Jbmt 00 maximizing the benets of

REVIEW

Maximizing the bene®ts of
Pilates-inspired exercise for
learning functional motor skills
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Claudia Lange, Viswanath Unnithan,
Elizabeth Larkam, Paula M. Latta

Abstract Joseph Pilates (1880±1967) created a system of ®tness exercises that are still
practiced in a more or less modi®ed form. Within the last two decades, there has been
a signi®cant increase in the popularity of such Pilates-inspired (PI) exercises. This
paper describes current claims for the e€ectiveness of PI exercises and comments on
their validity. Motor learning principles and ®ndings are applied to make
recommendations for using PI exercises to enhance the execution of functional
movement tasks. The learning-performance distinction, augmented information
Claudia Lange PhD feedback, contextual interference, skill transfer and augmented verbal cues are
Viswanath B. Unnithan PhD discussed. Finally, suggestions are made for aspiring PI practitioners seeking training
Department of Exercise and Sport Science, and certi®cation. # 2000 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
University of San Francisco
Elizabeth Larkam MA
Center for Sports Medicine, Saint Francis Memorial Joseph Pilates and and soon opened an exercise studio
Hospital, San Francisco
Paula M. Latta BS
Contrology with his wife Clara. Pilates wrote a
Peninsula RSI, Redwood City, CA
slender volume (1934) outlining his
Joseph Pilates was born in Germany system of Contrology, which he
in 1880. A sickly child, he used described as a set of healthful
Correspondence to: C. Lange
Department of Exercise and Sport
physical exercise to turn himself into lifestyle changes and corrective
Science, University of San Francisco, a ®t adult. In 1912, Pilates moved to exercises. A later booklet (Pilates
2130 Fulton St, San Francisco, the UK and held a variety of & Miller 1945) features a number of
CA 94117-1080, USA. occupations, including boxer and the exercises. His methods and
Tel.: +1 415 422 6874; Fax: +1 415 422 6040;
self-defense trainer. During World specialized ®tness equipment
E-mail: langec@usfca.edu
War I, while interned in a prison achieved popularity with dance
This research was conducted in the Department of camp for German nationals, he professionals such as George
Exercise and Sport Science, University of San taught his ®tness exercises to Balanchine and Martha Graham,
Francisco, 2130 Fulton St, San Francisco, inmates. Upon returning to but were largely unknown to the
CA 94117-1080, USA
Germany after the war, he gave general public. Pilates died in 1967.
exercise classes to police and A handful of students have carried
Received October 1999
military personnel and interacted on his teachings and in¯uenced
Revised November 1999
with members of the avant-garde numerous other individuals to learn
Accepted December 1999
........................................... dance community, such as Rudolf and teach his exercises. As a result,
Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies (2000) von Laban and Hanya Holm. In the name Pilates has become
4(2), 99^108
# 2000 Harcourt Publishers Ltd 1926, he moved to New York City associated with a form of movement

99
J O U R NAL O F B O DY W O R K AN D MOV E M E N T TH E R APIE S APRIL 20 0 0

Lange et al.

that is increasingly popular in Considering the widespread Fundamentals), and Chinese
clinical and ®tness settings. application and adaptation of these medicine. Today, these (more or less
Pilates (1934; Pilates & Miller exercises, there is a growing need to modi®ed) exercises are known
1945) made bold claims for the objectively assess their outcomes collectively as Pilates, Pilates-based
bene®ts of Contrology. For and bene®ts. or Pilates-evolved. It is not the goal
example, he stated that it would The purpose of this paper is to of this paper to distinguish among
prevent coronary heart disease, evaluate current claims on the di€erent exercise styles that are
increase muscular power, and reduce learning bene®ts of exercises derived based on Pilates' teachings. Rather,
the risk of respiratory ailments. He from the system developed by all exercises emanating from those
also stated that it would result in Pilates. Motor learning principles established by Pilates will be de®ned
complete voluntary control of the and ®ndings will be used as a model as Pilates-inspired (PI). There is an
body. He described Contrology as a to make recommendations for ongoing discourse between Pilates'
`balance' or `complete coordination administering Pilates-type exercises central ideas and movement
of body, mind, and spirit' achieved to enhance functional movement routines, and other systems of
by relinquishing strenuous exercises skills. Finally, suggestions will be movement and rehabilitation. The
and deliberately performing made for aspiring practitioners of de®ning characteristics of PI
functional activities in a posturally these exercises seeking training and exercises are listed in Box 1.
appropriate manner. Despite Pilates' certi®cation. Examples of equipment and
assurances (1934, Pilates & Miller exercises based on Pilates' designs
1945) that he had `scienti®cally' are shown in Figures 1±5.
proven the e€ectiveness of his Claims on the learning
approach, he did not subject his e¡ectiveness of
Current claims for
claims to experimental testing and Pilates-inspired
Pilates-inspired exercises
maintained that such testing was exercises
unnecessary. A sampling of relevant sources
The legacy of Pilates
Within the last two decades, there reveals three categories of claims on
has been a signi®cant increase in the Pilates was in¯uenced by hatha the bene®ts of PI exercises:
popularity of exercises based on yoga, gymnastics, modern dance enhanced physiological functioning,
Pilates' teachings. In the USA alone, and other movement systems. He enhanced psychological functioning
more than 700 studio and designed about 40 mat exercises and and learning or re-learning of
rehabilitation sites use his methods hundreds of exercises for his functionally e€ective postural sets
(Larkam & Brownstein 1998). A specialized equipment (Larkam & and motor patterns (e.g. Robinson
directory of UK practitioners (Body Nichols 1999). His exercises have & Thomson 1997, Balanced Body1
Control Pilates 1999) lists roughly been further in¯uenced by ®elds as 1999, Gallagher & Kryzanowska
100 studios. Practitioners can also diverse as physical therapy, somatics 1999, Physicalmind Institute 1999,
be found in Africa, Asia, Australia (e.g. Feldenkrais MethodTM, Body/ Stott Conditioning 1999, The
and New Zealand, Europe and Mind Centering1, Bartenie€ Balanced Body Studio 1999, Pilates
South America. In order to
understand the signi®cance of
Box 1 De¢ning characteristics of Pilates-inspired exercises
Pilates for functional skill
improvement, it is necessary to be
. Progressively enhance breath, core (body center), shoulder girdle, and limb control.
aware of claims made by current . Movements are slow and deliberate, with few repetitions (usually 5±10).
practitioners regarding the learning . Programs are highly individualized. One-on-one, dyad, and small group sessions are
bene®ts of their exercise sessions. conducted.
This can serve as a basis for . Exercises are done on ¯oor mats and equipment.
. Exercises are done from lying, sitting, kneeling, standing and other postures.
practical recommendations about
. Some equipment uses springs to provide variable resistance.
improving the quality of sessions. . Main piece of equipment is the Universal Reformer, a frame with a padded carriage
Such recommendations can that slides back and forth within the frame. Adjustable springs attach from the carriage
generically be derived from the to the frame. The carriage may be moved by pushing it, or by pulling on straps placed
®ndings of existing experiments on around arms or legs.
. Other large pieces of equipment include the TrapezeTable (Cadillac), Combo (Wunda)
motor skill learning. However, more
Chair, Ladder and Step Barrels, and Ped-a-Pul.
Pilates-speci®c recommendations . Small pieces of equipment include exercise balls, foam rollers, rotating disks, balance
can only emerge with scienti®c study boards, resistance rings, small arcs, and boxes.
of Pilates-type exercises themselves.

100

Pilates-inspired exercise

Box 2 Claims made on the e¡ectiveness
of Pilates-inspired exercises

Enhanced physiological functioning
. ¯exibility and range of motion
. muscular strength
. muscular endurance
. muscular power
. cardiorespiratory ®tness

Enhanced psychological functioning
. mood
. motivational state
. attentional focus
. enjoyment of life
. energy and zest

Enhanced motor learning
. core control
. static and dynamic posture
. intralimb and interlimb coordination
. aesthetically pleasing movement form
. body awareness
. static and dynamic balance

1994, Krasnow et al. 1997,
McMillan et al. 1998). Roughly an
equal number of studies also report
the failure of PI exercises to elicit
Fig. 1 A golfer has been diagnosed with spinal facette lock. During rehabilitation, the therapist is
improvements (Fitt et al. 1994,
giving verbal and tactile information to guide her to the appropriate position of spine extension Krasnow et al. 1997, McLain et al.
and rotation. The patient is lying on the Trapeze Table and is using the spring-loaded pedals of 1997). Despite the lack of
the Combo (Wunda) Chair to assist her action. Desired functional activity might be a golf swing. supportive, research-based data on
Reproduced by kind permission of Balanced Body1, Inc. (1999) and Polestar1 EducationLLC PI exercises, anecdotal reports by
(1999).
practitioners and clients indicate
that signi®cant bene®ts do indeed
exist. It is therefore worthwhile to
Institute 1999). To give an idea of disrupt normal coordination, such make preliminary recommendations
the extent of these claims, examples as orthopedic surgery, stroke, and for maximizing the bene®ts of PI
are listed in Box 2. head trauma. They also see PI exercises to enhance coordination,
Of speci®c interest to this paper exercises as a possible tool for sensory awareness, and performance
are claims related to motor learning. management or improvement of on functional tasks. These
A main aspect of PI sessions physical ailments including multiple recommendations are derived from
marketed to the ®tness consumer is sclerosis, ®bromyalgia and chronic the ®eld of motor learning, which
the aesthetic bene®t of a longer, pain. deals with the experimental study of
leaner appearance that comes from The claims made by current PI skill acquisition and performance.
improved posture. Dancers are told practitioners regarding the motor
they can develop more graceful learning bene®ts of their exercises
movement patterns. Athletes are are overwhelmingly Recommendations
assured they will maximize their unsubstantiated. Only a small to practitioners
biomechanical eciency through number of published experimental of Pilates-inspired
more appropriate muscle synergies. studies document measured movement
A growing number of rehabilitation improvements in posture or
Practitioner goals
professionals are attracted to PI functional tasks that are
exercises due to the promise of unequivocally attributable to PI PI practitioners have three
regained function after events that exercises (Parrott 1993, Fitt et al. important learning goals, which are

101

Lange et al.

environment. Such tasks include
walking, reaching, lifting and other
activities of daily living and work.
They also include complex
movement sequences executed by
athletes and performing artists.
Third, practitioners want to
structure practice to facilitate
retention and transfer.
Though practice by itself is often
considered the most important
variable for successful retention and
transfer-hence the adage that
practice makes perfect-it is certainly
not the only one. The conditions
under which practice takes place
have a great in¯uence on the
amount of skill learning. Some
practice conditions appear to have a
positive e€ect on learning, whereas
others seem to result in less
successful learning. It is beyond the
scope of this paper to provide a
Fig. 2 In a health club, clients are kneeling on the spring-loaded carriages of portable Reformers thorough discussion of all practice
and using their pectoral, biceps brachii, and anterior deltoid muscles to pull against the arm conditions. For more in-depth
straps. This action results in a backward movement of the spring-loaded carriage. Equal attention information, the reader is referred to
is paid to concentric and eccentric contractions. The group exercise instructor is providing verbal several appropriate sources (Feltz &
cues and imagery. Desired functional activities include any actions requiring dynamic trunk and
Landers 1983, Landin 1994, Magill
scapular stabilization. Reproduced by kind permission of Balanced Body1, Inc. (1999) and
Polestar1 EducationLLC (1999). 1998, McCullagh 1993, Rose 1997,
Schmidt & Lee 1999, Shea et al.
1993). The structure of practice
outlined in Box 3. First, they want Second, practitioners want clients to becomes all the more relevant for PI
clients to retain the exercises they are be able to transfer the coordination routines, because the latter rely on
teaching. In other words, they want patterns and sensory awareness low numbers of repetitions. Pilates
clients to develop independent learned during sessions to functional (1934, Pilates & Miller 1945)
control of new movement patterns. tasks outside of the practice stressed the importance of few
repetitions (usually less than 10 per
exercise). Instead, he emphasized
Box 3 Learning goals of Pilates-inspired practitioners deliberate practice during which
conscious attention is focused on
. Clients retain PI exercises taught by practitioner and can perform PI exercises without relevant task-related stimuli and
practitioner's corrections. processes. Current PI practitioners
. Breathing, core control, body awareness, and coordination patterns learned from PI
follow his lead and recommend 5±10
exercises transfer to functional tasks.
. Practice is structured to facilitate retention and transfer. repetitions for most exercises (e.g.
Robinson & Thomson 1997; Evans
& Stott Merrithew 1998a, 1998b;
Gallagher & Kryzanowska 1999).
Box 4 How to increase the e¡ectiveness of Pilates-inspired exercises
Hence, the amount of practice may
be less critical for learning than the
. Observe the learning-performance distinction. conditions of practice, and PI
. Use augmented verbal cues, self-talk and imagery.
. Use augmented information feedback judiciously.
practitioners play an essential role in
. Vary the context of practice trials. structuring these conditions. Five
. Use the right practice tasks to maximize transfer to functional tasks. important recommendations for
how practice conditions may be

102


structured, in order to accomplish
the goals of retention and transfer,
will be described in the following
paragraphs. Recommendations are
summarized in Box 4.

Recommendations for
practitioners
Recommendation1: observe the
learning-performance distinction
Motor learning has been de®ned as
`a set of processes associated with
practice or experience leading to
relatively permanent changes in the
capability for movement' (Schmidt
& Lee 1999). One important aspect
of this de®nition is the so-called
learning-performance distinction.
Learning is not a merely a change in
behaviour, because changes can be
Fig. 3 In a studio setting, a client is straddling the Ladder Barrel. She is lifting the pelvis o€ the
transient. For instance, augmented
barrel by activating her adductors, hamstrings, pelvic ¯oor muscles, and external rotators. This information feedback (AIF) can be
complex posture can also be done with feet parallel. The instructor may provide cues or feedback. provided to learners about the
Examples of applications include ballet and horseback riding. Reproduced by kind permission of success of their movements in the
Elizabeth Larkam and Balanced Body1, Inc. (1999). environment, or about the quality of
their movement patterns. An

Fig. 4 In a studio or rehabilitation setting, a
ballet dancer is using the Trapeze Table
(Cadillac) to increase awareness of proper
hamstring and hip extensor activation, in
conjunction with core control and spine
articulation. She is pressing with her left foot
against a spring-loaded bar. A therapist may
spot for safety by placing a hand over the
dancer's left foot to prevent it from slipping
o€ the bar. This exercise can be done in many
variations to facilitate intratask transfer.
Reproduced by kind permission of Elizabeth
Larkam and Balanced Body1, Inc. (1999).

103

Lange et al.

instructors to direct the learner's
attention to task-relevant stimuli
and to prompt correct task
execution (Landin 1994).
Furthermore, cue words can be used
by learners themselves prior to
carrying out a task, in which case
they are referred to as self-talk
regimens (STR). Short-term memory
is considered to be limited to ®ve to
nine separate pieces of information
(Miller 1956; Rose 1997). The
number may be lower for some
populations, such as stroke patients.
Therefore, too many instructions
may overload a learner trying to
attend to task-relevant stimuli and
organize a new response. AVC are
somewhat like instructions, but
because they consist of fewer words
Fig. 5 During an advanced mat class, a ®tness client is executing a front leg pull. This action and only address a few important
requires activation of deep abdominal and spinal musculature, as well as posterior shoulder girdle aspects of the task, they are thought
stabilizers. It can also be done prone (facing down) as well as sidelying. Switching among di€erent to place less load on short-term
postures assists the client in maintaining axial elongation and core control during a variety of
memory and increase chances that
upright functional activities and is a precursor to sport-speci®c conditioning. Reproduced by kind
permission of Elizabeth Larkam and Balanced Body1, Inc. (1999). the learner will retain the correct
motor pattern. For example, in the
Reformer group exercise depicted in
Figure 2, the practitioner might use
example of AIF might be a sessions. Rather, the temporary and the cue `funnel your ribs into your
practitioner's verbal or tactile relatively permanent in¯uences of pelvic bowl.' Such a cue might be
information about the degree of instructional methods must be taken more e€ective than giving a detailed
spine extension and rotation into account. The learning- explanation on how to use the deep
achieved during the prone Chair performance distinction is a crucial abdominal, spinal and pelvic ¯oor
exercise depicted in Figure 1. Until aspect of evaluating the success of muscles for dynamic trunk
recently, it was thought that any rehabilitation or conditioning stabilization. Similarly, in the
providing a lot of AIF was better for system. Practitioners should strive Ladder Barrel exercise in
learning. Indeed, laboratory to be aware of this distinction and Figure 3, the phrase `sit tall in the
experiments show that when understand that clients may be saddle' may be more e€ective in
learners receive AIF after each performing PI exercises or constraining the body's degrees of
practice trial, their performance is functional tasks very di€erently freedom than telling the client to
usually better when compared to when not in the rehabilitation center activate a variety of separate
that of learners who receive or studio. One way to assess learning muscle groups.
feedback after fewer trials. is to ask the client at the beginning Although AVC and STR have not
However, once AIF is removed and of the session to demonstrate an been as extensively studied as some
learners must rely on their own exercise or functional activity that other instructional methods,
recollection of the movement, those was practiced last session. This type research evidence (Landin 1994)
who received less in practice are of approach can give an estimate of suggests they are quite useful.
typically more successful (Salmoni et how much was learned. Landin makes several
al. 1984, Schmidt 1991a, Schmidt & recommendations for using verbal
Lee 1999). Recommendation 2: use augmented cues: First, he suggests using two
It is evident from the example of verbal cues, self-talk, and imagery words or less for STR, and up to
AIF that one cannot always predict Augmented verbal cues (AVC) are four words for AVC. Second, if cues
learning from the quality of concise phrases, often consisting of address di€erent parts of a task, it is
performance during practice one or two words, which are used by important to consider how those

104


parts are interrelated. Cues should physical practice. It can also be used action (Winstein & Schmidt 1990).
not disrupt the normal rhythm of by itself, in which case it is called A third guideline for AIF is that the
the movement pattern by drawing mental practice. Although not learner must know how to interpret
too much attention to one part of always e€ective, telling learners to it (Schmidt 1991b). A person with
the task and creating arti®cial mentally imagine or mentally little knowledge of anatomy will not
breaks between parts. For example, practice the correct movement be able to understand a statement
breathing relies on a smooth pattern frequently appears to have such as `you aren't using your
transition between in-breath and positive e€ects on retention intercostals.' Finally, giving AIF
out-breath. Too much emphasis on Feltz & Landers 1983, Schmidt & during, or right after, a movement
the in-breath can create breath Lee 1999). Therefore, cues may not always be a good idea. A
holding and destroy the movement's such as `funnel your ribs' or learner who is trying to master an
¯ow. Landin's third `sit tall' may act like mnemonic exercise involving all four limbs
recommendation is to consider the prompts that help evoke task- while maintaining core control, such
variability of the environment and relevant muscular activity during as the Trapeze Table exercise in
whether it is important for the exercises or related functional Figure 4, may be overly distracted if
learner to focus on internal body activities. the practitioner interrupts with
stimuli, or external environmental helpful advice. For extended PI
stimuli, or both. Many tasks in sport routines that last 30 s or more, it
and everyday life require switching Recommendation 3: use augmented may be best to give AIF
attention between internal and information feedback judiciously periodically. For discrete PI
external stimuli (Nide€er 1993). PI As already stated, AIF is task- movements like doing a head and
exercises typically focus the learner related information that helps the spine roll-up to a sitting position, it
entirely on internal body sensations, learner correct errors in the may be best to wait a few seconds
which may be necessary during movement's outcome and pattern. after a trial before giving AIF. This
initial phases of recovery or Research suggests that it should be may give the learner an opportunity
conditioning, or when an exercise is used judiciously. First and most to focus on the ¯eeting sensory
®rst introduced. However, if importantly, too much information impression of what the movement
switching between an internal and about errors may overload the felt like, before receiving
external focus is part of the learner's short-term memory, direct information about its correctness
functional activities the client must attention away from important (Swinnen et al. 1990).
perform, practitioners should create sensory stimuli, and prevent the
situations that require switching. development of proper coordination Recommendation 4: vary the context
Fourth, Landin states that STR can patterns. Therefore, PI practitioners of practice trials
be used in some cases to supplant should resist the temptation to point Whereas practice conditions such as
AIF by priming the correct action out all the errors a learner is making frequent AIF temporarily enhance
before it takes place. This is and suggest corrections. It is more performance but degrade learning,
particularly useful in group exercise useful to select one or two errors others have the opposite e€ect. One
classes, outside of class when the appropriate to skill level. For example for this occurs when
instructor is not present, or if there example, beginners might need contextual interference is
is only one chance to `do it right', a corrections related to breathing and manipulated during practice. Low
situation that exists in many maintaining a neutral spine while contextual interference occurs when
competitive sports. Finally, skill doing supine leg circles on the mat. all repetitions of Task A are
level must be considered when More advanced clients might need followed by all repetitions of Task
designing cues. Beginners need cues pointers on how to maintain B, all repetitions of Task C, and so
that re¯ect their less re®ned dynamic trunk alignment and on. For example, a client might do 8
understanding of the task and allow scapulo-humeral rhythm when supine leg presses on the Reformer,
them to get the general idea of the doing any exercises involving trunk followed by eight toe raises and
correct action, whereas more lateral ¯exion and arm reaching. A eight jumps. By contrast, high
advanced learners may need to focus second recommendation for using contextual interference is present
on speci®c errors. Rose (1997) AIF is to taper o€ the amount of when one repetition of Task A is
makes the additional feedback as the learner becomes followed by one repetition of Task
recommendation that cues should more pro®cient and can increasingly B, one repetition of Task C, and so
help evoke task-relevant imagery. rely on internal representations and on. In other words, a leg press is
Mental imagery can be used during sensory awareness of the correct followed by a toe raise, a jump,

105

Lange et al.

another leg press, another toe raise, has been de®ned as a gain or loss in However, even when movement
another jump, and so on. High the capability for performing a patterns appear similar, positive
contextual interference is thought to criterion task as a result of prior transfer can be negligible. For
represent a number of `real-life' experience with a practice task (Ellis example, supine jumps on the
movement conditions with 1965, Schmidt & Young 1987). One Reformer are practiced to prepare
constantly alternating tasks. goal of practice is to develop the dancers and athletes for standing
Compared to low contextual capability to adapt a previously vertical jumps. Yet research
interference, high contextual learned action to new settings, or to indicates that supine jumping
interference tends to depress perform variations of the action. practice does not necessarily result
performance during practice. This is called near transfer or in positive transfer to upright
Beginners sometimes report feeling intratask transfer (Sage 1984, Magill jumping (McLain et al. 1997). The
frustrated or confused by high 1998, Schmidt 1991b). For example, authors of the latter study remarked
contextual interference. It is during the hip extensor and that a during a jump on the
therefore tempting to conclude that hamstring exercise performed on the Reformer, the legs may be placed up
it also causes less skill learning. Trapeze Table in Figure 1, positive to 30 degrees above the plane of the
However, numerous experiments intratask transfer means successfully body, creating signi®cant di€erences
have shown that even for beginners, doing the movement with internal or in jump strategies between the
high contextual interference is often external hip rotation, with the entire supine and standing conditions and
more bene®cial to skill learning than spine resting on the Table, with both possibly reducing successful
low contextual interference (Magill legs at once, and other transfer. In a biomechanical study,
1998, Schmidt & Lee 1999). modi®cations. On the whole, Self et al. (1994) found a di€erent
Therefore, practice under high- intratask transfer as described above relationship between force and knee
interference conditions may actually tends to be positive, though not Â
angle during a supine plie on the
be preferable in the long run. always very large (Schmidt & Young Reformer and a standing plie, Â
Practitioners should be aware that 1987). suggesting that the two tasks are
learners will be often be performing A second goal of practice is to use di€erent.
functional tasks under conditions of prior experience with one action to PI practitioners should bear in
high contextual interference and successfully execute a di€erent mind that two overtly similar tasks
should create routines that action. This is called far transfer or may in fact require di€erent muscle
progressively approximate these intertask transfer (Sage 1984, Magill synergies and be accompanied by
conditions. Using the example of the 1998, Schmidt 1991b). The overall di€erent sensory input. Experience
mat exercise in Figure 5, a client similarity of coordination patterns with one task may not give the
might do 1±2 repetitions of a seems to be one of several factors learner the necessary capability to
posture that requires supine trunk determining the degree of positive do the other task. Conversely, two
and shoulder girdle stabilization, intertask transfer. Very di€erent tasks that appear dissimilar may
followed by 1±2 repetitions of the patterns, such as swimming and actually involve similar underlying
same posture in a prone position, volleyball, do not transfer positively muscle synergies, sensory stimuli, or
and 1±2 sidelying. The client is to one another (Nelson 1957, cognitive strategies. This principle is
challenged to exert sensory Schmidt & Lee 1999). The same referred to as transfer-appropriate
awareness, and proper control of principle probably applies to processing (Lee 1988, Rose 1997).
core and shoulder girdle muscles, two PI exercises that use both Practitioners should ask themselves
while switching tasks. di€erent pieces of equipment and whether the exercises they assign
di€erent body parts, such provide learners with an
as lateral trunk ¯exion on the opportunity to practice the internal
Recommendation 5: use the right Reformer and seated leg processing they will need for
practice tasks to maximize skill extension on the Chair. When functional activities in sport, dance,
transfer movement patterns are reasonably or everyday life. Care should be
Learning is typically evaluated similar, intertask transfer is taken to ensure a transition from
through retention and transfer tests. frequently small-to-moderate and supine, non-weight bearing activities
Retention involves executing a given positive (Schmidt & Lee 1999). For to bipedal weightbearing activities
movement at a later time, whereas example, doing a pelvic bridge on (Loosli & Herold 1992). Practice
transfer is the application of a the mat may transfer positively to with supine exercises alone may not
previously acquired movement skill doing the same exercise on the translate into improved alignment
to new situations. Formally, transfer Reformer. or stability when standing up.

106


Evans B, Stott Merrithew M 1998b Essential
Box 5 Checklist for aspiring practitioners Reformer Manual. Toronto: Stott
Feltz DL, Landers DM 1983 The e€ects of
. Investigate a number of programs. mental practice on motor skill learning
. Consider program availability, cost, and duration. and performance: a meta-analysis.
. Trainers and certi®ers must have sucient experience with the desired client population. Journal of Sport Psychology 5: 25±57
. Instructional modules dealing with anatomy, physiology, and clinical populations should Fitt S, Sturman J, McClain-Smith S 1994
be overseen by individuals with proper training. E€ects of Pilates-based conditioning on
. Certi®cation examinations should include oral, written, and case study portions. strength, alignment, and range of motion
. To avoid con¯ict of interest, trainers should not have dual roles as certi®ers. in university ballet and modern dancers.
. Trainers should have up-to-date knowledge of motor learning principles and ®ndings. Kinesiology and Medicine for Dance
16: 36±51
Gallagher S, Kryzanowska R 1999 The
Pilates Method of Body Conditioning.
BanBridge Books, Philadelphia
Summary and 1999, Polestar1 Education 1999, Krasnow DH, Chat®eld SJ, Barr S, Jensen
recommendations for Stott Conditioning 1999). Some JL, Dufek JS 1997 Imagery and
the future training centers also mention conditioning practices for dancers. Dance
practice conditions and teaching Research Journal 29: 43±64
strategies in their informational Larkam E 1999 Personal communication
In the preceding paragraphs, several
Larkam E, Brownstein B 1998 Balanced
recommendations for maximizing literature (e.g. Physicalmind body: application of Pilates-evolved
the learning bene®ts of PI sessions Institute 1999, Polestar1 Education exercises in ®tness, training and
were introduced. However, these 1999, Stott Conditioning 1999, The rehabilitation. Unpublished manuscript
recommendations are only Pilates Center 1999), which suggests Larkam E, Nichols J 1999 The history and
preliminary. To date, no published that the trainers have some formal evolution of techniques in¯uenced by
those of Joseph H. Pilates, 1920±1999.
studies have been conducted in knowledge of motor learning Presentation at the American College of
which an attempt was made to principles. However, it is best for Sportsmedicine, New Orleans
discover causal links between prospective students to inquire Landin D 1994 The role of verbal cues in skill
practice conditions, such as the ones before beginning any program. learning. Quest 46: 299±313
This paper was intended to Lee TD 1988 Transfer-appropriate
described in this paper, and
processing: a framework for
improvements on PI exercises or provide an overview of current conceptualizing practice e€ects in motor
functional skills. This oversight claims on the e€ectiveness of PI learning. In: Meijer OG, Roth K. eds.
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