resentment. After the rebellion, the British took steps to include more Indians in government to prevent further unrest. However, the British also adopted policies favoring feudal landowners over taxing the agricultural classes more heavily, shifting taxation burdens to urban professional classes instead
The document provides a detailed overview of the Rebellion of 1857 in India. It covers the origins, timeline, suppression, interpretations, patterns, and leadership of the rebellion. It also discusses the roles of sepoys, peasants, artisans, and the state of Awadh in the revolt. The document outlines the end of Mughal rule, grievances against British colonialism, the search for alternative power structures, and images/depictions of the rebellion in paintings, prints and films. It concludes with the administrative changes the British implemented in response like new laws, policies of repression, and portraying the rebellion as a mutiny to consolidate imperial power.
China has a long history as an empire ruled by emperors for over 2000 years. In the early 20th century, China was divided between two rival factions - the Kuomintang led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong. From 1934-1935, Mao and the Communist Red Army embarked on the famous Long March across China to escape the Kuomintang, covering nearly 10,000 kilometers and surviving harsh conditions, though most soldiers perished. They eventually reached their destination of Yan'an with only 10,000 surviving soldiers out of the original 87,000. This established the Communist Party as a force to be reckoned with in China.
The Revolt of 1857 was the first major challenge to British rule in India. It was caused by exploitative colonial policies that hurt Indian agriculture, increased taxes, and limited employment. Religious and political reforms antagonized many. The revolt began with soldier mutinies over rumors about new gun cartridges and bread. It spread from Meerut to Delhi and other major cities, with Bahadur Shah Zafar declared the emperor. Though some civilians joined, there was no true all-India revolt or central leadership. The British used superior weapons and leadership to eventually suppress the revolt in major cities by September 1857.
The 1857 revolt was a major uprising against British rule in India that involved many disgruntled groups. It was sparked by both long-standing political, economic, social and religious grievances as well as more immediate triggers. Key causes included the annexation of states, the doctrine of lapse, high taxation, loss of jobs and status for Indians, introduction of new firearms, and activities of Christian missionaries. The revolt began with mutiny by sepoys in Meerut and spread to Delhi and other regions, but lacked strong centralized leadership and coordination. It was eventually suppressed by the British through superior weapons and communication, though it highlighted weaknesses in colonial control and had important impacts like transferring power to the British government.
The document summarizes the history of partitions in the Punjab region of South Asia after the establishment of British rule. It discusses three major partitions:
1. The formation of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in 1901, which separated Pashto-speaking districts from Punjab province.
2. The partition of British India in 1947 which divided Punjab between newly-independent India and Pakistan.
3. The division of Punjab in 1964 which created the states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.
For each partition, it outlines the events leading up to the partition, the process undertaken, and the aftermath. It provides historical context on the establishment of British Punjab and the various administrative changes that
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 refers to a rebellion in India against the rule of the British East India Company, that ran from May 1857 to June 1858. The rebellion began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the cantonment of the town of Meerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region.[2] The rebellion posed a considerable threat to East India Company power in that region,[3] and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858.[2] The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Rebellion of 1857, the Uprising of 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion, the Indian Insurrection and the Sepoy Mutiny.
The document discusses the origins of the Sino-Indian border dispute and the Kongka-La incident of 1959 that marked a turning point in relations. It describes how following their 1950 invasion of Tibet, the Chinese secured territory in Ladakh that was key to controlling Tibet. In 1959, Chinese forces gunned down nine Indian policemen at Kongka-La during a period of supposed friendship, deeply hurting India. The incident forced India to accept Chinese deception and led to open conflict in 1962.
1) In October 1959, a patrol of 60 lightly armed Indian police officers were sent to establish border posts near the Kongka Pass, despite orders prohibiting forward patrols. 2) On October 21st, the patrol was ambushed by Chinese soldiers positioned in fortified bunkers above the patrol. 3) In the ensuing battle, 10 police officers were killed and most of the others wounded before the remaining survivors surrendered to the Chinese forces late in the evening.
The document summarizes key figures and events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule. It describes rebel leaders like Kunwar Singh in Bihar, Nana Sahib and his servant Thanthia Thopi in Pune, the Rani of Jhansi, and Bahadur Shah II who led the revolt from Delhi and formed a governing assembly. It also outlines reasons for the revolt's failure, including lack of support from traders and intelligentsia, support for the British from some local rulers, and the British army's advanced weapons. The results were the transfer of power in India to direct British rule, and the end of the Mughal dynasty with Bahadur Shah II exiled.
The document summarizes the key causes, participants, and events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The main causes were the exploitative economic policies of the British, socio-religious reforms that interfered with Indian traditions, and resentment among sepoys over unequal treatment. The rebellion began with sepoy mutinies in Meerut and Delhi in May 1857 and drew participation from rulers, peasants, artisans, and religious groups across North and Central India. Key leaders and centers of revolt included Bahadur Shah II in Delhi, Nana Saheb in Kanpur, and Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi. The rebellion was suppressed by 1859, ending Mughal rule and leading the British to formally
Korea and southeast asia in the modern worldJerlie
The Yi Dynasty in Korea went into decline in the late 16th century due to several factors: chronic conflicts weakened the authorities; the country was devastated by Japanese invasions in the late 16th century and invaded by Manchus in 1626. Korea was then poorly prepared to resist Western imperialism in the 19th century and rejected foreign ideas. It suffered under Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945 before being divided after World War II, with the South and North each backed by opposing superpowers.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the East India Company's army on May 10, 1857 in Meerut, India. It marked the first major uprising against British rule in India and grew significantly, spreading to many parts of northern and eastern India. The rebellion was fueled by resentment of British control as well as religious and social grievances, and threatened British authority across wide areas of India until being suppressed by 1858. Key leaders in the rebellion included the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II and the Maratha leader Nana Saheb.
The document provides an overview of Japan's occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945 and its significant economic, political, social, and cultural impacts. Economically, Japan dominated Korean industries and forced many Koreans to work in mines and factories, especially during World War II. Politically, all authority was held by the Japanese governor general and Koreans' basic rights were suppressed. Socially, Koreans were forced to take Japanese names and customs and thousands of women were made sexual slaves for Japanese troops. Culturally, Japanese rule aimed to eliminate Korean culture by imposing restrictions and promoting Japanese language and traditions instead. The occupation spurred Korean nationalism and independence movements.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Indian soldiers in the town of Meerut over new gunpowder cartridges greased with animal fat. It soon spread to other areas, led by figures such as Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Nana Sahib of Kanpur, and Begum Hazrat Mahal of Lucknow. Although the rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British, it marked the end of East India Company rule in India and the direct governance of India by the British Crown.
Rani Lakshmibai was the queen of Jhansi, a princely state in North India. After the death of her husband, the king, the British East India Company annexed Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse and forced Lakshmibai to leave the palace. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, she emerged as a leading rebel leader, determined to regain control of Jhansi. She scored several victories against the British but was eventually killed in battle in June 1858. Her defiance and military skills made her a symbol of resistance against British colonial rule.
THE MAN BEHIND THE BURMA INDEPENDENCE-ARMY COL KEIJI SUZUKIMYO AUNG Myanmar
Suzuki Keiji, Colonel
(1894-1967)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Keiji
Japanese military officer who, in the guise of a correspondent for the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper, "Minami Masuyo," traveled to Burma in 1940 to collect intelligence and make contacts with nationalists.
His talks with Thakin Kodaw Hmaing, Dr. Thein Maung, and Thakin Mya convinced him that Japanese support of a well-organized Burmese uprising against the British could serve Tokyo's war aims,
including shutting down the Burma Road.
When Thakins Aung San and Hla Myaing left Burma for China in search of foreign support for the independence movement,
Suzuki arranged in November 1940 to have them brought to Tokyo. Imperial General Headquarters made Suzuki head of the Minami Kikan (Minami Organ), established on February 1, 1941.
He undertook the training of the Thirty Comrades at Hainan, China, and made them the nucleus of the Burma Independence Army (BIA), which was established soon after war broke out in December 1941.
Assuming the Burmese name Bo Mogyo (Commander Thunderbolt), which had prophetic associations, he served as commander of the BIA until June 1942, when he was transferred back to Japan.
Dr. Ba Maw compared him to Lawrence of Arabia, "an adventurer with something like a sense of mission" (Breakthrough in Burma, 1968, 111).
Most Burmese nationalists who worked with him believed his support for immediate Burmese independence was sincere.
U Nu quotes him as saying that if the Burmese really wanted independence, they should take up arms, even against the Japanese.
This opinion was obviously not shared by the regular Japanese military, who wanted to fully exploit Burma's human and natural resources for the war effort.
https://books.google.co.th/books?isbn=0745315410
http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp60.html
Japan's ties to the Myanmar armed forces go back to the very founding of the Burma Independence Army in 1941. The pivotal figure on the Japanese side was Colonel Suzuki Keiji of the Minami Kikan (南機関 - a sort of special operations directorate), who first recruited General Aung San and trained the now legendary "Thirty Comrades".
Colonel Suzuki and his Minami Kikan fellow-officers came to associate closely with Myanmar independence desires and were at times distrusted by their own Japanese superiors.
1) The document analyzes the 10 phase history of Indo-Pak Muslims from the initial Muslim conquest of India in the 8th century through modern times.
2) It discusses how Muslim primacy was challenged by the Marathas in the 17th-18th centuries, leading Muslims to rediscover Islam, and how the Muslim elite later used Islam as a political tool to achieve advantages like the creation of Pakistan.
3) The document argues that the misuse of Islam as a political slogan by Pakistani politicians and the military inadvertently fostered Islamic extremism, and the contradiction of abandoning this strategy has led to the current civil war in Pakistan.
1) Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 under the pretext of a staged railway explosion, and used propaganda to set up a puppet state called Manchukuo.
2) In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China, capturing many major cities. The Nanjing Massacre resulted in 300,000 civilian deaths.
3) While Japan gained resources and territory, China suffered severe losses from violence, slave labor, and cultural destruction that have lasted into the modern era.
China experienced significant political upheaval and changes between 1897 and 1927. The Hundred Days of Reform in 1898 sought to modernize China's education and government. The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 aimed to drive out foreign influence. In 1912, the last emperor abdicated, ending over 2000 years of imperial rule and establishing a republic with Yuan Shikai as president. However, China then descended into warlordism and civil war between competing forces as no single group could establish control over all of China. By 1927, the Guomindang under Chiang Kaishek had reunified much of northern and central China and established a national government, but still faced ongoing resistance from communists and regional warlords.
The 1962 Sino-Indian War was caused by a dispute over the Himalayan border between China and India. India claimed the Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh regions were part of Kashmir, while China saw them as parts of Xinjiang. In 1962, India's forward policy led its army to cut Chinese supply lines and occupy disputed border areas, prompting China to launch attacks. Though China proposed a negotiated settlement and ceasefire, negotiations broke down, and fighting continued until China achieved its objectives and withdrew from the contested regions.
China faced increasing foreign imperialism in the 19th century, particularly from Britain due to the opium trade. This led to the Opium Wars in 1839-1842 and the Treaty of Nanking, which granted European powers extraterritorial rights in China and opened more ports to foreign trade. Meanwhile, Japan modernized under the Meiji Restoration to avoid foreign domination, developing a strong military and industrial economy to defeat China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, allowing Japan to exert control over Korea and Manchuria.
This document provides a summary of Pakistani politics in 3 paragraphs. It discusses how the political system was initially based on British parliamentary democracy but was later dominated by feudals and the military. The military rulers who came to power were originally from humble backgrounds but left office as wealthy business tycoons, destroying constitutions and the political system for their own self-preservation and advancement rather than ideology. It concludes that human nature and personal self-interest have not changed, and the country remains trapped in a cycle of rigged elections and instability due to certain individuals' insecurity with a strong political system.
The document summarizes the events of the 1947-48 Kashmir War between Pakistan and India over control of the princely state of Kashmir. It describes how initially in late 1947, Pakistani tribesmen and militias supported by Pakistani officials gained control of parts of Kashmir, including capturing Muzaffarabad. However, opportunities for further advances towards Srinagar were lost due to disagreements among Pakistani leaders and the tribesmen stopping to celebrate Eid, allowing India to airlift troops to Srinagar and stabilize the front. While Pakistan had initial geographical and other advantages, failures of leadership and coordination prevented them from capitalizing on opportunities to win control of all of Kashmir early in the conflict.
reflections on British Indian Army recruitment as discussed by family eldersAgha A
reflections on British Indian Army recruitment as discussed by family elders
July 2020
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21931.26408
Project: MILITARY HISTORY
Agha H Amin
Myths and misconceptions of indo pak history part 8Agha A
Yet in 1857 the Indians or at least a part of them both Hindus and Muslims combined and made one very desperate yet valiant effort to oust the British. Till this time the Hindus acknowledged the Muslim political supremacy since we see the Bengal Army which was predominantly Hindu, fighting for Muslim sovereigns at Delhi and in Oudh!
But when this great rebellion failed there was the parting of the ways! The Muslims of the post-1857 had no choice but to please the British to avoid Hindu domination!
The Hindu’s problems had completely ended!
All they had to do was to play a waiting game.
They knew that one day the British will have to go and then they, the ones who had been ruled and subjugated by a minority from the 12th century till almost the 18th century would dominate the Indo-Pak sub- continent, just like they were about to do around 1799 and till 1803 when the EEIC challenged the Hindu Mahratta rule!
The Muslim post-1857 problems were more complex, they had to escape Hindu domination and they also had to face the British.
The policy they adopted after 1857 was “Loyalty to the British”.
The Pakistan Movement was a historical movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah that advocated for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) from the predominantly Hindu India. Key events and figures that advanced this movement included the teachings of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Allama Iqbal who promoted Muslim identity and the Two Nation Theory. Jinnah and the All India Muslim League played a central role in the Pakistan Resolution of 1940 and negotiations with the British, which ultimately led to the independence of Pakistan in 1947 and the partition of India.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 refers to a rebellion in India against the rule of the British East India Company, that ran from May 1857 to June 1858. The rebellion began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the cantonment of the town of Meerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region.[2] The rebellion posed a considerable threat to East India Company power in that region,[3] and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858.[2] The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Rebellion of 1857, the Uprising of 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion, the Indian Insurrection and the Sepoy Mutiny.
The document discusses the origins of the Sino-Indian border dispute and the Kongka-La incident of 1959 that marked a turning point in relations. It describes how following their 1950 invasion of Tibet, the Chinese secured territory in Ladakh that was key to controlling Tibet. In 1959, Chinese forces gunned down nine Indian policemen at Kongka-La during a period of supposed friendship, deeply hurting India. The incident forced India to accept Chinese deception and led to open conflict in 1962.
1) In October 1959, a patrol of 60 lightly armed Indian police officers were sent to establish border posts near the Kongka Pass, despite orders prohibiting forward patrols. 2) On October 21st, the patrol was ambushed by Chinese soldiers positioned in fortified bunkers above the patrol. 3) In the ensuing battle, 10 police officers were killed and most of the others wounded before the remaining survivors surrendered to the Chinese forces late in the evening.
The document summarizes key figures and events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule. It describes rebel leaders like Kunwar Singh in Bihar, Nana Sahib and his servant Thanthia Thopi in Pune, the Rani of Jhansi, and Bahadur Shah II who led the revolt from Delhi and formed a governing assembly. It also outlines reasons for the revolt's failure, including lack of support from traders and intelligentsia, support for the British from some local rulers, and the British army's advanced weapons. The results were the transfer of power in India to direct British rule, and the end of the Mughal dynasty with Bahadur Shah II exiled.
The document summarizes the key causes, participants, and events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The main causes were the exploitative economic policies of the British, socio-religious reforms that interfered with Indian traditions, and resentment among sepoys over unequal treatment. The rebellion began with sepoy mutinies in Meerut and Delhi in May 1857 and drew participation from rulers, peasants, artisans, and religious groups across North and Central India. Key leaders and centers of revolt included Bahadur Shah II in Delhi, Nana Saheb in Kanpur, and Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi. The rebellion was suppressed by 1859, ending Mughal rule and leading the British to formally
Korea and southeast asia in the modern worldJerlie
The Yi Dynasty in Korea went into decline in the late 16th century due to several factors: chronic conflicts weakened the authorities; the country was devastated by Japanese invasions in the late 16th century and invaded by Manchus in 1626. Korea was then poorly prepared to resist Western imperialism in the 19th century and rejected foreign ideas. It suffered under Japanese rule from 1910 to 1945 before being divided after World War II, with the South and North each backed by opposing superpowers.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the East India Company's army on May 10, 1857 in Meerut, India. It marked the first major uprising against British rule in India and grew significantly, spreading to many parts of northern and eastern India. The rebellion was fueled by resentment of British control as well as religious and social grievances, and threatened British authority across wide areas of India until being suppressed by 1858. Key leaders in the rebellion included the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II and the Maratha leader Nana Saheb.
The document provides an overview of Japan's occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945 and its significant economic, political, social, and cultural impacts. Economically, Japan dominated Korean industries and forced many Koreans to work in mines and factories, especially during World War II. Politically, all authority was held by the Japanese governor general and Koreans' basic rights were suppressed. Socially, Koreans were forced to take Japanese names and customs and thousands of women were made sexual slaves for Japanese troops. Culturally, Japanese rule aimed to eliminate Korean culture by imposing restrictions and promoting Japanese language and traditions instead. The occupation spurred Korean nationalism and independence movements.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Indian soldiers in the town of Meerut over new gunpowder cartridges greased with animal fat. It soon spread to other areas, led by figures such as Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Nana Sahib of Kanpur, and Begum Hazrat Mahal of Lucknow. Although the rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British, it marked the end of East India Company rule in India and the direct governance of India by the British Crown.
Rani Lakshmibai was the queen of Jhansi, a princely state in North India. After the death of her husband, the king, the British East India Company annexed Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse and forced Lakshmibai to leave the palace. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, she emerged as a leading rebel leader, determined to regain control of Jhansi. She scored several victories against the British but was eventually killed in battle in June 1858. Her defiance and military skills made her a symbol of resistance against British colonial rule.
THE MAN BEHIND THE BURMA INDEPENDENCE-ARMY COL KEIJI SUZUKIMYO AUNG Myanmar
Suzuki Keiji, Colonel
(1894-1967)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Keiji
Japanese military officer who, in the guise of a correspondent for the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper, "Minami Masuyo," traveled to Burma in 1940 to collect intelligence and make contacts with nationalists.
His talks with Thakin Kodaw Hmaing, Dr. Thein Maung, and Thakin Mya convinced him that Japanese support of a well-organized Burmese uprising against the British could serve Tokyo's war aims,
including shutting down the Burma Road.
When Thakins Aung San and Hla Myaing left Burma for China in search of foreign support for the independence movement,
Suzuki arranged in November 1940 to have them brought to Tokyo. Imperial General Headquarters made Suzuki head of the Minami Kikan (Minami Organ), established on February 1, 1941.
He undertook the training of the Thirty Comrades at Hainan, China, and made them the nucleus of the Burma Independence Army (BIA), which was established soon after war broke out in December 1941.
Assuming the Burmese name Bo Mogyo (Commander Thunderbolt), which had prophetic associations, he served as commander of the BIA until June 1942, when he was transferred back to Japan.
Dr. Ba Maw compared him to Lawrence of Arabia, "an adventurer with something like a sense of mission" (Breakthrough in Burma, 1968, 111).
Most Burmese nationalists who worked with him believed his support for immediate Burmese independence was sincere.
U Nu quotes him as saying that if the Burmese really wanted independence, they should take up arms, even against the Japanese.
This opinion was obviously not shared by the regular Japanese military, who wanted to fully exploit Burma's human and natural resources for the war effort.
https://books.google.co.th/books?isbn=0745315410
http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp60.html
Japan's ties to the Myanmar armed forces go back to the very founding of the Burma Independence Army in 1941. The pivotal figure on the Japanese side was Colonel Suzuki Keiji of the Minami Kikan (南機関 - a sort of special operations directorate), who first recruited General Aung San and trained the now legendary "Thirty Comrades".
Colonel Suzuki and his Minami Kikan fellow-officers came to associate closely with Myanmar independence desires and were at times distrusted by their own Japanese superiors.
1) The document analyzes the 10 phase history of Indo-Pak Muslims from the initial Muslim conquest of India in the 8th century through modern times.
2) It discusses how Muslim primacy was challenged by the Marathas in the 17th-18th centuries, leading Muslims to rediscover Islam, and how the Muslim elite later used Islam as a political tool to achieve advantages like the creation of Pakistan.
3) The document argues that the misuse of Islam as a political slogan by Pakistani politicians and the military inadvertently fostered Islamic extremism, and the contradiction of abandoning this strategy has led to the current civil war in Pakistan.
1) Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 under the pretext of a staged railway explosion, and used propaganda to set up a puppet state called Manchukuo.
2) In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China, capturing many major cities. The Nanjing Massacre resulted in 300,000 civilian deaths.
3) While Japan gained resources and territory, China suffered severe losses from violence, slave labor, and cultural destruction that have lasted into the modern era.
China experienced significant political upheaval and changes between 1897 and 1927. The Hundred Days of Reform in 1898 sought to modernize China's education and government. The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 aimed to drive out foreign influence. In 1912, the last emperor abdicated, ending over 2000 years of imperial rule and establishing a republic with Yuan Shikai as president. However, China then descended into warlordism and civil war between competing forces as no single group could establish control over all of China. By 1927, the Guomindang under Chiang Kaishek had reunified much of northern and central China and established a national government, but still faced ongoing resistance from communists and regional warlords.
The 1962 Sino-Indian War was caused by a dispute over the Himalayan border between China and India. India claimed the Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh regions were part of Kashmir, while China saw them as parts of Xinjiang. In 1962, India's forward policy led its army to cut Chinese supply lines and occupy disputed border areas, prompting China to launch attacks. Though China proposed a negotiated settlement and ceasefire, negotiations broke down, and fighting continued until China achieved its objectives and withdrew from the contested regions.
China faced increasing foreign imperialism in the 19th century, particularly from Britain due to the opium trade. This led to the Opium Wars in 1839-1842 and the Treaty of Nanking, which granted European powers extraterritorial rights in China and opened more ports to foreign trade. Meanwhile, Japan modernized under the Meiji Restoration to avoid foreign domination, developing a strong military and industrial economy to defeat China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, allowing Japan to exert control over Korea and Manchuria.
This document provides a summary of Pakistani politics in 3 paragraphs. It discusses how the political system was initially based on British parliamentary democracy but was later dominated by feudals and the military. The military rulers who came to power were originally from humble backgrounds but left office as wealthy business tycoons, destroying constitutions and the political system for their own self-preservation and advancement rather than ideology. It concludes that human nature and personal self-interest have not changed, and the country remains trapped in a cycle of rigged elections and instability due to certain individuals' insecurity with a strong political system.
The document summarizes the events of the 1947-48 Kashmir War between Pakistan and India over control of the princely state of Kashmir. It describes how initially in late 1947, Pakistani tribesmen and militias supported by Pakistani officials gained control of parts of Kashmir, including capturing Muzaffarabad. However, opportunities for further advances towards Srinagar were lost due to disagreements among Pakistani leaders and the tribesmen stopping to celebrate Eid, allowing India to airlift troops to Srinagar and stabilize the front. While Pakistan had initial geographical and other advantages, failures of leadership and coordination prevented them from capitalizing on opportunities to win control of all of Kashmir early in the conflict.
reflections on British Indian Army recruitment as discussed by family eldersAgha A
reflections on British Indian Army recruitment as discussed by family elders
July 2020
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21931.26408
Project: MILITARY HISTORY
Agha H Amin
Myths and misconceptions of indo pak history part 8Agha A
Yet in 1857 the Indians or at least a part of them both Hindus and Muslims combined and made one very desperate yet valiant effort to oust the British. Till this time the Hindus acknowledged the Muslim political supremacy since we see the Bengal Army which was predominantly Hindu, fighting for Muslim sovereigns at Delhi and in Oudh!
But when this great rebellion failed there was the parting of the ways! The Muslims of the post-1857 had no choice but to please the British to avoid Hindu domination!
The Hindu’s problems had completely ended!
All they had to do was to play a waiting game.
They knew that one day the British will have to go and then they, the ones who had been ruled and subjugated by a minority from the 12th century till almost the 18th century would dominate the Indo-Pak sub- continent, just like they were about to do around 1799 and till 1803 when the EEIC challenged the Hindu Mahratta rule!
The Muslim post-1857 problems were more complex, they had to escape Hindu domination and they also had to face the British.
The policy they adopted after 1857 was “Loyalty to the British”.
The Pakistan Movement was a historical movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah that advocated for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) from the predominantly Hindu India. Key events and figures that advanced this movement included the teachings of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Allama Iqbal who promoted Muslim identity and the Two Nation Theory. Jinnah and the All India Muslim League played a central role in the Pakistan Resolution of 1940 and negotiations with the British, which ultimately led to the independence of Pakistan in 1947 and the partition of India.
The document provides background information on the Indian Rebellion of 1857. It began as a mutiny of sepoys in the East India Company's army on May 10, 1857 and spread rapidly to Delhi and other regions of northern India. The rebellion was fueled by socio-religious, political and military grievances against the British. Key events included the sepoy mutiny in Meerut in March 1857, the rebellion in Delhi under Bahadur Shah II in May 1857, and uprisings across major cities and regions throughout late 1857 and 1858. The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by the British in 1859, resulting in the dissolution of the East India Company and direct control of India by the British Crown.
A Farewell to India - Mohammad Aswar Rahman - History Major PaperAswar Rahman
This document summarizes the dominant British perspective on Indian independence as expressed in British newspapers in 1947. It identifies three main viewpoints that shaped the British attitude:
1. "Burdenism" - The belief that British rule over India was a historical necessity, that Britain cooperated fully with Indian independence, and that Britain fulfilled its obligations in educating and developing India.
2. Pessimism - Predictions that independence would lead to violence and chaos in India.
3. Goodwill - Well-wishes for independent India's success, which would validate Britain's efforts. Burdenism was the most prevalent, justifying British colonialism and obligations to India during the transition to independence.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of the British East India Company's army on May 10, 1857, in Meerut, and soon erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the Upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on June 20, 1858. The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence and was a major uprising in India during the British Raj.
The document summarizes Susheila Nasta's book "Asian Britain: A Photographic Journey" which documents the history of Indian migration to Britain through photographs dating back to 1858. It profiles some of the first Indian migrants like Petrus Papa, one of the earliest Indians to arrive in Britain in the 1600s. Nasta found that while much is known about British influence in India, little was documented about Indian settlers in Britain and their impact. Her book aims to address this gap by collecting over 280 photos sourced from libraries, collectors, and families portraying early Indian migrants from working class lascars to elite politicians, writers, and the only Indian Elvis impersonator. The photos provide a more nuanced understanding of Britain
Bjmc i,jmc, unit-i, Indian national movementRai University
The document provides background information on the Indian National Movement and the Indian (John Company's) Army. It discusses how the British East India Company raised and maintained large armies in India for over 150 years, composed mainly of Indian sepoys but led by British officers. Tensions grew between the sepoys and British due to issues like the introduction of new gun cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, which violated Hindu and Muslim beliefs. This triggered the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule, starting with sepoy mutinies in Meerut and the rebellion's spread to Delhi under the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II. Ultimately the British were able to suppress the rebellion through military force and took direct control
Britiish-French Invasions and Struggle for Independence.pptmuttahirahmedkhan1
The document summarizes the pre-independence scenario in India following the decline of the Mughal Empire and increasing invasions and influence of European powers like the French and British. It led to conflicts between local rulers and the British East India Company as they sought to expand trade and territorial control over India. Key events discussed include the establishment of trading posts and forts by the British EIC in various regions, the Battle of Plassey in 1757 which marked the Company's first major military victory, and the 1857 Indian Rebellion against British rule which failed due to lack of unity and leadership among independence fighters.
The 1857 revolt was sparked by various British policies that disrespected Indian traditions and rulers. The Doctrine of Lapse and other social changes angered both Hindus and Muslims. Key figures like Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmi Bai, and Bahadur Shah II led uprisings in many major cities across northern India. Although the revolt ultimately failed, it marked the beginning of the Indian independence movement and led the British to transfer power over India from the East India Company to the British Crown.
The document provides an overview of the history of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and their relationships. It discusses the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire in India. It then covers the arrival of European trading companies and the establishment of British rule over India. Key events like the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and Gandhi's non-violent independence movement are summarized. The formation of Pakistan and later Bangladesh from Pakistan is briefly outlined. Ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan over Kashmir are also mentioned.
MOUNTBATTEN AND NEHRU'S FOLLY IN IMPULSIVELY AND THOUGHTLESSLY REJECTING FIEL...Agha A
MOUNTBATTEN AND NEHRU'S FOLLY IN IMPULSIVELY AND THOUGHTLESSLY REJECTING FIELD MARSHAL AUCHINLECLS PROPOSAL TO RETAIN BRITISH TROOPS TO CONTROL 1947 INDIA PAKISTAN PARTITION RIOTS https://www.academia.edu/69652589/MOUNTBATTEN_AND_NEHRUS_FOLLY_IN_IMPULSIVELY_AND_THOUGHTLESSLY_REJECTING_FIELD_MARSHAL_AUCHINLECLS_PROPOSAL_TO_RETAIN_BRITISH_TROOPS_TO_CONTROL_1947_INDIA_PAKISTAN_PARTITION_RIOTS via @academia
The document summarizes the causes and key events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule. The rebellion was caused by political, economic, religious and military grievances against the British East India Company's rule. Key events included the disputed greased cartridges that sparked the rebellion in Meerut, the capture of Delhi under the Mughal emperor, uprisings in Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi and other regions, and resistance led by figures like Rani Laxmi Bai. Ultimately, the rebellion failed due to a lack of unity and leadership, shortage of resources, and superior British military capabilities and technology.
Why various regions remained loyal to english east india company myths and mi...Agha A
This document discusses the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857-59 and provides context about the author, Major Agha H Amin. It analyzes why the rebellion was confined to certain regions of India, noting that different areas had different relationships with British rule based on factors like when they were conquered, ethnic ties, and political/military representation. Bengalis in particular had little connection to the sepoys or Mughal empire and saw the British as no worse than previous rulers.
The document provides background information on the Revolt of 1857 in India against British rule. It discusses the political, social, economic and military causes that led to widespread dissatisfaction and unrest among Indians. The revolt began as a mutiny of sepoys in the East India Company's army over new gunpowder cartridges but quickly escalated as many rulers, peasants, tribes and others joined in. Key figures who led the revolt included Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Mangal Pandey and Begum Hazrat Mahal. However, the revolt ultimately failed due to lack of unity and centralized leadership among the various groups involved.
War of Independence 1857 (Indian Revolt 1857)Haroon Khaliq
It is a power point work on the Indian mutiny of 1857 or the Indian attempt to gain self rule against British. If you do not get the concept from this work you can watch the video at last.
The document summarizes the history of imperialism in China and Japan from the late 18th century to present day. It discusses how Britain traded opium for tea and textiles in China, leading to the Opium Wars in the 1840s and European powers carving out spheres of influence. Japan occupied parts of China in the 1930s-40s. After World War 2, the Communists defeated the Nationalists in China's civil war, while Japan rebuilt under US occupation.
Social science english medium notes 2016KarnatakaOER
The document contains an index and chapters on history, political science, sociology, geography, economics, and business studies. It provides an overview of the advent of Europeans in India, the colonial rule under the British East India Company, the foundation of British administration and its effects on India. Key events discussed include the Anglo-Mysore wars, Anglo-Maratha wars, and reforms introduced by acts like the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784, and the Government of India Acts of 1909 and 1919. The document also touches on social reforms, independence movement, post-independence political dimensions, and includes tables on various topics in geography, economics, and business studies.
Similar to Journal of military history, lvi1 (1993), 447 80. tan, tai-yong, 'an imperial home-front punjab and the first world war (20)
The document discusses the roles of Punjab and Baluch regiments in the 1971 war. It was published on September 2023 with a DOI number and was written by Agha H Amin.
Major Agha H. Amin was commissioned in the old PAVO Cavalry in 1983. He served in various command, staff, research, logistics and instructional positions over his military career. In his civilian career, he performed projects in infrastructure and transmission lines in Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan. He has authored over 120 books and journals on military topics. The document goes on to describe a battle of Pandu fought by the 4/10 Baluch battalion against India in the 1947-48 Kashmir war, and criticizes the omission of accurate accounts of the battle from official Pakistani military histories.
Battles of Najafgarh , Gangiri and Delhi RidgeAgha A
- The 6th Dragoon Guards regiment arrived in Bengal, India from England in November 1856 and was stationed in Meerut at the time of the 1857 rebellion.
- During the rebellion, the regiment saw action at Ghaziabad, Badli Ki Serai, Delhi, and helped destroy a rebel battery at Eidgah with no reported casualties.
- It lost a few men at the battles of Ghaziabad, Badli Ki Serai, and in minor actions in July 1857 but overall emerged from the rebellion relatively lightly compared to other British units.
- However, the limited historical sources available in Pakistan make it difficult for researchers there to find all details on the regiment's role and casualties during
The battalion was part of an infantry brigade deployed at Sulaimanke Headworks during the 1965 war with India. It saw little serious action as it primarily engaged Indian border police posts that were no match for regular Pakistani army battalions. The battalion suffered only 3 fatal casualties for the entire war, showing it faced little militarily credible opposition. While the battalion performed well, it must be remembered that it faced inferior Indian border police rather than other army units.
This document summarizes the performance of the 9 Punjab battalion during the 1965 war with India. The battalion was part of the 12th Division of the Pakistan Army and was tasked with capturing the town of Chhamb. Despite having significant superiority in tanks and artillery, the 12th Division failed to cross the Tawi River on the first day. The 9th Punjab battalion suffered 15 killed and 31 wounded but managed to form a bridgehead across the Tawi. After the war, the battalion was praised for its performance and received several awards, though its strategic impact was limited due to the overall failure of Operation Grand Slam.
The battalion was deployed as a guard battalion but parts saw action in 1965 war including C Company commanded by Major Anis. C Company withdrew from its position exposing the rear of 16 Punjab to Indian attack, effectively sealing 16 Punjab's fate. C Company's withdrawal doomed 16 Punjab and was described as cowardly and the cause of 16 Punjab's debacle. While most of 8 Punjab saw no action, C Company under Major Anis performed poorly and was to blame for 16 Punjab's defeat.
1) The battalion was deployed as part of 11 Division along the Ravi-Sutlej Corridor according to maps.
2) The battalion faced a brigade-level attack from the Indian army using three infantry battalions and a tank squadron.
3) A captain from the Pakistani artillery played a crucial role by engaging the attacking forces with 60 medium shells, repulsing the Indian attack.
The battalion was deployed in September 1965 as part of Operation Grand Slam, relieving the 13th Punjab battalion near Dalpat-Chak Kirpal. According to Brigadier Rizvi, the battalion attacked towards Fatwal along with 13 Lancers, advancing up to 6 miles near Kasur and suffering 9 killed and 21 wounded. However, records list the battalion as losing either 9, 11, or 10 killed. The battalion had little impact as it joined the war late when the focus had shifted, and did not receive any awards despite actions in the Rann of Kutch prior to the war.
NORTH LINCOLNSHIRE REGIMENT OF FOOT IN 1857-59 BATTLESAgha A
This document provides biographical and career details of Major Agha.H.Amin, who was commissioned in the old PAVO Cavalry in March 1983. It discusses his education, various military and civilian positions held over his career, publications authored, and contact information. The document also briefly describes a study aid about British infantry battalions that participated in the battles of 1857-59 in India, including their roles, operations, casualties, and contributions to the outcome of the war.
The 2nd Battalion of the Punjab Regiment fought in the 1965 war against India. While it received several gallantry awards, the document argues that its role was exaggerated and it did not actually face most of the major Indian attacks. Only one company saw direct fighting on the first day, and it dispersed against heavy odds. The battalion was deployed away from the main sites of battle and did not face significant enemy forces apart from this initial engagement. Its impact on the decisive Battle of Chawinda was marginal.
This document provides information about Major Agha.H.Amin, including his military and civilian career experiences. It notes that he was commissioned in the old PAVO Cavalry in March 1983, attended Saint Marys Academy Lalazar and Forman Christian College Lahore, and served in various command, staff, research, logistics and instructional positions in the military. It also lists some of his civilian career projects and publications. The document provides his contact email addresses.
1ST BATTALION WARWICKSHIRE REGIMENT IN 1857-59 BATTLES.pdfAgha A
- 1st Battalion HM 8th Foot was stationed in India when the 1857 rebellion broke out. It was involved in securing areas around Delhi.
- At the siege of Delhi in September 1857, it suffered 46 of its total 57 fatal casualties and played a marginal role in the assault.
- Overall it saw minor action in other battles, with limited casualties. The majority of its casualties occurred at the decisive battle of Delhi.
Northumberland Fusiliers in 1857-59 Battles.pdfAgha A
The 1st Battalion of the 5th Regiment of Foot (Northumberland Fusiliers) was stationed in Mauritius when it was called to reinforce British forces in India during the 1857 uprising. The battalion arrived in Calcutta in July and August 1857. It participated in key battles including relieving Arrah where it suffered two casualties, the first relief of Lucknow where it suffered heavy losses and helped ensure the relief's success, the defense of the Lucknow garrison, and operations through 1858. The battalion performed outstandingly and suffered high casualties of 62 men, including five officers killed in action, primarily during the relief of Lucknow. Its role was pivotal in some of the major battles, but relatively minor in others
43 BALUCH IN 1971 AND INDIAN OFFICER WHO SAW THEMAgha A
1) The document analyzes the performance of the 43rd Baluch battalion in the 1971 war, which suffered heavy casualties after being poorly employed by incompetent commanders in the 88th Brigade.
2) When the 5th East Bengal battalion defected to the Indian side, the 43rd Baluch battalion was brought in to replace it, even though they were inexperienced and unprepared for the situation.
3) In an attack by Indian forces guided by defectors, the 43rd Baluch battalion suffered the highest fatalities of any battalion on the western front due to being put into a vulnerable position by the failed leadership of the 88th Brigade commander and 10th Division commander.
Battle of Gangiri-Heavy Price paid by HM 6 Dragoon Guards for Gallantry Agha A
Battle of Gangiri-Heavy Price paid by HM 6 Dragoon Guards for Gallantry https://www.academia.edu/52632772/Battle_of_Gangiri_Heavy_Price_paid_by_HM_6_Dragoon_Guards_for_Gallantry via @academia
4th Punjab Infantry now 9 FF Pakistan Army and 42 Highlanders led the Final ...Agha A
The 4th Punjab Infantry battalion arrived in Calcutta in November 1857, meaning it missed the decisive battles of the war, including the siege of Delhi and the relief and evacuation of Lucknow. The battalion's participation in the battle of Cawnpore was minimal and it suffered no casualties. The battalion played a significant role in the final assault on Lucknow in March 1858, leading the assault on Martiniere with the 4th Punjab Infantry while the 42nd Highlanders and 90th Foot attacked frontally. The British enjoyed overwhelming artillery superiority, evidenced by the 42nd Highlanders suffering only 10 fatal casualties over 10 days of operations culminating in the final capture of Lucknow.
WHY PAKISTAN ARMY OR INDIAN ARMY CAN NEVER PRODUCE A MUSTAFA KAMAL- SOMETHING...Agha A
WHY PAKISTAN ARMY OR INDIAN ARMY CAN NEVER PRODUCE A MUSTAFA KAMAL- SOMETHING SERIOUSLY WRONG IN THE GENES
April 2020
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20723.27689
Project: MILITARY HISTORY
Agha H Amin
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Journal of military history, lvi1 (1993), 447 80. tan, tai-yong, 'an imperial home-front punjab and the first world war
1. Letter to Journal of Military History
critiquing. Tan, Tai-Yong, 'An imperial home-front:
Punjab and the First World War published in
Journal of Military History, LVI1 (1993), 447-80
The below letter was sent to the Journal of Military
History but not published citing flimsy reasons that it
is too long.
Essentially theknow all editorial board of this biased
US journal was not willing to accept any criticism or
analysis.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Sir,
I was deeply impressed by the excellent article by Mr
Tan, Tai-Yong published in your journal, the readers who
have a pretty vague idea about the subcontinent and may
form outwardly correct but essentially erroneous
conclusions, which may be unfair to Punjab's role in Indo
Pak history. I may add that my intention in making these
points is in no way to prove that the worthy author does
not know his subject. Indeed as earlier stated, I have been
2. deeply impressed by his grasp of Indian history and some
very thought provoking remarks that he has made about
the civil military relations in Punjab. The author has done
an excellent job despite the fact that it is no mean job to
understand Punjab history while being based away from
there.
Firstly the politics of Punjab right from the advent of the
Muslim invaders in the tenth century was highly
complicated. It was this particular situation which played
the most significant role in Punjab's remaining loyal in First
World War rather than all British measures. The British it
may be noted inherited the situation once they annexed
Punjab in 1849. They exploited it to full advantage. Punjab
was initially a Hindu majority province in the tenth century.
By the seventeenth century it became a Muslim majority
area as a result of efforts of Muslim missionaries. This has
been well covered by various British authors like "The
Preaching of Islam" by the famous Professor T.W Arnold
of Magdalene College, a distinguished figure of the
"School of Oriental Studies" at the University of London
(Page-197 - Aligarh - The First Generation - David
Lelyveld-Princeton University-1978). The foundation of the
Sikh religion in the early sixteenth century by Guru Nanak
(1469-1538) and his successors further complicated the
communal equation. The Sikhs a purely Punjabi religion
3. came in conflict with the Muslim Mughal Government at
Delhi from the period 1581-1606 (Refers-page-245-
Cambridge History of India-The Mughal Period). They
were ruthlessly persecuted from 1606 to 1799 by first the
Mughals till 1748 and then by the Afghan raider Ahmad
Shah Abdali. The Sikhs retaliated most resolutely and
brilliantly and resorted to guerrilla warfare as a result of
which they became masters of Muslim majority Punjab by
1809 under the brilliant Ranjit Singh. The US readers may
note that the Sikh number never exceeded the figure of
10.5% of the total population of Punjab. (Census Report of
Punjab-1881-Lahore. Pages-14 & 15-David Lelyveld-Op
Cit and Page-8- Prelude to Partition-David Page-Oxford
University Press-Karachi-1987). The Sikhs whose holy
places had been desecrated by the Muslims during the
period of conflict from 1606-1748 retaliated by turning
many Muslim mosques into stables and military stores
magazines during their rule, which lasted, from 1799-
1849. Once the English East India Company got involved
in the Second Sikh War the Muslim feudals who were
initially Sikh vassals like the Taiwan's etc now defected to
the British side and played an active role in assisting the
British in the final conquest of Punjab. The Punjab
Muslims about 54% of the province as it was in 1919
welcomed the British conquest of Punjab and hailed it.
The British followed a clever policy of rehabilitating the
Sikhs and also restoring Muslim places of worship. A
4. subtle development followed. The Sikhs and Muslims
competed with each other in loyalty to the British, the
Sikhs in order to regain a part their lost total dominance
and the Muslims to gain their due share in terms of share
in the population which had been denied to them since
1799. It was this complex equation that ensured that
Punjab stayed loyal in 1857 and in WW One. The
evidence about Muslim Sikh hatred may be gauged from
the 1947 riots in which at least a million people were killed
in Punjab once the British left India. The Punjabi Hindus
who were about 33.46% of the population gained the most
right from 1606 till 1947. Initially they stayed loyal to the
Mughals and retained their prosperous status. Later the
Sikhs found the Hindus better subjects than the Muslims
and patronized them. Under the British also the Hindus
being a largely urban community gained the maximum
advantages accruing from Western education and
commerce and stood out as the richest and most
educated community of Punjab in 1947.
A word about the observation on page-409-that the status
of the rural notables in Punjab did not deteriorate like that
of their counterparts in United Provinces (UP). This was a
different story. The UP Taluqdars gained as much out of
British rule as the Punjabi feudals. After all the province
stood second after Punjab in recruitment drive in the army.
5. The decline of the United Provinces feudals started only
after 1947 once the urban dominated Indian National
Congress instituted land reforms that deprived these
feudals of a large part of their land. The difference
between Punjab and UP was the fact that UP by virtue of
having been colonized some 73 to 46 years (depending on
the region) earlier than the Punjab had a much larger
literacy (Western Education) rate and a much larger Hindu
middle and independent professional and business class
which was educated and the feudals despite continuous
patronage by the British failed to do as well in Punjab in
the elections. In addition the province as compared to
Punjab had a much larger industrial base and thus a very
large industrial worker class. The Punjabi feudals had little
future in Pakistan too since the majority province East
Pakistan was not feudal dominated. However, the Punjabi
feudals by combining with the civil military elite of West
Pakistani origin coerced the East Pakistanis to renounce
their actual majority in 1956 and thus ensured that the
feudal hold was retained in Pakistan. They also
collaborated with all Pakistani military governments and
maintained their pre-1947 hold.
It is stated in the article that "Yet, despite all of this, the
colonial state in the Punjab seemed to have emerged in
1919 very much intact and unweakened in any way". It did
6. not happen this way. British repressive policies in Punjab
brought them in conflict with the more aware urban
populations of cities between Rivers Jhelum and Sutlej as
a result of which the British were confronted with the first
serious anti-British political agitation in Punjab as a result
of which martial law was imposed in Punjab. Property
worth many millions was destroyed or looted (including an
American missionary's house and his mission's excellent
hospital which was giving free treatment to the poor in
Chuhar Kanna). (Refers-Page-271- "Disorders Inquiry
Committee-1919-1920-Report" - British Perspective-
Volume Two -Superintendent Government of India Press-
Calcutta-1920). Amritsar city was handed over to the army
where at least 379 peaceful demonstrators were killed
(Refers-Page-187-1919 Disorders Inquiry Committee
Report) by the British-Indian troops, communications all
over the province were attacked (Refers-Page-railway
stations were attacked and Gujranwala town was bombed
by the Royal Air Force. Summary Military courts were set
up which sentenced 108 people to be executed out which
at least 23 were maintained while remaining were
converted to transportation for life to the Andaman Islands!
(Refers-Page-235-1919 Disorders Inquiry Committee
Report-Op Cit). At least 258 people as per official report
were sentenced to be flogged from 5 to 30 times (Page-
231-1919 Disorders Inquiry Committee report) and a large
number were publicly flogged with posteriors naked ( I can
7. send you some photographs if you like). Other
punishments like crawling in the streets rather than
walking were imposed on common people! In short a
province that had been most loyal to the Empire was
handled so injudiciously by two hot headed Irishmen i.e.
Governor Michael O Dwyer and Brigadier Dyer that the
British lost a great part of the goodwill that had been
created through tangible well meaning and just measures
of so many Britishers from 1849 till 1919! Such was the
Punjabi indignation that Michael O Dwyer the hero of the
article was shot to death by a Punjabi student studying
engineering in London in 1940! The student who was
hanged within a month stated at his trial that he was
avenging Jallianwalla Firing and the outrages committed
on Dyers orders in 1919. The urban population was
alienated and the anti-British congress emerged as the
second largest party in the 1936 elections. The British
policy was efficient but short sighted and in the long run
failed as later events proved. The Punjab disturbances of
1919 shook their confidence and certainly weakened their
hold on India. In Second World War their recruiting drive in
Punjab was based on the slogan of self-rule and was a
negation of all imperialist ideals! The Duke of Connaught
on eve of inauguration of the Indian Legislature stated that
"the shadow of Amritsar lengthened over the fair face of
8. India" (Refers-Page-347-India-A Modern History-T.G.P
Spear-University of Michigan-Reprinted India-1989).
There is another important point that the writer has
missed. Punjab as a province was a British creation.
There were at least four different ethnic groups in Punjab.
The Punjabis in the areas between Indus and Sutlej and
Jamna rivers in the northern half of Punjab, the Hindustani
enclave of Ambala division which was not Punjabi, the
Seraiki speaking areas of the south, again distinct from
Punjabis and the pastoral Baloch tribes in the southern
part of the province. The major recruitment took place only
in two of these four ethnic groups i.e the Punjabis and the
Hindustani districts, which had been transferred to Punjab
as a punishment for having taken part in the rebellion of
1857. Chhottu Ram who belonged to this region was not a
Punjabi. Then there was another major motivation in
joining the army i.e. economic. This motivation had an
important region specific characteristic, which has not
been described by the author. This was confined only to
districts with rain irrigated and barren lands north of river
Jhelum including northern part of Shahpur and one
subdivision of District Gujrat which is south of river
Jhelum, or to the Hindustani districts (Hissar, Rohtak
Gurgaon and large parts of Karnal) of the south east part
which consisted of the most barren and non-productive
9. land of the province. The areas south of these rivers were
less keen in contributing recruits for the fighting arms.
Thus Lahore district's performance was most pathetic;
keeping in view the fact that it was population wise one of
the biggest districts of Punjab did not contribute as many
recruits as expected. Thus the British report of Services
Rendered by the Lahore district observed that "As
compared with other districts the recruiting activities of
Lahore district were not as good as could be desired. The
villagers in the neighbourhood of Lahore city did not
readily enlist in the combatant ranks, they made too good
a living as daily labourer in and about the city to think of
entering the service" (Refers-Short Record of the War
Services Rendered by the Lahore District-1914-1919-
Compiled in the Deputy Commissioner's Office, Lahore,
Punjab-Printed at Mufeed I Aam Press-Lahore-1919-
Punjab Public Library-World War One Section-Lahore).
There was a very important qualitative motivational
difference in the motivation to join the army in the Sikhs
and the Punjabis, which should have been pointed out.
The Sikh motivation to join the army had a definite link
with their minority status. This produced in them an
intense feeling to improve their political and economic
standing vis-a-vis the two larger groups i.e. the Punjabi
Muslims and Hindus. Thus the Sikhs despite being only
10. around 10.5% contributed 88,000 combatants to the army
while the Muslims despite being a 54% group contributed
only 136,000 recruits! This had two reasons first was the
Sikh preponderance in fighting arm units before the war
over the Punjabi Muslims as well as their feeling of relative
insecurity as a minority community. Despite all this loyalty
the Sikh quota was relatively reduced after the war
because of the significant role that some Sikhs had played
in the Ghadar Movements. Here it would be interesting for
the American readers to note that it was the liberal
influence of USA which induced the Sikhs who had settled
in California to embark on the Ghadar Movement. The
Ghadar party had its base in the US West region, where it
was founded on 21 April 1913 at Astoria (Oregon State) by
Punjabi immigrants (mostly Sikh who had reached
California as farm labourers or exiles before WW One)
Refers-Page 262-A Dictionary of Modern Indian History-
Parshotam Mehra-Oxford University Press-Madras-1985).
The author did not discuss the role of the British system of
class composition of Indian units in preventing rebellion.
The same is true for the activities of the Ghadar Party
activists in the army and certain military mutinies in units
recruited from races inhabiting Punjab and their effect on
the class composition of the post-1918 Indian Army have
also not been discussed. The British were greatly helped
11. in the mixed class composition of Indian Army to which
they had resorted from the period 1864-1885. This system
played a major part in preventing mutiny in the Indian
Army. Under this system the vast bulk of cavalry and
infantry units consisted of different companies of various
classes in any single unit. Like a unit with two Sikh and
two Punjabi Muslim Companies. A unit with a Pathan
Muslim and a Dogra Hindu Squadron etc. This ensured
that the Muslims would not combine with the Sikhs and the
Sikhs would be too eager to report in case the Muslims
were up to something nasty! This system proved a
success in WW One. On the other hand the experiment of
having one-class units failed. Thus 129 Baluchis which
was one of the very few "All Muslim Units" was made a
mixed class unit after the war. This happened since many
of its Pathans defected to the German lines in France. The
15 Lancers which was an "All Muslim Unit" was disbanded
after the war since its Pathan Muslim Squadrons resisted
orders to fight the Turks in Mesopotamia. The 5th Light
Infantry which was an "All Muslim Unit" with two
companies of Ranghar Muslims from Punjab province
mutinied en masse at Singapore in 1915 and was
disbanded after the war. Thus after the war with the
exception of one infantry unit all fighting arm units were
made mixed class units. The Ghadar Party infiltrators
penetrated Indian Army and did partially succeed in
subverting 23rd Punjab Cavalry (this scribes unit) where at
12. least 12 soldiers were court martialled and executed
(Refers-Page-141-An Account of the Ghadar Conspiracy-
1913-15-F.C Isemonger and J. Slattery-Lahore-1919 and
Page-8-A Short History of 11 Cavalry (Frontier Force-Lieut
Colonel Mohammad Khalid-Privately Published-Quetta-
1999-Copy held by this scribe).
Later research proved that the most crucial role was
played by the pre-war existing Indian Army in October-
December 1914 in Ypres area where the British Second
Corps was at its last gasp at Ypres at a time when in
words of the official British historian, "The position was
critical, for the allies were outnumbered and outgunned.
There was no prospect for several days while it was
known that the enemy was bringing up large bodies of
troops from the east" (Page-23-The Indian Corps in
France-Lieutenant Colonel J.W.B Merwether and Right
Honourable Sir Frederick Smith-John Murray-Ablemarle
Street-London-1919.). The reinforcements later sent
played a significant but not as decisive a role as that by
the Indian Corps at Ypres in October-December 1914.
The real reason why Punjab responded to the British war
effort lay in four factors. Firstly, an excellent British policy
to bring prosperity in Punjab by excavating canals which
13. was initiated in 1852. Recruitment to the army in increased
numbers from 1857, and grant of lands as reward of war
services was initiated in 1858 and brought great prosperity
to the provinces populace residing in the barren poor and
non-productive regions of the northern and south eastern
districts of Punjab. Secondly, the extreme political
backwardness of Punjab in terms of education by virtue of
being the last region to be captured by the British and
being under hold of feudal lords who discouraged spread
of Western education. This system enabled the feudal
lords to act as recruiting agents for their own personal
ends. The disturbances of 1919 it may be noted took place
in the canal-irrigated areas and in cities with the more
aware and educated urban population.
Thirdly, the economic factor of getting land as a reward for
war services also played a major role in the motivation to
get recruited. This again was true for the people from the
barren districts. Finally it was the complex communal
divide of the province with various ethnic and religious
groups and the sharp urban rural divide with the vast bulk
of the illiterate and poor rural population under total
domination of feudal lords and the extremely small
intensely nationalistic and anti-British educated urban
population further reinforced by the highly aware and over
14. enthusiastic idealistic but highly unrealistic US and
Canadian Punjabi Sikh and Hindu Indian community.
The negative result of the whole affair for the British was
the fact that too many expectations were aroused. The
Indians believed in vain that India for its war services will
"take a place among the nations besides Canada,
Australia and New Zealand, but India was bitterly
disappointed" as one Britisher admitted. (Refers-Page-
411-A Matter of Honour-Philip Mason-Jonathan Cape and
Bedford-London-1974) Once these expectations were not
fulfilled disturbances started in India and these started
from Punjab which had suffered the most in terms of
casualties in the War in 1919. The foundation of modern
anti-British political mass agitation was thus laid in 1919.
The British were forced to introduce legislative
government, forced to grant Indians commissions in the
Armed Forces which the military establishment had
successfully resisted from 1757 to 1917. In short the price
that they paid was too heavy and counter-productive.
Michael O Dwyer the hot blooded Irishman mishandled
everything.
India in 1919 was an explosive place. While about 60,000
Indian soldiers had died in WW One, some sixteen million
15. Indians during the same period had died of Influenza !
This was a greater number than total dead in all countries
in WW One due to the war ! (Refers-Page-155-English
History-1914-45-A.J.P Taylor-Penguin Books-England-
1977). The seeds of the anti British Indian politics were
planted by Michael O Dwyer and Dyer through out of
proportion enthusiasm in the recruiting drive and in unduly
repressive measures in 1919. The British held on to India
for 28 more years but they had lost the goodwill and great
admiration for their policies in Punjab so painstakingly
planted by a long list of British administrators from 1849 to
1914 through justice and fair play it takes many decades
to grow a forest but just one matchstick to burn the work of
centuries.
How do I sum it up as a Pakistani? The only gainers in the
whole process were not the common men in Punjab but
the Punjabi Muslim feudals who have survived till todate
and even today constitute an important political force in
Pakistani politics. They fooled the British and the Pakistani
masses whose leaders they became after 1947. These
Punjabi feudals served the Sikhs even when Sikhs used
the Muslim mosques as stables! They switched over to the
British side once the Sikh State was destroyed in 1849.
They served the British once the Bengal Army under a
Muslim leadership rebelled in 1857. They served the
16. British in WW One and Two and got huge economic
rewards in return. About three years before Pakistan's
creation they switched on to the Muslim League a largely
urban dominated party in 1944-47 and pushed the
relatively more enlightened Punjabi Muslim urban elite
aside ! In the period 1951-58 they betrayed the Muslim
League and joined the civil military bureaucratic clique of
Pakistan. Todate their achievements include collaboration
with all martial law governments and dominance of all
democratically elected governments of Pakistan including
the present military government! I am a great admirer of
late Abraham Lincoln but I must admit as the Punjabi
Muslim feudals have proved that sometimes some people
manage to fool all the people all the time!
Kind Regards
Major Agha Humayun Amin (Retired)
Pavocavalry@hotmail.com