Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics shared by a society. It is learned and transmitted between generations. The key elements of culture include language, symbols, norms, values, beliefs, and cognitive elements. Culture influences all aspects of human life and societies. It is integrated and responsive to environmental conditions. There are different types of cultures, including material culture related to objects and non-material culture related to beliefs and practices. Multiculturalism recognizes and respects cultural differences within societies.

1. Cultureand Multiculturalism
Features and Characteristics of Culture:
Some important features of culture has been sited below:
 Culture is learned:
It is not something that is biologically inherited by learned by socially in a society by
a human. It is acquired or learned by man with the association or help of other not
an inborn tendency. It involves eating, drinking, walking, behaving etc. are all learnt
by one another.
 Culture is shared:
It is shared by individuals or a common territory of people. Just like custom, beliefs,
values and traditions are shared by a man under a social situation. All of them are
adopted by all equally.
 Culture is continuous:
It is a stream that is transmitted over generations to generations. It is also defined
as the memory of human races followed by an evolutionary process.
 Culture is transmitted:
Just like parents passes their cultural traits to their children and they in the same
case transmit their children and so on this process of transmission goes on. Culture
is capable of transmitted from one generation to another Language is among a
cultural trait that is transmitted over generations.
 Culture is integrated:
Interconnectivity of each culture is present. The development of culture is result of
integration among cultures. As value system is interlinked with religion, custom,
beliefs, and traditions.
 Culture is responsive:

2. It is responsive to the changing conditions, as it intervenes physical environment i.e.
man helping to prevent from damages and natural calamities.
Types of Culture:
Sociologists see the two sides of culture—the material and non-material—as intimately
connected
In brief, sociologists define the non-material aspects of culture as the values and beliefs,
language and communication, and practices that are shared in common by a group of
people. Expanding on these categories, culture is made up of our knowledge, common
sense, assumptions, and expectations. It is also the rules, norms, laws, and morals that
govern society; the words we use as well as how we speak and write them (what
sociologists call "discourse"); and the symbols we use to express meaning, ideas, and
concepts (like traffic signs and emojis, for example). Culture is also what we do and how
we behave and perform (think theater and dance). It informs and is encapsulated in how
we walk, sit, carry our bodies, and interact with others; how we behave depending on place,
time, and "audience"; how we express identities of race, class, and gender and sexuality,
among others. Culture also includes the collective practices we participate in, such as
religious ceremonies, the celebration of secular holidays, and attending sporting events.
Material culture is composed of the things that humans make and use. This aspect of
culture includes a wide variety of things, from buildings, technological gadgets, and
clothing, to film, music, literature, and art, among others. Aspects of material culture are
more commonly referred to as cultural products.
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism, the view that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those
of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgement of their differences within a
dominant political culture.

3. That acknowledgement can take the forms of recognition of contributions to the cultural
life of the political community as a whole, a demand for special protection under the law
for certain cultural groups, or autonomous rights of governance for certain cultures.
Multiculturalism is both a response to the fact of cultural pluralism in
modern democracies and a way of compensating cultural groups for past
exclusion, discrimination, and oppression.
Challenges:
There are two primary objections to multiculturalism. One is that multiculturalism
privileges the good of the certain groups over the common good, thereby potentially
eroding the common good in favor of a minority interest. The second is that
multiculturalism undermines the notion of equal individual rights, thereby weakening the
political value of equal treatment.
Politics:
Multiculturalismis closely associated with identity politics, or political andsocial movements
that have group identity as the basis of their formation and the focus of their political action.
Those movements attempt to further the interests of their group members and force issues
important to their group members into the public sphere. In contrast to multiculturalism,
identity politics movements are based on the shared identities of participants rather thanon
a specifically shared culture. However, both identity politics and multiculturalism have in
common the demand for recognition and a redress for past inequities.
Multiculturalism raises important questions for citizens, public administrators, and political
leaders. By asking for recognition of and respect for cultural differences, multiculturalism
provides one possible response to the question of how to increase the participation of
previously oppressed groups.

4. The Shared Belief in Cultures
Taiwan- The louder The better
Burping in most cultures is a common thing. If you are with your friends and someone lets
out a burp and you all laugh. In Taiwan and China, it is a sign of politeness in public. When
you belch out loudly you are actually complimenting the chef. However, we could never tell
if someone IS actually complimenting the chef, or belching for the sake of it. This fits in the
same box as slurping in Japan. If you slurp loudly when eating noodles, you are sending
good vibes to the chef. However, in European countries, especially places like England,
eating loudly is frowned upon.
Singapore- Chewing Gum
Chewing gum might be good for dental hygiene, but in Luxembourg, Switzerland, and
France, public gum-chewing is considered vulgar. In Singapore, most gum has been illegal
since 1992 when residents grew tired of scraping the sticky stuff off their sidewalks. In
fact, if you are caught selling gum, you can be charged with a $100,000 fine or a prison
sentence of up to two years.
Vietnam- Why are you calling like a dog?
How do you signal someone to come over? Are your fingers pointing up or down? Well in
Vietnam (and some other parts of Asia) it matters. When you call a person, you signal with
your fingers pointing down, brushing it towards you. In North America and Europe, it is
reversed with fingers pointing up. If you did that in Vietnam you would get a slap on the
wrist as it means you are calling them over like a dog.
Culture and the Nature of Society:
“Nature and Society Geography” is a field of geography concerned with the relationships
between people and the environment. The field is broad and includes geography’s two

5. centuries of emphasis on humankind’sinteractionwith andmodifications of naturalsystems,
as well as newer interests in conflicts over natural resources and environmental change,
assessments of the sustainability and equity of primary production systems, and critical
analyses of the meanings of taken-for-granted concepts like “nature,” “natural resources,”
and “degradation.”
Culture
Culture is a term used by social scientists, like anthropologists and sociologists, to
encompass all the facets of human experience that extend beyond our physical fact. Culture
refers to the way we understand ourselves both as individuals and as members of society,
and includes stories, religion, media, rituals, and even language itself.
It is critical to understand that the term culture does not describe a singular, fixed entity.
Instead, it is a useful heuristic, or way of thinking, that can be very productive in
understanding behavior. As a student of the social sciences, you should think of the word
culture as a conceptual tool rather than as a uniform, static definition. Culture necessarily
changes, and is changed by,a variety of interactions, with individuals,media,andtechnology,
just to name a few.
Culture and Society
Culture is what differentiates one group or society from the next; different societies have
different cultures. Different societies have different cultures; a culture represents the
beliefs and practices of group, while society represents the people who share those beliefs
and practices. Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people,
such as automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship.
Nonmaterial culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. In
18th and 19th century Europe, the term “culture” was equated with civilization and

6. considered a unique aspect of Western society. Remnants of that colonial definition of
culture can be seen today in the idea of ” high culture “. During the Romantic Era, culture
became equated with nationalism and gave rise to the idea of multiple national cultures.
Today, social scientists understand culture as a society’s norms, values, and beliefs; as well
as its objects and symbols, and the meaning given to those objects and symbols.
Key Terms
civilization: An organized culture encompassing many communities, often on the scale of
a nation or a people; a stage or system of social, political or technical development.
high culture: The artistic entertainment and material artifacts associated with a society’s
aristocracy or most learned members, usually requiring significant education to be
appreciated or highly skilled labor to be produced.
popular culture: The prevailing vernacular culture in any given society, including art,
cooking, clothing, entertainment, films, mass media, music, sports, and style
nationalism:The idea of supporting one’s country and culture; patriotism.
Cultureand its role in human societies
Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the
members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people and groups define
themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute to society. Thus, culture
includes many societal aspects: language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools,
technologies, products, organizations, and institutions. This latter term institution refers to

7. clusters of rules and cultural meanings associated with specific social activities. Common
institutions are the family, education, religion, work, and health care.
Popularly speaking, being cultured means being well‐educated, knowledgeable of the arts,
stylish, and well‐mannered. High culture—generally pursued by the upper class—refers to
classical music, theater, fine arts, and other sophisticated pursuits. Members of the upper
class can pursue high art because they have cultural capital, which means the professional
credentials, education, knowledge, and verbal and social skills necessary to attain the
“property, power, and prestige” to “get ahead” socially. Low culture, or popular culture—
generally pursued by the working and middle classes—refers to sports, movies, television
sitcoms and soaps, and rock music. Remember that sociologists define culture differently
than they do cultured, high culture, low culture, and popular culture.
Culture and society are intricately related. A culture consists of the “objects” of a society,
whereas a society consists of the people who share a common culture. When the terms
culture and society first acquired their current meanings, most people in the world worked
and lived in small groups in the same locale. In today's world of 6 billion people, these terms
have lost some of their usefulness because increasing numbers of people interact andshare
resources globally. Still, people tend to use culture and society in a more traditional sense:
for example, being a part of a “racial culture” within the larger “U.S. society.”
Basic Elements of Culture
There are some basic CulturalElements given below:
1. Language
2. Symbols
3. Norms
4. Values
5. Beliefs
6. Cognitive Elements
Language

8. Every culture has a particular language which is passed by the person belongs to that
particular culture to the next generation and the following generation also has to learn the
language. Language is the most basic and most important element in a culture. The
language can be defined, in a very precise manner, and can be compared, in the best way,
with a vehicle. Language is a medium or an instrument which is used to express one’s view
and to keep forward one’s opinion.
A group of words or ideas having common meaning and is shared to a social situation is
called language. Language is the entrance to a culture. Language is a set of socially sound
pattern, words, and sentences having specific meaning and terminology common to the
same culture.
Language is a source of communication and to transmit message from one person to
another. It is the method to mold the behavior and experience of a person. Language differs
from culture to culture and is transmitted from one generation to another.
Language is like a vehicle through which we can carry out our complex social activities.
Language is the foundation of a culture and ticket to the entrance of a social life. Animal
have not culture because they have no specific language to transmit worlds to others. So,
language is the key to open a social life of an individual with some special characteristics.
For example, the person who speaks Hindi and having an accent like that of Indians can be
recognized easily, that he is a citizen of India and likewise person speaking other languages
can be recognized that to which culture he/she belongs
Symbols
Culture is a system of symbols. Symbols are anything used to represent express and stand
for an event situation. Symbols direct to guide our behavior. It is used to show an event of
past, present or future. For example the heapof ash show thatthe something has been burnt
or the wet street shows that it has rained.
Bowing head, whistling, winkling of eyes situation, all are the symbols, which express a
specific object idea about other. Bait Ullah is the symbol of God and we pray to it. American

9. Shake their hand to answer for No. Other examples are flag, anthem, picture, statues are
symbols. Symbols are the short expression for the identification of an object or
situation. Importance of Symbols may differ for different people, belonging to a different
culture. For example sign of cross means nothing for Hindus but for Christians, this is a
symbol of Lord Christ.
Norms
Norms as elements of culture are the rules and the guidelines which specify the behavior of
an individual. Norms keep a person within the boundary of society and its culture. It gives us
restriction about something which to do andwhich not to do. It molds our behavior andgives
as knowledge about wrong and right. Norms can be divided into:
a. Folkways. Folkways are the simple customary ways of the people. It is the normal
andhabitualaction of people withina culture. Folkways are the recognized or accepted
ways of behavior. These are the behavior pattern which a person use generally in his
daily life.
b. Mores. Mores is a Latin word and the plural of mos which means customs or beliefs
accordance with a group customary expectation. It is the “must” behavior of a person.
Mores refers to “what ought to be and what ought not to be.” Mores are serious norms
but are informed like folkways. They have a serious binding on a group the violation of
mores threats to social order. Punishment may be both formal and informal for the
violation of mores.
Values
Anything getting importance in our daily life becomes our values. The origin of values is not
biological but it is social production while living in society the values develop. Values depend
upon the culture. Culture varies from society to society and thus values are different in every
social situation. Values are what we like and what we say will in our society values are the
good idea and thinking of a person.
Value of some materials, sometimes, are received and taught by parents to their children.
Some values are explained by society, in this way values of a particular society gets
accumulated and move forward from generations to generations.

10. Some values are hereditary which we gain from our elders, books and parents. The culture
is full of values and can transmit from one generation to another. When a natural object get
a meaning it becomes a value.
Beliefs
Before the creation of any culture by a society, society decides their source of motivation,
which they considered as appropriate. For example god Shiva to Hindus, Sikh wear bangle
in one hand, bear a long beard, keeping a dagger, Cross for Christians and a necklace or a
cotton thread around the neck.
Every sect within a culture having some beliefs for cultural refuge. These beliefs are
responsible for the spiritual fulfillment of needs and wants. Muslims believe in God, Holly
Prophet, The Day of Judgment, recitation of Holly Quran, Hajj etc.
Sikh wear bangle in one hand,bear a long beard, keeping a dagger. Cross for Christians and
a necklace or a cotton thread around nick, the water of Ganga and are sacred for Hindus.
Cognitive Elements
Cognitive elements are that element of culture which deals with the management of difficult
times or natural calamities. Cognitive elements of culture are those through which an
individual learn how to cope with an existing situation whether natural or social. These
qualities are learned by children and taught, to them, by their parents, so that their
son/daughter can live with peace in a particular situation Culture is a symbolic continuous,
cumulative and progressive process
Elements though which anindividualknow how to cope with an existing social situation.How
to survive, how make shelter from storms and other natural calamities, how to travel and
transport etc. are the practical knowledge which makea culture. Such knowledge is carefully
thought to every generation.
Cultural integration

11. Cultural integration is a form of cultural exchange in which one group assumes the beliefs,
practices and rituals of another group without sacrificing the characteristics of its own
culture
Or
Cultural integration is a form of cultural exchange in which one group assumes the beliefs,
practices and rituals of another group without sacrificing the characteristics of its
own culture.
Cultural integration theories in the social sciences:
Three main perspectives on cultural integration confront themselves in the social sciences:
assimilation theory, multiculturalism, and structuralism.
Assimilation theory:
In the literature on the cultural integration of immigrants, the perspective of assimilation
theory has dominated much of the sociological thinking for most of the 20th century. This
approach builds upon three central features. First, diverse ethnic groups come to share a
common culture through a natural process along which they have the same access to socio-
economic opportunities as natives of the host country. Second, this process consists of the
gradual disappearance of original cultural and behavioral patterns in favor of new ones.
Third, once set in motion, the process moves inevitably and irreversibly toward complete
assimilation. Hence, diverse immigrant groups are expected to “melt” into the mainstream
culture through an inter-generational process of cultural, social, and economic integration.
This view is exemplified e.g. by Gordon (1964), who provides a typology of assimilation
patterns to capture this process. In Gordon’s view, immigrants begin their adaptationto their
new country through cultural assimilation, or acculturation. Though cultural assimilation is
a necessary first step, ethnic groups may remain distinguished from one another because
of spatial isolation and lack of contact. Their full assimilation depends ultimately on the
degree to which these groups gain the acceptance of the dominant population. Socio-
economic assimilation inevitably leads to other stages of assimilation through which ethnic
groups eventually lose their distinctive characteristics.
Multiculturalism

12. One such alternative approach is multiculturalism, which rejects the simple integration
process proposed by assimilation theory. Scholars from this perspective view multicultural
societies as composed of a heterogeneous collection of ethnic and racial minority groups,
as well as of a dominant majority group. This view has been forcefully illustrated by Glazer
and Moynihan (1970) and by Handlin (1973) in the context of the American society. They
argue that immigrants actively shape their own identities rather than posing as passive
subjects in front of the forces of assimilation. These authors also emphasize that some
aspects of the cultural characteristics of immigrants may be preserved in a state of un-easy
co-existence with the attitudes of the host country. The multicultural perspective offers then
an alternative way of considering the host society, presenting members of ethnic minority
groups as active integral segments of the whole society rather than just foreigners or
outsiders.
Structuralism:
Rather thanfocusing on the processes of assimilation or integration per se, the structuralism
approach emphasizes how differences in socio-economic opportunities relate to differences
in social integration of ethnic minority groups. Unequal access to wealth, jobs, housing,
education, power, and privilege are seen as structural constraints that affect the ability of
immigrants and ethnic minorities to socially integrate. This leads to persistent ethnic
disparities in levels of income, educational attainment, and occupational achievement of
immigrants (Blau and Duncan, 1967; and Portes and Borocz, 1989). Consequently, the
benefits of integration depend largely on what stratum of society absorbs the new
immigrants. Contrary to the perspectives of assimilation theory and of multiculturalism,
structuralism emphasizes the inherent conflicts that exist in the social hierarchy between
dominant and minority groups and therefore questions even the possibility of cultural and
socio-economic integration of immigrants. To summarize, assimilation theory,
multiculturalism, and structuralism provide different views of the same phenomenon. The
focus of assimilation theorists is on immigrants’ succeeding generations gradually moving
away from their original culture. Multiculturalists acknowledge that the cultural
characteristics of immigrants are constantly reshaped along the integration process and

13. therefore may never completely disappear. Structuralisms emphasize the effects of the
social and economic structure of the host country on the ability of immigrants to integrate
into its cultural attitudes and to share its economic benefits. Segmented assimilation
synthesis. While each of the previous perspectives insists on one specific dimension of the
integration pattern of immigrants, segmented assimilation theory provides a synthesis of
these distinctive approaches. The main objective of this line of research is to provide a more
complete picture of the different patterns of integration among immigrants in terms of
convergent or divergent paths of cultural adaptation. More precisely, this theory envisions
the process of cultural integration along three possible patterns: a) an upward mobility
pattern associated to assimilation and economic integration into the normative structures
of the majority group; b) a downward mobility pattern, in the opposite direction, associated
to assimilation and parallel integration into the underclass; c) economic integration but
lagged assimilation and/or deliberate preservation of the immigrant community’s values
and identity (see Portes and Zhou, 1994). This theoretical perspective attempts to explain
which factors determine into which segment of the host society a particular immigrant group
may assimilate. Its focus is on how various socio-economic and demographic factors
(education, native language proficiency, place of birth, age upon arrival, and length of
residence in the host country) interact with contextual variables (such as racial status, family
socioeconomic backgrounds, andplace of residence) to produce specific cultural integration
patterns of a given cultural minority group.
CULTURE

14. Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of social
life. According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language
and communication, and practices that people share in common and that can be used to
define them as a collective. Culture also includes the material objects that are common to
that group or society.
ORIGIN:
The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin
"colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. "It shares
its etymology with a number of other words related to actively fostering growth," De Rossi
said.
NON MATERIAL ASPECTS OF CULTURE:
Values and beliefs, language and communication, and practices that are shared in
common by a group of people. Expanding on these categories, culture is made up of our
knowledge, common sense, assumptions, and expectations. It is also the rules, norms,
laws, and morals that govern society; the words we use as well as how we speak and write
them and the symbols we use to express meaning, ideas, and concepts (like traffic signs
and emojis, for example). Culture is also what we do and how we behave and perform. It
informs and is encapsulated in how we walk, sit, carry our bodies, and interact with others
MATERIAL ASPECTS OF CULTURE:
Material culture is composed of the things that humans make and use. This aspect of
culture includes a wide variety of things, from buildings, technological gadgets, and
clothing, to film, music, literature, and art, among others. Aspects of material culture are
more commonly referred to as cultural products.

15. SOCIETY
A society is a grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interest and may
have distinctive culture and institutions. A "society" may refer to a particular ethnic group,
such as the Nuer, to a nation state, such as Switzerland, or to a broader cultural group,
such as Western society. An organized group of people associated together for religious,
benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes may also be
considered a society.
Human beings are essentially social creatures, with the desire and need to be in close
contact with others. Beginning with the family, human life is one of interdependence and
sharing of physical, mental, and spiritual items. While conflict both within and between
societies has been the dominant feature of human history, all societies strive to maintain
harmony within (to ensure the happiness and safety of their members) and, at least in
more recent times, many now seek harmony among diverse societies in efforts to establish
a world of peace and prosperity for all.
ORIGIN:
The term society emerged in the fifteenth century and is derived from the French société.
The French word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, a "friendly association with
others," from socius meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner."
Essential in the meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or
interest, a common objective or common characteristics, often a common culture.

16. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY:
The following components are common to all definitions of society:
 Criteria for membership, related to purpose or common goal
 Characteristic patterns of organization, defining relationships among members
 Social norms of acceptable behaviour within the society
TYPES OF SOCIETIES:
Human beings have created and lived in several types of societies throughout history.
Sociologists have classified the different types of societies into six categories, each of
which possesses their own unique characteristics:
 Hunting and gathering societies
 Pastoral societies
 Horticultural societies
 Agricultural societies
 Industrial societies
 Post-industrial societies
SOCIAL CHANGE:
Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behaviour patterns and
cultural values and norms. By “significant” alteration, sociologists mean changes
yielding profound social consequences. Examples of significant social changes having long‐
term effects include the industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist
movement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE:
 Social change is universal or it is an essential law.
 Change with diff. in speed & form simple society … change was slower.

17.  Change is unpredictable in general Revol is a process of social change. What speed
& in what form the change takes place is not easily predictable.
 Social change is change in community
 Social change generally changes in direction. There are 3 patterns of social change.
a) linear failure change generally leads to progress (change for good) can't cycle –car –
train –plain
b) Fluctuating change – the change may be upward & downward. The demographic
change is such also economic change,
c) Cyclical change – the change is in a cycle. Fashion, sometimes also in economical
aspect (Karl max gave this idea. He says earlier there was no private property & we
may go back to it).
OR
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE:
(i) Social change is a universal phenomenon:
Social change occurs in all societies. No society remains completely static. This is true of
all societies, primitive as well as civilized. Society exists in a universe of dynamic
influences.
(ii) Social change is community change:
Social change does not refer to the change in the life of an individual or the life patterns of
several individuals. It is a change which occurs in the life of the entire community. In other
words, only that change can be called social change whose influence can be felt in a
community form. Social change is social and not individual.
(iii) Speed of social change is not uniform:
While social change occurs in all societies, its speed is not uniform in every society. In most
societies it occurs so slowly that it is often not noticed by those who live in them. Even in

18. modern societies there seems to be little or no change in many areas. Social change in
urban areas is faster than in rural areas.
(iv) Nature and speed of social change is affected by and related to time factor:
The speed of social change is not uniform in each age or period in the same society. In
modern times the speed of social change is faster today than before 1947. Thus, the
speed of social change differs from age to age.
The reason is that the factors which cause social change do not remain uniform with the
change in times. Before 1947 there was less industrialization in India, after 1947 India has
become more industrialized. Therefore, the speed of social change after 1947 is faster
than before 1947.
(v) Social change occurs as an essential law:
Change is the law of nature. Social change also is natural. It may occur either in the natural
course or as a result of planned efforts. By nature we desire change. Our needs keep on
changing. To satisfy our desire for change and our changing needs social change becomes
a necessity. The truth is that we are anxiously waiting for a change. According to Green,
‘The enthusiastic response of change has become almost a way of life.”
PROCESS OF SOCIAL CHANGE:
The process of social change has four primary characteristics:
1. Social change happens all the time. Not every social change will be as dramatic as
9/11. One clear way we can see social change happening is through technology. It seems
that even the newest technology is outdated a few days after you purchase it! Not all
changes occur as fast as technology - some changes (and societies) are much slower to
adapt to change.
2. Social change is sometimes intentional, but oftentimes unplanned. Industrial societies,
such as the United States, actively promote many kinds of change. While many dreamed of

19. the day when cell phones would be commonplace, very few could have imagined all the
consequences that were created as a result of that one device.
3. Social change is controversial. One only has to look at the various equal rights
movements to see that social change, oftentimes, involves controversy. Even the various
changes set into motion because of 9/11 were controversial in nature.
4. Some changes matter more than others. Changes in hairstyles and clothing patterns
(while embarrassing when looking at old pictures) carry little significance in big picture. The
invention of the automobile, computer and cell phones changed the way the world
interacts.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE:
 Technological and Economic Changes
 Modernization
 Urbanization
 Bureaucratization
 Conflict and Competition
 Political and Legal Power
 Ideology
 Diffusion
 Acculturation
 Evolution
POPULAR THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

20. 1. Theory of Determination:
According to exponents of this theory, with the passage of time society is deteriorating and
from happiness we are advancing towards dissatisfaction. They therefore feel that social
changes come due to this ever going determination which is inevitable. They even take the
help of mythology in support of their theory.
2. Evolution theory:
The notion of evolution came into social sciences from the theories of biological evolution.
With the advent of Darwinian Theory of biological evolution, society and culture began to
be regarded as undergoing the same changes and demonstrating the same trends.
It was conceived that society and culture were subject to the same general laws of
biological and organism growth. Some thinkers even identified evolution with progress and
proceeded to project into the future more and more perfect and better-adapted social and
cultural forms. Charles Darwin (1859), the British biologist, who propounded the theory of
biological evolution, showed that species of organisms have evolved from simpler
organisms to the more complicated organisms through the processes of variations and
natural selection. After Darwin, ‘evolution’, in fact, became the buzz word in all intellectual
inquiry and Darwin and Spencer were the key names of an era in the history of thought.
Herbert Spencer (1890), who is known to be the forerunner of this evolutionary thought in
sociology, took the position that sociology is “the study of evolution in its most complex
form”. For him, evolution is a process of differentiation and integration.
Assumptions of evolution theory:
1. That change is inevitable and natural.
2. That change is gradual and continuous.
3. That change is sequential and in certain stages.

21. 4. That all successive stages of change are higher over preceding stage, i.e., evolution is
progressive.
5. That stages of change are non-reversible.
6. That forces of change are inherent in the object.
7. That the direction of change is from simple to complex, from homogeneity to
heterogeneity, from undifferentiated to the differentiated in form and function.
8. That all societies pass through same stages of development.
3. Cyclic theory:
Cyclical change is a variation on unilineal theory which was developed by Oswald Spengler
(Decline of the West, 1918) and Arnold J. Toynbee (A Study of History, 1956). They argued
that societies and civilizations change according to cycles of rise, decline and fall just as
individual persons are born, mature, grow old, and die. According to German thinker
Spengler, every society has a predetermined life cycle—birth, growth, maturity and decline.
Society, after passing through all these stages of life cycle, returns to the original stage and
thus the cycle begins again.
4. Economic theory:
Owing largely to the influence of Marx and Marxism, the economic theory of change is also
known as the Marxian theory of change. Of course, economic interpretations of social
change need not be always Marxist, but none of the other versions (such as Veblen who
also stressed on material and economic factor) of the doctrine are quite as important as
Marxism.
The Marxian theory rests on this fundamental assumption that changes in the economic
‘infra-structure’ of society are the prime movers of social change. For Marx, society consists
of two structures—’infra-structure’ and ‘super-structure’. The ‘infra-structure’ consists of the
‘forces of production’ and ‘relations of production’.

22. 5. Conflict theory:
Social theorists in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were concerned with
conflict in society. But, the label of conflict theorists is generally applied to those
sociologists who opposed the dominance of structural-functionalism. These theorists
contend that in functionalism there is no place of change and as such it cannot explain
change.
They have neglected conflict in favor of a unitary concept of society which emphasizes
social integration. By contrast to functionalist approach, conflict theorists contend that
institutions and practices continue because powerful groups have the ability to maintain
the status quo. Change has a crucial significance, since it is needed to correct social
injustices and inequalities.
6. Technological Theory:
When the average person speaks of the changes brought about by ‘science’, he is generally
thinking of ‘technology’ and the manifold wonders wrought thereby. The ‘technology’ refers
to the application of knowledge to the making of tools and the utilization of natural
resources (Schaefer and Lam, 1992). It involves the creation of material instruments (such
as machines) used in human interaction with nature. It is not synonymous with machinery
as it is understood in common parlance. Machines are the result of the knowledge gained
by science but they themselves are not technology.
Factors of Cultural Change
There are main factors of cultural change:
Contact:

23. The contact between two societies will obviously change the culture of both the societies
through the process of “cultural diffusion” and “acculturation”.
Technology Evolution:
Any technological evolution in the country will bring a change their culture also. For
example, changes in production technology, changes in the means of communication,
changes in the means of transportation, etc.
The geographical and ecological factor:
The geographical and ecological factor is a natural or a physical factor. The climate or
rainfall, attitude of the place, closeness to the sea decides the culture and lifestyle of the
people. Any change in the physical features will automatically lead to a change in their
culture, habits and way of living.
Leadership Change:
Authors such as Beer (2012), Christopher (2012) and Morgan (2012) agree that changes in
top level management can result in changes in organizational culture. According to Beer
(2012), initially, organizational culture is set by the founder of the organization, but the
initial culture set by founders might be subjected to changes due to the impact of a wide
range of factors. At the same time, Beer (2012) acknowledges that this argument relates
to private sector organizations at a greater extent compared to public sector organizations.
Nevertheless, Beer (2012) and Christopher (2012) argue that change at organizational
leadership causes changes to organizational culture to a certain extent. Christopher (2012)
further reasons that the extent to which organizationalculture is subjected to change to
due to change in leadership depends on a set of factors such as the difference between
the new and old strategy to achieve organizational objectives, personal traits and
characteristics of a new leader etc.
Technological Developments:
The extent of technological developments that have especially accelerated during the last
two decades have been found as a major factor causing cultural changes by Maude

24. (2011) and Davel et al. (2013). Maude (2011) mentions the instances of using mobile
phones in public to illustrate the impact of this factor. Specifically, according to Maude
(2011) while it was perceived to be a rather rude behavior to engage in lengthy
conversations in mobile phones in public places such as public transport only twenty years
ago, nowadays such behavior is generally perceived to be normal.
Walshe and Smith (2011) discuss the issue of technological developments impacting
organizationalculture within the settings of healthcare organizations in particular. Walshe
and Smith (2011) argue that emergence of possibility of making online appointments to
see practitioners instead of having to call or physically attend healthcare organizations
have caused substantial changes in the practices of healthcare organisations with
inevitable implications on organizationalculture.
Mergers and Acquisitions:
Mergers and acquisitions as triggers of organizationalculture have been mentioned by
Moran et al. (2011) and Christopher (2012). It is important to note that mergers and
acquisitions mainly relate to private sector organizations, nevertheless analysis of impact
of mergers and acquisitions to organizationalculture contributes to the scope of the
literature review.
Moran et al. (2011) consider an initial period after a merger or acquisition to be the most
challenging for employees at all levels due to the possible clash of cultures in relation to
various organizational processes. However, Moran et al. (2011) consider this issue to be
temporary and state that a hybrid culture may evolve after certain period of time once
merger and acquisition is completed.
According to Christopher (2012), the level of effectiveness of organizational leaders play
critical role in shaping the impact of mergers and acquisitions in organizationalculture. In
other words, Christopher (2012) argues that leaders need to be actively communicating
with employees at all levels, as well as, other organizational stakeholders explaining
inevitable impact of mergers and acquisitions on organizational culture, and trying to make
this impact positive.

25. Changes in External Environnent:
Primecz et al. (2011), Velo (2012) and Morgan (2012) specify changes in external
environment as factor that may cause organizational cultures to change. Primecz et al.
(2011) argue that changes to external environment that may trigger changes in
organizationalculture may relate to changes in political, economic, social, technological,
environmental, or legal external factors, abbreviated as PESTEL analysis.
A change in the environment:
If the weather changes long enough, the climate will change. That affects the kinds of food
people eat, the clothes they wear, and the way they make a living.
A new idea:
People used to take nature for granted. Since the 1950s, people all over the world have
become concerned about the environment. People now recycle, work to protect
endangered species, preserve forests, and conserve natural resources.
Causes of Cultural Changes
David Dressier and Donald Carns have made the following observations with regard to the
causes of cultural changes:
1. Sometimes members of a society are often confronted by customs that differ from
those which they have learnt to accept. In such a situation they adopt some of the new
customs, reject others, and follow modified versions of still others. This might be called
cultural eclecticism.
2. New customs and practices are likely to be more readily adopted under two conditions
(i) If they represent what is viewed as socially desirable and useful and

26. (ii) If they do not clash with re-existed and still valued customs and practices.
3. Changes in culture are always super imposed on existing culture especially during
cultural contact.
4. All the cultural changes are not equally important. Some changes are introduced to
culture because they are considered necessary for human survival. Some other changes
are accepted in order to satisfy socially acquired needs not essential for survival.
5. It is a fact of common observation that crisis tends to produce or accelerate cultural
changes. If the changes are accepted once due to the crisis, they tend to persist. For
example, women were included in military during the Second World War, and even now
they continue to be there.
6. Cultural change is cumulative in its total effect. Much is added and little is lost. It’s
growth is like the growth of a tree that ever expands but only loses it leaves, Sometimes its
limbs from time to time, as long as it survives.
7. Cultural change leads to chain reaction, whenever a change is incorporated into the
culture and becomes defined as a ‘social necessity’, new needs emerge, generating the
desire for still further changes to complement or supplement the original change.
Languageand culturechange

27. It is common wisdom that language is culturally embedded. Cultural change is often
accompanied by a change in idiom, in language or in ideas about language. No period
serves as a better example of the formative influence of language on culture than the
Renaissance. With the advent of humanism new modes of speaking and writing arose. But
not only did classical Latin become the paradigm of clear and elegant writing, it also gave
rise to new ideas about language and the teaching of it. Some scholars have argued that
the cultural paradigm shift from scholasticism to humanism was causally determined by
the rediscovery, study and emulation of the classical language, for learning a new
language opens up new possibilities for exploring and describing one's perceptions,
thoughts and beliefs. However, the vernacular traditions too rose to prominence and vied
with Latin for cultural prestige. This volume, number XXIV in the series «Groningen Studies
in Cultural Change», offers the papers presented at a workshop on language and cultural
change held in Groningen in February 2004. Ten specialists explore the multifarious ways
in which language contributed to the shaping of Renaissance culture. They discuss themes
such as the relationship between medieval and classical Latin, between Latin and the
vernacular, between humanist and scholastic conceptions of language and grammar,
translation from Latin into the vernacular, Jewish ideas about different kinds of Hebrew,
and shifting ideas on the power and limits of language in the articulation of truth and
divine wisdom. There are essays on major thinkers such as Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo
Bruni, but also on less well-known figures and texts. The volume as a whole hopes to
contribute to a deeper understanding of the highly complex interplay between language
and culture in the transition period between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Transmission of language and culture
Language is transmitted culturally; that is, it is learned. To a lesser extent it is taught, when
parents, for example, deliberately encourage their children to talk and to respond to talk,
correct their mistakes, and enlarge their vocabulary. But it must be emphasized that
children very largely acquire their first language by “grammar construction” from exposure
to a random collection of utterances that they encounter. What is classed as language
teaching in school either relates to second-language acquisition or, insofar as it concerns
the pupils’ first language, is in the main directed at reading and writing, the study of
literature, formal grammar, and alleged standards of correctness, which may not be those

28. of all the pupils’ regional or social dialects. All of what goes under the title of language
teaching at school presupposes and relies on the prior knowledge of a first language in its
basic vocabulary and essential structure, acquired before school age.
If language is transmitted as part of culture, it is no less true that culture as a whole is
transmitted very largely through language, insofar as it is explicitly taught. The fact that
humankind has a history in the sense that animals do not is entirely the result of language.
So far as researchers can tell, animals learn through spontaneous imitation or through
imitation taught by other animals. This does not exclude the performance of quite complex
and substantial pieces of cooperative physical work, such as a beaver’s dam or an ant’s
nest, nor does it preclude the intricate social organization of some species, such as bees.
But it does mean that changes in organization and work will be the gradual result
of mutation cumulatively reinforced by survival value; those groups whose behavior altered
in any way that increased their security from predators or from famine would survive in
greater numbers than others. This would be an extremely slow process, comparable to
the evolution of the different species themselves.