This research paper explores the crucial role of emotional intelligence (EI) in the work of interpreters, emphasizing its significant impact on managing clients' expectations and job satisfaction. The study employs both quantitative and qualitative methods, revealing that interpreters generally possess an average level of EI, but those with higher EI traits perform better under pressure. The findings suggest that incorporating EI into interpreter training could enhance performance and well-being in interpreting settings.

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Interpreters and Emotional Intelligence
How do we use it and why does it matter?
by Diana Singureanu
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments 2
Abstract 3
Chapter I. Introduction 4
Chapter II. Literature Review 7
Chapter III. Methodology 13
Chapter IV. Findings 20
Chapter V. Discussion 33
Chapter VI. Conclusion 40
References 45
Annex 1 – Sample TEIQue Test 48
Annex 2 – Sample EI report for TEIQue Test 53
Annex 3 – Questions for interviews 72
Annex 4 – First page of 12 EI reports with the score of the EI Tests 77
Annex 5 – (Tables with EI Test Results) 90
Annex 6 – CD with Transcriptions of six interviews 92

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Acknowledgments
I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to the 12 respondents and especially to the
six interpreters interviewed, who kindly gave their time to share their professional
experiences and their personal opinions.
I would also like to thank Max Zanotti my supervisor at London Metropolitan
University for his continuous help and guidance and for his helpful feedback as well as to the
Module Leader, Udo Jorg, for his support.
Thank you to you all,
Diana Singureanu

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Abstract
This research paper aims at highlighting the importance of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the
work of interpreters. Firstly the concept of EI is defined and a review of the relevant literature
undertaken focusing on more-recent studies that are closely related to Interpreting studies,
namely Sign Language Interpreting and Translation Studies. Then, using quantitative and
qualitative research methods consisting of EI tests (TEIQue) and interviews with Conference
and Public Service Interpreters who took part in this study, the author presents evidence that,
overall, interpreters have an average level of Emotional Intelligence. Also those respondents
who scored higher for EI traits such as Emotion Regulation, Self-Motivation, Adaptability
and Stress Management seemed to be better at managing clients’ expectations and driven by
their inner standards rather than external factors; they adjusted well to stressful or unexpected
work situations and enjoyed greater job satisfaction. Exploring the significance of individual
traits of interpreters and the impact on their work, the author believes that this research paper
makes a good case for the study of EI in Interpreting Studies and for EI to be incorporated in
the training of interpreters.

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Chapter I
Introduction
1.1 Rationale
Given the cross-disciplinary nature of interpreting studies (Roy and Metzger, 2014) we have
recently witnessed an increased interest in inter-disciplinary studies: psycholinguistics and
interpreting studies (Chmiel, 2010) and sociolinguistics and interpreting studies (Roy and
Metzger, 2014). Thus, analysing the process of interpreting from various perspectives, such
as social or psychological, will help interpreters, interpreter trainers and end users of
interpreting services to gain a better understanding of the process of interpreting and answer
some of the ongoing questions: “Can anyone be trained as an interpreter?” (Hubscher-
Davidson, 2013), “To what extent does foreign language anxiety affect students’
performance?” (Laripour and Nejad, 2013), “What are the personality characteristics of
Conference Interpreting trainees?” (Schweda Nicholson, 2005), “Who’s got the right stuff? Is
there such a thing as an ideal personality profile for interpreters?” (Hof, 2013).
The present study grew out of the author’s interest in explaining why interpreters
behave the way they do: why perfectly good interpreters succumb when faced with stressful
situations whilst others thrive under pressure and need the adrenalin to perform better, why
some interpreters are more comfortable with our ‘invisible’ role whilst others are keen to
interact and make their presence felt. And last but not least, given these individual differences
and the unique nature of interpreting settings as working environments, do we self-select for
the interpreting career? (Schweda Nicholson, 2005, p. 119). Therefore an inter-disciplinary
study between interpreting studies and psychology was considered appropriate and, going
beyond the more traditional notion of personality, the author has adopted a more scientific
approach using the concept of Emotional Intelligence to explain these individual differences.
1.2 Dissertation aims and objectives
As Schweda Nicholson rightly observed, scholars, interpreter trainers and practitioners have
wondered for many years what are the ideal personality traits of a good interpreter (Schweda
Nicholson, 2005, p. 113). Thus, considering the intensity of the effort involved (Seleskovitch,
1978, pp. 122–123) it is important for interpreters to be able to perform adequately under
pressure and to have self-control. More recently the concept of soft skills is often quoted in
connection with the key skills one needs to become a Conference Interpreter and among those

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listed on the AIIC (The International Association of Conference Interpreters) website it is
worth mentioning the following: calm nerves, tact, judgment, and a sense of humour and
curiosity. Also, working as a PSI in the UK Police and Court settings seems to be even more
stressful owing to the gap between the prescriptive Codes of Conduct governing the
profession of PSIs in the UK and the unpredictable working environment, leaving the
interpreters faced with numerous ethical dilemmas (Kaczmarek, 2012, p. 237). Some of these
soft skills are obviously closely linked to personality. Hence, considering that Emotional
Intelligence traits are located at the lower level of personality hierarchies (Petrides, Pita and
Kokkinaki, 2007) it becomes immediately obvious why a study of EI traits in a population
sample consisting of interpreters could shed some light on this topic.
The aim of this study is to increase the awareness of the role of EI in Interpreting
studies, as this would be beneficial to interpreters and interpreter users alike. The construct of
Emotional Intelligence is still under-researched in Interpreting studies and the fact that the
existing literature is limited to Translation studies (Hubscher-Davidson, 2007, 2009, 2013)
and Sign Language Interpreters (Bontempo and Napier, 2011; Bontempo et al, 2014) makes a
good case for an empirical study concerned specifically with Conference Interpreters and
Public Service Interpreters. It is noteworthy that the aforementioned studies have opened new
interesting avenues for further research and this present study builds on Hubscher-Davidson's
article “Emotional Intelligence and Translations Studies. A New Bridge” (2013),
recommending a mixed-method approach to studying the Emotional Intelligence of
interpreters.
The current author, in her attempt to cut across boundaries, chose to use the TEIQue
tests designed by K.V. Petrides to measure the level of EI of both Public Service Interpreters
and Conference Interpreters because a large number of previous studies in this area have
found the test as being reliable and valid (Jaeger, 2003; Uva, M.C. de S. et al, 2009). Also
translated versions of this test were used successfully on a French-speaking population
(Mikolajczak et al, 2007) and on a German-speaking sample (Freudenthaler et al, 2008)
indicating “modest but promising findings in favour of the validity and usefulness of the
TEIQue” (Mikolajczak et al, 2007, p. 350).
Thus the population sample in this study, consisting of six qualified Conference
Interpreters and six Public Service Interpreters (Registered Public Service Interpreters) filled
in a self-report questionnaire (TEIQue – full form) in order to have their level of EI assessed.
It was the researcher’s intention to focus on the interpreter rather than on the interpreting
process itself and therefore an approach in the form of semi-structured in-depth interviews

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was considered appropriate. Some of the interpreters tested were also available for interviews
and the author draws on this qualitative research to show how interpreters use Emotional
Intelligence in their work and which emotional traits in particular are beneficial or
detrimental to their performance and well-being. The differences in terms of training and
working environment between PSI and CI are addressed in light of the existing literature and
also from the perspective of those interviewed as part of the research carried out for the
present study but this is not the main aim of this study.
1.3 Dissertation structure
This dissertation comprises six chapters.
The first chapter consists of an introduction presenting an overview of the topic and
the reason the researcher considered it was worth investigating, the approach used and the
main aims and objectives of this study.
Chapter two reviews the literature relevant to the topic of Emotional Intelligence in
general – giving a definition and relevant background information – and then more
specifically to Interpreting studies.
Chapter three discusses the research methods used to measure the level of Emotional
Intelligence of 12 interpreters. It also discusses a study comprising six semi-structured
interviews in order to verify the relevance of EI in interpreting studies and to potentially
identify more hypotheses for further research.
Chapter four presents the findings and the limitations of the EI tests and of the
interviews.
Chapter five discusses the findings in the light of the literature reviewed.
In chapter six, conclusions are drawn regarding to the relevance of investigating
Emotional Intelligence within the context of interpreting studies and some recommendations
are made as to whether EI can be enhanced. It also presents the researcher’s reflections on the
results obtained, the initial expectations, what the main challenges were, and offers
recommendations for further research.

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Chapter II
Literature Review
2.1 Evolution and definition of Emotional Intelligence
The concept of Emotional Intelligence has gained momentum in the last few decades partly
owing to popular psychology and self-help books capitalizing on the extensive scientific
research carried out in this respect, and partly owing to the fact that it seems to be equally
applicable to education, recruitment processes and mental health (Petrides, Furnham and
Martin, 2004, p. 576). The truth of the matter is that few of us actually know the vast and
assiduous research behind the construct or that in fact it has little to do with general
intelligence, being closely linked to personality (Petrides, Pita and Kokkinaki, 2007, p. 287).
Therefore it is crucial to make a clear distinction between quasi-academic and
scientific definitions. Thus a search in the Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Psychology (Davey,
2005, p. 306) reveals that EI emerged from the construct of social psychology coined by
Thorndike in 1920 and from Gardner’s interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences in 1983
(Thorndike, 1920; Gardner, 1983).
Even though the term Emotional Intelligence had appeared before in the literature, the
first formal definition was given in 1990 by Salovey and Mayer: “the ability to monitor one’s
own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990, p. 189). In 19951
the term became popular due to the Goleman’s bestselling book advertised as “the
groundbreaking book that redefines what it means to be smart” (Goleman, 1996). Although it
was never meant to be an academic paper it did influence some of the subsequent models of
EI, and perhaps Goleman's most innovative idea was that EI can be nurtured and
strengthened.
But of course the concept had to be operationalized and the issue of measurement
caused a lot of confusion and led to mixed results. The question was whether to use
maximum performance tests or self-report inventories, as this influenced significantly the
empirical findings. Not until in 2001 did Petrides and Furnham propose a conceptual
distinction: ability EI (or cognitive-emotional ability measured via maximum performance
tests similar to IQ tests) and Trait EI (emotional self-efficacy measured via personality
questionnaires) (Petrides and Furnham, 2001).
1 “Emotional Intelligence” by Daniel Goleman was first published in US in 1995 and in Great Britain in 1996

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Since then researchers have tested both constructs and it appears that measuring
ability EI is more problematic, because similar to IQ testing the response of the participant
has to be compared to a correct option established by an expert rather than by a majority in a
normative sample according to the general consensus for scoring criteria. And yet the ability
EI test (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence test) seems to be widely used, as it
corresponds to the conceptualization that EI is an ability closely related to mental skills.
However the other school of thought takes the view that trait EI is a distinct construct that lies
at the lower level of personality hierarchies and that it is consistent with other models of
personality such as the Big Five2 (Petrides, Pita and Kokkinaki, 2007).
It is important to mention that both schools have their supporters, although empirical
studies have reported problems with both EI models. Thus, the main issue that arises in
respect to EI trait tests is that being based on self-report questionnaires they are considered
structurally biased. And indeed tests measuring EI ability are more difficult to fake, but the
operationalization of this model recorded numerous difficulties, because despite the
hypothesis that EI should be regarded as a standard intelligence (Mayer et al, 2001, pp. 232–
240), the correlations between EI and IQ were lower than expected (Petrides, Furnham and
Frederickson, 2004, p. 575). Despite these limitations, the present researcher believes that
further investigation into Emotional Intelligence within the field of Interpreting studies is
relevant not only for both practitioners and interpreter trainers, but also for end users.
2.2 Emotional Intelligence and performance
As previously mentioned Goleman is considered to have launched this field of study due to
his controversial view that EI can matter more than IQ and that it can lead to personal and
professional success (Goleman, 1996). Of course this raised the interest of the general public,
but it also raised the interest of academics, managers and teachers hoping to have found the
Holy Grail in their quest for personal and professional success.
Thus in 1998 Laura Thi Lam, as part of her research for her PhD thesis in Psychology
(Lam, 1998), tested Bell Labs engineers and Metlife insurance agents using the Multifactor
Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) designed by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso and correlated
the results of the EI test with general intelligence tests. She found that overall Emotional
Intelligence is correlated to performance in general intelligence tests. A second study Lam
2 The"big five" refers to five categories of personality traits:extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism,
openness. Despitea considerable body of literature in favour of this model of personality, theactual labels of these five
categories have been the subject of controversy among researchers.

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carried out together with Susan L. Kirby in 2002 using the same MEIS scale showed that
“overall Emotional Intelligence, emotional perception and emotion regulation uniquely
explained individual cognitive-based performance over and beyond the level attributable to
general intelligence” (Lam and Kirby, 2002, p. 133). They conclude however that MEIS
needs to be analysed further as a psychometric tool. And indeed in 2002 Mayer, Salovey and
Caruso designed a new ability test of EI named MSCEIT3 with various versions signalling,
however, that despite the fact that empirical research might never fully solve all the
theoretical problems regarding EI, future studies will prove the value of this testing method
(Mayer et al, 2001, p. 104).
Education policy-makers in the United States and in the United Kingdom adopted
Emotional Intelligence in their field of work (Qualter, Gardner and Whitely, 2007). Thus, an
interesting study carried out on pupils transitioning from primary school to secondary school
in the UK showed a link between pupils’ level of EI and their ability to cope with the
transition. Additionally, there was evidence that pupils who had a low EI score and who were
then the subject of an “active intervention strategy” developed their EI skills. (Qualter et al,
2007).
A more recent study (Laripour and Nejad, 2013) investigated the correlation between
foreign language anxiety and Emotional Intelligence among 150 EFL students from Bandar
Abbas University in Iran. To test their EI level, self-report questionnaires were used and it
was shown that the foreign-language learners who had a high Emotional Intelligence
Quotient experienced anxiety to a lesser degree. It is worth mentioning that the last two
studies were carried out using the Bar-On test which is designed for use with children and
adolescents and which is also based on self-report similar to Petrides’ TEIQue tests thus
supporting the school of thought that EI is a constellation of lower level personality traits
(Petrides, Pita and Kokkinaki, 2007).
2.3 Emotional Intelligence and interpreting studies
This is a fairly recent direction in interpreting studies which seems to have borrowed this line
of interest from Translation Studies (Hubscher-Davidson, 2013). Hubscher-Davidson found
that there is a positive link between creativity and better performance in students specializing
in literary translation. She also extrapolated the findings, suggesting that interpreters would
also benefit from a similar research in the sense that end users and clients would gain a better
3 MSCEIT is an ability-basedtest designedtomeasure thefour branches of the EImodel ofMayer andSalovey, namelyperceiving
emotions, facilitatingthought, understandingemotions, managingemotions.

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understanding of the interpreting process.
However, there is some relevant background in Interpreting studies as well. For
example, in 2005 Schweda Nicholson researched a very similar topic: “Personality
characteristics of interpreter trainees” using MBTI4 hypothesizing that many interpreters will
be extrovert (preference for variety, versatility, knack for communicating) intuitive (curiosity,
open mindedness), thinking (concentration, arrogance, analysis skills, ability to remain cool
under pressure) and judging (decisive, self-confident, strong in their convictions, self-
controlled) with the mention that the majority of interpreters in her population sample
consisted of women and in general two-thirds of women are the feeling type (sensitive, seek
harmony, work well in a team) in comparison to men (one-third). She concludes however that
her findings indicate that interpreters’ personality profiles are in fact very varied, with an
equal number of introverts and extroverts (Schweda Nicholson, 2005, p. 136).
The construct of Emotional Intelligence is still under-researched in Interpreting
studies except for the work carried out by Karen Bontempo in the field of Sign Language
Interpreting, but it is obvious that PSI and CI would also benefit from a similar inter-
disciplinary research. Thus, in her paper “Does Personality Matter?” Bontempo (Bontempo et
al, 2014, p. 39) found that competent Sign Language interpreters have higher self-esteem, are
more emotionally stable and are more open to new experiences, and undoubtedly these traits
are relevant to the work of Public Service Interpreters and Conference interpreters as well. It
is important to mention that this was the largest international study ever undertaken on Sign
Language Interpreters with 2193 respondents across 38 countries. Bontempo used in her
questionnaire the constructs of perfectionism and self-esteem and ‘The Big Five’ (openness to
experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism) which is a
personality test proven to correlate well with the model trait EI (Vernon et al 2008, pp. 525–
530).
The relevance of this topic to Interpreting studies is emphasized by AIIC stating that
Emotional Intelligence – being part of non-verbal communication – plays an important role:
“The Emotional Quotient and the Intelligence Quotient are two different notions. However, in
the act of interpreting, they join together. Thus, the interpretive process is not only a rational,
cognitive activity, but also involves emotions, which are associated with ideas” (Besson et al.,
4 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designedtomeasure psychological preferences in
howpeople perceivethe worldandmakedecisions.Thesepreferences were extrapolatedby Katharine CookBriggs andIsabel Briggs Myers
from thetypological theories proposedby Carl Gustav Jung and first published in his 1921 book Psychological Types (English edition,
1923). (Wikipedia, accessed on 1 July 2014)

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2012). Therefore, professional interpreters must pay attention and perceive the speaker’s
body signals, facial expression and his/her intonation to be able to identify and transfer “the
true meaning of words” (Besson et al., 2012). Furthermore, the AIIC Code of Ethics (2012, p.
2) stipulates that a member has a duty “to afford their colleagues moral assistance and
collegiality” which translates in terms of Emotional Intelligence as emotion management,
empathy and social awareness. Similarly, the DPSI (Diploma in Public Service Interpreting)
handbook (IoL Educational Trust, 2010, p. 11) lists as one of the assessment criteria for the
exam that the candidate’s delivery should reflect the tone, emotion and non-verbal signs
appropriate to the situation and also display a confident manner. Although here the technical
term of Emotional Intelligence is not clearly mentioned on the AIIC website, it is very easy to
recognize some of the Emotional Traits coined by Petrides, such as Emotion perception,
Emotion expression, Adaptability, Self-esteem. Thus, the fact that in order to pass the entry
exam for the DPSI, a candidate must also demonstrate possession of these soft skills together
with good language command, clearly attests to the relevance and applicability of Emotional
Intelligence in Interpreting studies.
It is also worth mentioning that the NRPSI (National Register of Public Service
Interpreters) Code of Conduct (2011, p. 5) stipulates at point 5.9 that “Practitioners carrying
out work as Public Service Interpreters, or in other contexts where the requirement for
neutrality between parties is absolute, shall not enter into discussion, give advice or express
opinions or reactions to any of the parties that exceed their duties as interpreters”. At first
sight it seems to be only referring to impartiality, but a deeper analysis shows that in fact this
paragraph acknowledges the difficulty in expressing feelings and thoughts which are not
one’s own due to the interpreter’s “suppression of ego” (Schweda Nicholson, 2005, p. 112).
Thus, the Public Service Interpreter needs to distance himself/herself professionally, which
ultimately means self-control (emotion regulation, impulse control and stress management).
This is especially true if the situation is emotionally challenging and out of empathy the
interpreter finds it difficult to filter out his/her own emotional reaction to that given situation.
Therefore it can be concluded that clearly NRPSI interpreters are required to possess at least
some of the EI traits mentioned earlier, namely a good level of stress management, emotion
management and emotion regulation
This need for detachment as a prerequisite of the interpreting task was also
highlighted in a survey on quality and the interpreter’s role in the communication process
carried out in 2008 by the Centre for Translation Studies from University of Vienna
(Zwischenberger and Pöchhacker, 2010). Out of the approximately 2500 respondents – AIIC

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members – the majority agreed with the following statement: “My professional distance as an
interpreter keeps me from being influenced by emotional events in the meeting room”;
however, the younger the age group the more they disagreed with the statement. With regard
to Public Service Interpreters, Hale showed that the responses given by medical practitioners
to a survey support the same point: “the most detached (interpreters) are seen as the most
competent (Hale, 2007, pp. 146-161), with one (medical practitioner) stating that those too
eager to help do not show professionalism” (Hale, 2007, p. 148).
In December 2013 Hubscher-Davidson organized a webinar on Emotional
Intelligence in the Translation/Interpreting Workplace and her main questions were whether
translators and interpreters need EI, how they use it in their work and whether it can be
enhanced. Having briefly explained what EI means and what emotional traits are as coined by
Petrides, Hubscher-Davidson gave relevant examples from interpreters' and translators'
everyday work, and interestingly the small survey she carried out at the end indicated the
70% of the participants thought that EI was useful in their line of work.
Thus, it can be seen that although Emotional Intelligence is under-researched in
Interpreting Studies and related disciplines there are numerous calls for this area to be further
investigated. The value of scientifically researching the link between EI and interpreters’
performance is that it would bring light to a wide range of issues, such as why and how
interpreters can cope with the stressful nature of their profession, and this could also be
incorporated into their formal training. It would also help to provide a better understanding of
how interpreters work and ultimately how better to work with them.

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Chapter III
Methodology
3.1 A Mixed approach
As previously explained, the author explores the significance of individual traits of
interpreters and the impact on their work. For this purpose a mixed approach has been used,
consisting of both quantitative data and qualitative data. The quantitative data represents the
empirical investigation stage of this research. The author is borrowing the theory and tools of
measuring trait EI from the field of psychology to add rigour to the methodology. A group of
12 interpreters made up of six qualified Conference Interpreters and six qualified Public
Service Interpreters was selected for this purpose and they will be referred to as a population
sample or respondents. The second stage of the research is the interviewing of some of the
interpreters tested – the only selection criteria being their availability, to avoid any potential
bias based on the EI score obtained. The interviews represent the qualitative data and they
were semi-structured in order to allow interpreters more freedom to elaborate on any aspects
of Emotional Intelligence pertinent to their work which perhaps the author had not thought
of. Thus, the methodology consists of a mixed approach: collecting qualitative and
quantitative data, and then doing a cross analysis and interpreting these data.
3.2 Quantitative data
3.2.1 Why the TEIQue?
The first step was to identify an appropriate measurement methodology in order to “quantify”
and illustrate the Emotional Intelligence Quotient of interpreters. Reviewing the existing
literature, the author found that there are two main schools of thought – Emotional
Intelligence Ability and Trait Emotional Intelligence. Further reading showed that both have
specific tools designed to measure either EI as a cognitive-emotional ability (Mayer et al,
2001) or trait EI which is based on the subjective nature of Emotional Intelligence (Petrides,
Pita and Kokkinaki, 2007). Thus for ability EI the most marketed and researched tool is
MSCEIT (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) or its earlier version from
2002, and for trait EI the TEIQue test designed by K.V. Petrides. However, as previously
mentioned in the Introduction, the author of this research paper intends to focus on the

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interpreter (how interpreters see themselves and the people they work with in the course of
their work) rather than on the interpreting process itself; therefore the TEIQue test was
considered to be more appropriate for the scope of this research.
The full form of the TEIQue V 1.50 test used in this research is part of a set of tests
based exclusively on trait EI theory. The other versions are either designed for children and
adolescents or they are aimed at assessing a targeted individual. The test (please see Annex 1
for a sample of the test) consists of 153 statements and for each there are seven possible
answers ranging from 1= Completely Disagree to 7 = Completely Agree. It is important to
highlight that this TEIQue test is based on an extensive self-report questionnaire and as such
the construct of “trait EI” or “emotional self-efficacy” preferred by Petrides (Petrides,
Furnham and Martin, 2004, p. 575) will be operationalized as a personality trait. Once the
TEIQue questionnaire is complete, the answers are compared with a reference group
(approximately 1800 people that are representative of the UK working population) who took
the same test. The TEIQue test itself is available free on the London Psychometric Laboratory
website; however, the scoring of the test is not. In order for the tests to be scored the author
needed to have access to the Psychometric Lab database to enter the data and to draw the
detailed reports interpreting the scores of the participants. Therefore, the author contacted the
Laboratory at the email address (admin@teique.com) available on the website:
www.psychometriclab.com. K.V. Petrides replied and kindly put the author in touch with
Jayson Darby, a Psychology Project Coordinator who assisted the author to introduce the 12
questionnaires completed by respondents into their system and to draw up the relevant reports
(please see Annex 2 for a sample report).
Thus, this stage of the research focuses on the personality traits of interpreters,
attempting to establish a link between a higher level of EI traits and a penchant for a career in
interpreting and to identify what particular EI traits are more relevant to the work of an
interpreter. The technical term for personality traits is facets and the table below gives a
description of their components (Petrides, 2011, p. 662):
Facets High scorers view themselves as...
Adaptability ... flexible and willing to adapt to new conditions.
Assertiveness ...forthright, frank and willing to stand up for their rights.
Emotion expression ...capable of communicating their feelings to others.
Emotion management (others) ...capable of influencing other people’s feelings.
Emotion perception (self and
others)
...clear about their own and other people’s feelings.
Emotion regulation ...capable of controlling their emotions.
Impulsiveness (low) ...reflective and less likely to give in to their urges.

15. 15
Relationships ...capable of maintaining fulfilling personal relationships.
Self-esteem ...successful and self-confident.
Self-motivation ...driven and unlikely to give up in the face of adversity.
Social awareness ...accomplished networkers with superior social skills.
Stress management ...capable of withstanding pressure and regulating stress.
Trait empathy ...capable of taking someone else’s perspective.
Trait happiness ...cheerful and satisfied with their lives.
Trait optimism ...confident and likely to “look on the bright side of life”.
Table 1. Description of facets
These traits are grouped into the following main factors: Sociability, Emotionality, Self-
Control, and Well-being, plus two independent facets that do not contribute to any of these
factors: Adaptability and Self-motivation. The author’s hypothesis is that given the human
interaction aspect of interpreting as a profession – perhaps even more so in the case of Public
Service Interpreters who due to the nature of their work are closer to the most private spheres
of people’s lives – interpreters need an average or above-average level of EI to be able to
understand the meaning behind words, to express emotions, to control their own reactions
when they threaten to overwhelm, to understand what clients and end users expect from them
in a very dynamic and demanding work environment and sometimes (maybe more often than
one might think) in extraordinary circumstances.
The quantitative data is more important in theoretical terms because it employs the
theory of measuring EI traits in order to collect numerical data from the 12 participants,
adding scientific rigour to this paper. However, on its own it could not have provided a
detailed analysis, which is why semi-structured in-depth interviews were used allowing the
researcher to confirm or follow up on the empirical findings of the tests. The questions
prepared in advance for the interview, which were meant to serve only as a guide for the
interview, were drawn up after the results of the tests were gathered, including the
demographic details contained in the final section of the test.
3.2.2 Population sample
The more general term of interpreter used in this paper refers both to Public Service
Interpreters and Conference Interpreters, as these are the two main categories of interpreters
in the UK requiring a formal qualification and training, usually a postgraduate or master's
degree or Masters in Conference Interpreting for the former, and a Diploma in Public Service
Interpreting for the latter. Although the term of interpreter as such does not have protection of
title in the UK, it is generally considered that the term qualified CI or PSI entails that that
practitioner holds one of the above qualifications. Also, from the perspective of the author,

16. 16
who is transitioning from a career in Public Service Interpreting to one in Conference
Interpreting, covering both types of Interpreting in this paper meant that she could draw on
her work experience and theoretical knowledge when drafting the questions and when
analysing the qualitative data of the interviews.
Another important aspect that had to be taken into account was the gender differences
reported with EI tests in general, namely that women tend to overestimate their level of
Emotional Intelligence (Petrides, Furnham and Martin, 2004, p. 159). Therefore the author
thought it was important to take this factor into account and ensure that an equal number of
male and female interpreters took part in the study. Thus the population sample consists of
three female CIs, three male CIs, three female PSIs and three male PSIs in order to increase
the reliability of the results in terms of gender balance.
The initial selection criterion was to randomly choose interpreters from the directory
list of AIIC and ITI (Institute of Translators and Interpreters) for Conference Interpreters;
these are the two main regulatory bodies for qualified Conference Interpreters, well-known
for their rigorous membership selection criteria. The author sent out 150 emails containing a
short proposal of this paper requesting interpreters’ assistance with filling in the TEIQue
questionnaire and confirming that their personal data would remain confidential. This
approach was meant to ensure a certain level of objectivity and also a more diverse cultural
background. Unfortunately given the fact that the test itself is quite long, taking around 25
minutes to complete, the response received was very limited: only two interpreters replied
that they would be interested in taking part in the study. As a result, the author approached
part-time Language Tutors from London Metropolitan University and Senior Lecturers who
also work as Conference Interpreters and who are members of AIIC or ITI, or both in some
cases. Thus, in respect of cultural diversity, the participants in the quantitative research were
native speakers of German, Romanian, Latvian, English, Chinese, Maltese, Polish and
French. Arguably the final targeted selection may be a limitation to the study; however, what
was lost in objectivity at the level of quantitative research was surely gained in depth during
the interviews, given the rapport between the interviewee and the interviewer.
As a result of the low response rate experienced with CIs, the author used a different
but similar strategy with Public Service Interpreters. Thus, for the PSI sample of population
the selection criteria were based on a survey (Singureanu et al., 2013) carried out in the first
semester of the MACI 2013 course. At the time, the survey was posted in a closed group on
Facebook and it covered the same area of Emotional Intelligence as this paper, specifically

17. 17
asking whether PSIs need EI as part of their work. Thus the author contacted the interpreters
who showed an interest in the topic at the time and indeed the response rate was higher than
in the case of CI, mainly because of the previous rapport with the respondents (the fact that as
members of the group they have a common interest) but also because the topic was relevant
to their profession. Unfortunately due to financial restrictions the author could not select a
larger sample, although many more PSI interpreters showed an interest in taking part in the
study. The time frame for the quantitative study was 20 April – 15 June 2014.
3.3 Qualitative data
3.3.1 Semi-structured interviews
The qualitative data consists of semi-structured interviews, offering a better understanding of
how interpreters use Emotional Intelligence in their work and which EI traits are particularly
relevant to their working environment, taking into account their individual differences. In this
sense, interviews are more important in practical terms, because an interviewee can be
considered as a case study in itself; however, used alone the data would have lacked a solid
scientific base.
Furthermore, using a semi-structured interview as opposed to a structured one would
provide more insight (Newton, 2010, p. 2) regarding the topic of how interpreters use EI in
their work. Therefore the author designed two versions of the interview schedules with
slightly different key questions, one set for CIs and one for PSIs (see Annex 3, pp. 72-77).
The questions are fairly similar because they are pertinent to both fields, for example: “As a
freelance interpreter how stable and/or predictable would you say your work environment
is?” “Is this a problem for you or do you enjoy it?” However, other questions were
specifically adapted to each type of interpreting, given the differences between the two:
Conference interpreters usually work in pairs in a booth, with the exception of business
meetings, whereas PSIs work mostly alone and face to face with their interlocutors and
usually within one or two areas of specialization such as legal and medical, as can be seen in
the example below:
CIs: “Considering that you have to work in a booth (which is quite a small space) with a
colleague whom you hardly know and you have to concentrate for hours and maintain a high
level of attention interpreting in an area which is not necessarily your cup of tea… how do
you motivate yourself?”

18. 18
PSIs: “Given that you have to concentrate for long (unsocial) hours and you work alone
(mostly) plus sometimes you work with different types of people (defendants who may be
drunk, frustrated or victims who are distressed)... how do you motivate yourself?”
More importantly the questions were designed after the quantitative data was collected and
they are grouped thematically around certain EI traits in which interpreters generally scored
higher during the first (quantitative) stage of the research. The majority of the questions are
open-ended, especially the introductory ones meant to break the ice and encourage the
interviewee to speak freely; however, some probing questions were introduced as well to help
guide the conversation, as in the example below:
“As a freelance interpreter how stable and/or predictable would say your work environment
is? Is this a problem for you or do you enjoy it?”
Although the questions were sent to the interviewees prior to the interviews (simply because
the majority explicitly asked for them) it was clearly explained in the email that they would
be used as prompts and that they were not required to think of potential answers in advance.
The six interviews were held either face to face or via Skype depending on each interviewee's
location and availability. The interviewees were native speakers of German, Romanian,
Latvian, English and Chinese. All the interviews were carried out in English, even when the
author shared the same mother tongue with two of the interviewees. Thus, it was the author’s
intention to distance herself from this cultural proximity and to ensure a constant level of
objectivity.
3.4 Use of interview material
The interviews covered six hours in total and they ranged between 45 minutes and 1 hour and
30 minutes and they were transcribed in full in English with some minor corrections to
improve clarity. These corrections are clearly signalled by square brackets […]. The full
transcriptions are contained in the accompanying CD (Annex 6). To ensure anonymity direct
quotes are referenced with the acronym of CI or PSI and female or male depending on the
case and a number: 1, 2 or 3, which is the order in which the EI test was taken, and they can
be easily cross-referenced with the table showing the EI scores at Annex 5. When text has
been left out from a direct quote, this is indicated with (…).
The information (personal details) contained in the final section of the EI test is

19. 19
collated in Table 2 below in order to give the reader an overview of the interpreters’ profiles.
Certain steps taken to ensure anonymity such as replacing the date of birth with an age group
cannot however guarantee the complete anonymity of the participants. Also other personal
details such as number of children, annual income or marital status were not used, as they
were not considered relevant for the purpose of this research (although they were required
when using the database of the Psychometric Laboratory for demographic statistics). Most
importantly however, the actual names of the participants are never used, and even the first
names which appear during the interviews are replaced with a short profile of the participant
as it appears in Table 2 below. For consistency reasons and triangulation analysis the same
profile is used in the EI score table (Annex 5) and charts. Additional personal details revealed
during the interview that might make it easier to identify the interviewees and consequently
match their identity to the EI score were also removed. However, some participants directly
referred to their score during the interview and as such it is considered that they have wilfully
exposed themselves to the risk of being identified and thus the use of this information cannot
be regarded as unethical. It is also worth mentioning that prior to the interview, the author
briefed the interviewees in an email that no direct reference to the EI score will be made
although they will be asked more general questions, e.g. whether they were surprised by the
result, whether they found the test useful and in what way.
Participant Age
group
Highest Educational
Qualification
Job Title Mother
tongue
Female CI 1 50-55 MA CI/ Tutor Romanian
Female CI 2 55-60 MA CI French
Female CI 3 50-55 BA CI German
Male CI 1 45-50 MA CI/ Tutor German
Male CI 2 30-35 MA CI / Education Director Chinese
Male CI 3 65-70 BA CI/ Tutor Maltese
Female PSI 1 45-50 DPSI Freelance interpreter Romanian
Female PSI 2 45-50 DPSI Freelance interpreter
Interpreting manager
Latvian
Female PSI 3 30-35 DPSI, MA Freelance interpreter Romanian
Male PSI 1 30-35 DPSI Freelance interpreter Polish
Male PSI 2 55-60 DipTrans, DPSI Freelance interpreter English
Male PSI 3 35-40 DPSI, MA Freelance interpreter Polish
Table 2. Additional information regarding the Respondents

20. 20
Chapter IV
Findings
4.1 Overview of the EI scores
All the scores obtained by participants were collected and gathered in a table (Annex 5). The
scores are grouped in two categories: PSIs and CIs and each individual score is listed for each
EI trait and then an average score is listed per group. It is important to clarify that percentages
provided by the individual reports (please see Annex 2 for a sample report) are not actually
percentages, they are percentiles – e.g. if a respondent scores 60% on Empathy it means that
his answers to Empathy questions suggest that he sees himself as more empathetic than 60%
of the UK working population – this places him in the 61st percentile for Empathy when
compared with the UK working population. To avoid confusion the author has removed the
percentage sign (%) and used only figures in this table.
Also when analysing the table at Annex 5 one can notice that the total score of a factor
is not the average of the respective traits, for example the factor Self-control for PSI Female 3
was 13 and the individual scores for the respective facets are as follows: Emotion regulation
– 20, Impulse control – 17 and Stress management – 20. To clarify this point the author raised
it during the meeting with Jayson Darby, a Psychology Project Coordinator at the
Psychometric Lab in London, and it was explained that scores on facets will not total to the
factor and more importantly, the factors will not total to the overall score exactly because
there is a subtle weighting in how the scores are calculated based on the statistical
relationship of each facet and factor with the overall score.
Another noteworthy aspect when analysing the table (Annex 5) is that women have
a higher overall score than men. But a closer look at Chart 1 below reveals that the difference
is negligible. Instead it is more relevant to point out that the majority of the female
participants scored particularly high with regard to traits Emotion perception, Emotion
expression and Emotion management and less in traits Impulse control and Stress
management, whereas men scored better for the Self-control factor and for trait Self-
motivation.

21. 21
Chart 1.Female interpreters versus Male interpreters
As previously mentioned, the participants were divided into two groups: CIs and PSIs.
Although the author does not specifically intend to compare the two categories, the
differences in terms of working environment, qualifications and skills required could not be
ignored and they had to be addressed separately.
Thus, in Chart 2 below it can be noted that the overall level of Emotional Intelligence
is slightly higher for PSIs than for CIs. Age did not seem to have a bearing on the EI score as
no positive or inverse relation could be established between the two.
Chart 2. CIs versus PSIs
This seems to contradict previous studies which showed a positive connection between age
and EI: the older the participant the higher the level of EI was found to be (Bii et al, 2012, p.
810).
However, a more-detailed analysis, illustrated in Chart 3 below, indicated that the
most significant differences relate to the Sociability factor, trait Self-motivation and the
Emotionality factor in that particular order. The fact that PSIs scored higher in trait self-

22. 22
motivation was considered to be relevant since they work alone for long unsocial hours and
this particular point was addressed during the interview when they were asked: “Given that
you have to concentrate for long (unsocial) hours and you work alone (mostly) plus
sometimes you work with different types of people (...) how do you motivate yourself?”
(Annex 3, Q7, p. 75).
Chart 3. Overview of factors CIs versus PSIs
In relation to the Sociability and Emotionality Factors it is important to consider their
respective traits, shown in Chart 4 below. Thus the most notable differences are observed
with regard to the traits Empathy, Emotion management and Assertiveness, whereas with
respect to Emotion perception and Emotion expression both groups obtained high and very
similar scores. Thus, it can be assumed that a higher level of Empathy and Emotion
management is more relevant in Public Service Interpreting where interpreters work face to
face with victims and defendants and are more exposed to emotionally charged situations;
again this issue was addressed during the interviews (Annex 3, Q. 11, p. 75).
Chart 4. Detailed comparison: PSIs versus CIs

23. 23
Although there are individual scores at both extremes the overall score in both groups is at
the upper limit of the average band and perhaps this is the most important finding of the
quantitative research.
4.2 Cross-analysis of the interviews and the EI scores
The interviews complement the findings of the quantitative research, putting them into the
context of the particularities of the interpreters’ working environment. Also, each interviewee
can be considered as a separate case study illustrating the impact of these individual
differences on their work from the perspective of the interpreters interviewed.
4.2.1 Well-being factor
The well-being factor is made up of three facets: happiness, optimism and self esteem,
women having overall scored higher than men, placing them in the 60th percentile compared
to men who are closer to the 40th percentile. The results of the tests show that both groups,
CIs and PSIs, have an average score which is closer to the upper limit, although in each group
three respondents obtained individually below-average scores, whilst three respondents
obtained above-average scores.
This variation is reflected in the interviews as well, e.g. Male CI 1 stated that working
as a freelancer is an advantage (Annex 6. Male CI 1, p. 2) and that he in fact prefers it
although he is aware that some of his colleagues complain about the lack of work and bad
rates of pay, but he does not see it that way. Female CI 1, despite achieving an above-average
score with regard to the optimism facet, had a rather negative perspective, saying that
“Nothing is certain if you are a freelancer, especially in this country … Yes. That is one of the
challenges. If this is your only source of income you cannot even survive.” (Annex 6. Female
CI 1, p. 3). Another interviewee, Female CI 3 also attests to the challenge of being a
freelancer, saying that despite enjoying “that kind of freedom about it …if I don’t have
anything in my diary … then I see it as a burden.” (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 1).
Overall, PSIs seem to be slightly less optimistic than CIs and all three interviews
mention the privatization of Police and Court Interpreting as a reason for concern:
“...freelance interpreters are very vulnerable regarding the work arrangement.” (Annex 6,
Female PSI 2, p. 1), “...since the contract with Capita5 was signed anyone can be an
5 The work of interpreting in courts was outsourced by the Ministry of Justice to private firm Applied Language
Solutions (ALS) in 2012 in a bid to cut costs. Capita took over ALS, which seemed to be unable to honour the contract, but
nevertheless the performance of the company hardly improved.. Capita had £46,319 of payments withheld by the Ministry of

24. 24
interpreter…so if things would be put right, this would give us more job satisfaction and
more job security in the long run.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 1).
In terms of happiness the overall score is average at the upper limit, with one of the
interviewees who obtained a score of 22 declaring that he was surprised by the low result and
then quickly adding “I think I understand where that comes from and that’s fine”. Also, in the
“About you” section of the Emotional Intelligence test, 80 per cent of the respondents
indicated that on a scale from 1 to 7 they would score their level of happiness in their work as
6 or 7 (see Table 3 below).
Interviewee Female
CI 1
Female
CI 3
Male CI1 Female
PSI 1
Female
PSI 2
Male PSI
2
On a scale from 1 to 7
How happy are in your
job?
7 6 7 5 3 7
Table 3. Section “About you”, EI TEST. Average score for job satisfaction: 5.83.
Interviewees gave different reasons for liking their work but generally for the three CIs
interviewed the main reason was the mental stimulation: “It’s mentally stimulating, which I
find that it’s important for my overall state of well-being” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 2), “you
never stop learning and you get a lot of insight into various topics” (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p.
1), “...that feeling of knowing and being up to date with the latest developments I think that
does it for me,” (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 2). On the contrary, the PSIs interviewed generally
quoted the human interaction as a reason for job satisfaction: “it’s kind of socializing”
(Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 1) whereas Male PSI 2 who has some experience as a CI as well
went on comparing different types of interpreting: “I don’t like conference interpreting
because I find working in a booth a bit claustrophobic and I am OK with telephone
interpreting, but I prefer to see people face to face, to see their facial expression and their
body language” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 1).
The overall score for self-esteem was also average at the upper limit: 58.5 for CIs and
57 for PSIs, although it varies considerably within each group: from 16 to 97 in the PSI group
and from 29 to 87 in the CI group. Although this score refers to one’s general level of self-
esteem and not particularly to one’s confidence at work the report does state that a low score
means that the person will doubt their ideas so much that may be unable to do their job
Justice between May 2012 and November 2013, according to a report by the public spending watchdog. The shortage of
interpreters, who refused to sign up with the private company due to unacceptable working conditions, led to courtroom
trials being disrupted. (Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25824907)

25. 25
effectively (Annex 2, Sample report, p. 60). The fact that all six interviewees had a self-
esteem score above average was reflected in their statements, because they all confirmed that
they are not influenced by their colleagues’ opinions or the end users’ opinions when it comes
to their performance: “When it comes to feedback from my colleagues it doesn’t matter
because I think I can assess that myself well enough” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 5); “I don’t
expect people to come and tell me all the time how wonderful it was. I think you need to have
a thicker skin than that because people are usually quite happy to criticise and not so keen on
praising” (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 4), “If I don’t understand something I’m not afraid to say
‘This is the interpreter, could you repeat that’ and whenever I did that I was treated with
respect” (Annex 6, Male PSI 5, p. 5); “I believe I have the right to make mistakes [if] you
alert immediately the parties, that’s fine.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 6).
4.2.2 Self-control factor
This Factor describes how well respondents regulate external pressure, stress, and impulses
and it contains the facets of Emotion regulation, Impulse control and Stress management
(Annex 2. Sample report, pp. 60-61).
The overall score of the respondents for the self-control factor was 48 for CIs and
43.17 for PSIs with men scoring overall 6.17 more than women and in particular 12.67 more
when it comes to Impulse control. With regard to the six interpreters who were interviewed,
two of them had an above-average score in self-control (Male CI 1 and Female PSI 2), two
had an average score (Female CI 1 and Female PSI 1) and two had a below-average score
(Female CI 3 and Male PSI 2). All three interpreters who had a below-average score in trait
Emotion regulation gave an example when either they had their own personal reaction to a
work related situation: “I felt sorry for her and responsible and I paid for her travel and food
because she had not been offered anything at the time… at the end of day she was a human
being and I think she deserved to be treated accordingly.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 3) or
they somehow intervened in the interpreting session because either it was considered to be in
the interest of the patient: “I just turned and explained to the officer: ‘This lady is extremely
ill and you must take her to a psychiatric unit immediately.” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 3) or in
the interest of the client: “It was not my role but…in the break I spoke to the Union
representative saying that the Spanish had been mistranslated and they were going round in
circles. I couldn’t let it go. It was in the interest of the client… It’s a matter of discretion… It
can backfire.”(Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 3). Emotion regulation measures how someone
controls his or her feelings and internal states in the short, medium and long term and the

26. 26
examples extracted were considered relevant, not because of their reactions to the
circumstances which in fact were more closely related to trait Emotion expression but
because these interpreters seemed to dwell on their inner struggle.
A high score in the trait Stress management indicates that the person manages
pressure and stress well. Thus, three of the interviewees had an above-average score in stress
management (Male CI 1 – 86, Female PSI 2 – 73, Female CI 1 – 86) and indeed one of them
found the job “not so stressful” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 6), another thought that the level of
stress is “average like everybody else’s job” (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 6) and Female CI 1
explained that she has good coping techniques which she finds necessary given the nature of
the job (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 4).
4.2.3 Emotionality factor
This Factor describes the respondent’s capacity to perceive and express emotions and the
ability to use them to develop and sustain relationships with others (Annex 2, Sample report,
p. 63). The emotionality factor contains four traits: Empathy, Emotion perception, Emotion
expression and Relationships.
As can be seen in Chart 3 above, overall, respondents from both groups obtained their
highest score in the Emotionality factor. There was a notable difference between men and
women; women ranked with 27.67 percentiles above men, placing them in the 74th percentile
as can be seen in Chart 1. The most notable difference was noted for the traits Emotion
expression, women ranking with 33.67 percentiles above men and Emotion perception
women scoring with 29 percentiles above men. There is a slight difference between CIs and
PSIs, with the latter ranking with 7.67 percentiles higher than the former.
Out of the six interpreters interviewed, three had above-average scores (Female PSI 1
– 86, Male CI 1 – 99, Male PSI 2 – 99) and two had average scores (Female CI 3 – 55,
Female PSI 2 – 61). One interviewee had a below-average score (Female CI 1 – 29) and she
also stated that she was not surprised by the result: “It’s a detachment but it’s not conscious, I
just do that. So I was not surprised.”
All the interpreters interviewed gave at least one example when they used Empathy in
their work, but those who scored higher in this trait elaborated more in their examples or they
simply gave more examples. Thus, Female PSI 1 had already mentioned that she felt
responsible for a defendant who had been left penniless and homeless and she paid for her
travel and her food (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 3). She also mentioned three times that a
counselling service would be useful for interpreters (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 4), although

27. 27
she considered herself “one of the lucky ones” because “the job didn’t get to” her (Annex 6,
Female PSI 1, p. 4) implying that other interpreters could be more affected by similar
circumstances. She also concluded at the end of the interview, “Overall in my experience in
terms of the level of empathy needed I think the job is more female oriented” (Annex 6,
Female PSI 1, p. 4).
Also, Male CI 1 stated, “I can really put myself in someone else’s shoes, but really,
always for both sides, which is ideal, I think, for an interpreter,” and then explains that this is
something he took away from his Emotional Intelligence Report and he had never thought
about it until then: “Empathy is important or, better said, I think it plays a role in me doing a
good job, the fact that I empathize with people” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 7). He also gave one
example where a seemingly uncooperative colleague kept leaving the booth when it wasn’t
her turn, but he then justifies her behaviour, saying that she was “too fragile” and that this
was her way of coping with the stressful situation (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 5), which shows
his ability to understand her emotions (trait Emotion Perception) and his capacity to take her
view into account (trait Empathy).
Another interviewee who had an extremely high score in trait Empathy, Male PSI 2,
stated that Empathy “is extremely important,” adding: “I don’t think that in PSI in the
majority of cases you can manage without at least an average amount of Empathy” (Annex 6,
Male PSI 2, p. 2). He also gave three examples in a medical setting where he used Empathy
in his work; in two cases he was interpreting for psychiatric patients and he explained that it
was necessary “to build some sort of rapport” with the person being treated because “if they
are frightened you have to be very patient otherwise you are making it worse” plus “the
psychiatrist is depending on your interpretation to find out what the treatment of this person
should be” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 2), which shows his ability to understand the viewpoint
of the psychiatrist as well. Explaining why this is more important in a medical setting he
elaborates further: “...apart from the content of what they [patients] say – this is why you
need empathy – the way they say it it’s different from normal and that’s important” (Annex 6,
Male PSI 2, P. 3). In the third case he had to tell two young parents that their baby had died
and took a moment to offer his condolences as an interpreter (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 5)
demonstrating not only his ability to perceive the parents’ emotions (Emotion Perception) and
relate to them (trait Empathy), but also his ability to express his emotion in offering the
condolences (trait Emotion Expression), which makes unsurprising the fact that he obtained a
high score (99) in all these three traits. In another example, he was doing telephone
interpreting to help repatriate the bodies of the pilots who had died in a plane crash which

28. 28
happened in 2007 in southern Germany: “It was on the phone but we had to go through all the
details. It was very upsetting. I had to take time off.” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 5). Female CI
1, who had a below-average score of Empathy, gave one example when in a medical setting
she interpreted for young woman who was having an abortion: “I was thinking of my
daughter and it made me feel down for a few days afterwards.” Because she was able to relate
to the young to a certain level, she became more attentive to the patient’s emotions (Emotion
perception), which then influenced her own state of mind. However, she quickly adds: “But at
the time I was not in good shape so normally this wouldn’t have happened,” which again
shows that it was unusual for her; therefore the low score (29) in trait Empathy is
unsurprising (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 5).
4.2.4 Sociability factor
This Factor describes the respondent’s capacity to socialize, to manage and to communicate
with others, and it’s made up of the following facets: Emotion management, Assertiveness
and Social awareness (Annex 2, Sample report, p. 67).
The results of the EI test indicate a significant difference between CIs and PSIs in
favour of the latter, who had an overall score of 60.67 for the Sociability Factor versus 39.67,
the score obtained by the former, as is illustrated in Chart 3 above (p.22). This difference was
also noticeable in the group of interviewees. Thus, of the three PSIs interviewed they all had
an above-average score (at the upper limit), whilst two of the CIs had average scores and one
CI (Female CI 1) had an above-average score of 94. Their individual scores are also reflected
in their interviews. Even if they do not provide examples from their personal experience, their
reflections on the experience of other interpreters clearly illustrate their views and feelings.
For example, Female CI 1 remembers an incident when a colleague interpreter accused a
relay interpreter of incompetence, going straight into his booth to confront him.
Understandably the interviewee felt outraged and besides describing the incident as
“horrible” and the person in question as “not nice” she also reflects that the not so nice
interpreter should have acted differently and discussed the matter with the Agent who was on
site, and perhaps she should have contained her emotions better: “We work so closely and it’s
so stressful and I think we need to display solidarity” (Annex 6 Female CI 1, p. 2). Her
reflections indicate a very high level of insight into this social conflict, which is reflected by
the high score (92) she obtained in Social awareness. She also mentions another incident
when at a medical conference under very challenging circumstances her booth colleague
froze and tells how she helped her colleague overcome the moment. Not only did she take

29. 29
over the microphone again but when the break came she helped her booth colleague relax and
calm down (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 3). Her actions demonstrate that she was able to
influence her colleague’s emotions to achieve the greater goal of motivating her to work and
finish the full day of conference, which indicates a good level of Emotion management and
indeed she obtained a high score (93) in this trait.
Male PSI 2, who achieved the highest score (95) in Sociability factor of all the
respondents reflects on an assignment which was very technical, requiring him to learn very
specific terms, but then highlights that “on a personal level it was very enjoyable because the
representative of the local company was very friendly and they were happy to have an
interpreter because no one in the company had those language skills” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2,
p. 2). It is quite clear that he enjoys socializing and that he is a people person, as his high
score (94) in trait Social Awareness also indicates. Also, in another instance when he was
called at very short notice to assist with a very technical on-site demonstration in a field
completely unknown to him, he quickly assessed the situation and suggested probably the
best solution for all parties given the circumstances: he asked the client to give him half an
hour with the technician and a cup of coffee to ask questions and to prepare: “So I asked the
gentleman to explain to me what the machine does as if I was a five-year-old and I told him
“I will ask stupid questions please be patient, I don’t mind if you laugh…” So this is what we
did and then I was able to know what he was referring to – and it worked.” Not only was this
interpreter socially sensitive to these circumstances but he was also able to adapt easily to a
new situation and influence his interlocutor’s behaviour to achieve the greater goal of a
smooth interpretation. This demonstrates not only social awareness but also a high level of
Emotion management and unsurprisingly he obtained a score of 99 in this trait; his behaviour
also demonstrates a certain degree of Assertiveness, in which he obtained a score of 78.
Female PSI 2, who also obtained an above-average score (88) in the Sociability factor,
points out that the ideal interpreter would be someone likeable, with a nice personality who
can get along with everybody (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 4), thus emphasising the relevance
of social awareness in the job of an interpreter. She continues to explain that quite often she
needs to clarify her role as an interpreter: “…it depends who I am dealing with but first of all
I just want them to understand that these policies and regulations do exist. It’s a delicate
matter but I need them to understand why for example I wouldn’t take a statement. So the
tone of voice has to be reasonable and in proportion with the issue that needs to be
addressed.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 4). This can explain the score she obtained in trait
assertiveness – 96 – as she seems to be perfectly capable of standing up for her views and the

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regulations she abides by and prefers to address the situation early and with tact to prevent
problems arising. The fact that she can persuade the official to act in a way so as to achieve
her goal, e.g. not to be expected to take the statement on her own, requires a good level of
emotion management and indeed she obtained a high score in this trait, i.e. 93. To conclude
her point she rightly observes how important it is to strike the right balance: “You have to be
very diplomatic and assertive and confident.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 4).
Female PSI 1, who also obtained an above-average score in the Sociability factor,
points out that, although PSIs work mostly alone, when she does work with a partner she gets
feedback and she sees it as way of learning, but she then hints that not all interpreters see it
that way: “As long as you are prepared to learn and accept feedback, it’s just another way of
gaining more skills.”(Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 4). This shows that she can easily adapt to
new circumstances and she is comfortable when working with a colleague she does not know
well. Also she is aware that other interpreters may not enjoy it as much, which demonstrates
that she is attuned to her colleagues’ views and this is reflected by the high score (81) she
obtained in social awareness.
Male CI 1, who also obtained a high score (77) in Social awareness, also observes that
he is quite comfortable to be thrown into a meeting without knowing the parties or what their
background is and to deal with it as he goes along: “That’s fairly feasible, I think.” (Annex 6,
Male CI 1, p. 3).
Female CI 3 obtained an overall average score in Sociability factor; however, she
obtained the score of 84 in trait Emotion management, which is defined as “getting other
people to act in a way that achieves a goal” (Annex 5, Sample report, p. 68). This is well
illustrated in her reflections on how to manage the client’s expectations: “You have to draw
the line somewhere, so you can go out of your way to accommodate them, but there comes a
point where you need to put your foot down and say ‘Look, we need to do this a certain way
for this to work!’ ” (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 4).
4.2.5 Adaptability
Adaptability is a self-independent trait measuring how flexible respondents see themselves in
their approach to life. It reflects how they adapt to new environments, conditions and people,
and how they deal with change (Annex 2, Sample report, p. 70).
Overall, PSIs obtained a higher score (61.33) than CIs (54.50), although the difference
is not very significant. Within in each group the score for adaptability seems to vary
considerably, from as little as 12, for Male CI 2, to 98, the score obtained by Male PSI 2.

31. 31
With regard to the interviewees, four of them obtained an above-average score (Male PSI 2 –
98, Male CI 1 – 92, Female PSI 2 – 89, Female CI 1 – 87) and two interpreters obtained an
average score (Female PSI 1 – 61, Female CI 3 – 33), thus making a group more closer to the
average.
Thus, a high score indicates that the respondent welcomes and even seeks out new
experiences, as is the case with Male PSI 2 who lived in Germany and Italy for a few years
(Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 4). In fact he learned the two languages by living there, and he very
much preferred learning in this way as opposed to traditional academic studying; in fact as a
pupil he was hardly interested in learning languages. This indicates that not only is he very
adaptable but in fact this variety stimulates him: “I was never afraid to make a fool of myself
when I learned German” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 5). He also observes that a PSI interpreter
must always be ready for the unexpected, indicating that he enjoys his job, which is relatively
unstructured, and he believes that facing new challenges daily is part of it (Annex 6, Male
PSI 2, p. 4).
Similarly Male CI 1 who obtained an above-average score in trait Adaptability also
highlights that he enjoys constantly learning new things: “I also like the fact that it is varied
in the sense that you don’t end up in a rut thematically because you always learn new
different things.” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 1). This is also true of Female CI 1 who, originally
from Romania, lived in Colombia for 20 years and has now established herself in the UK and
who confesses that she is obsessed with learning new things all the time: “If you stop being
curious you are very much dead.” (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 2).
Female PSI 2, who obtained a score of 89, points out how important it is for PSI
interpreters to be able to adapt: “Public service officials can be absolutely insensitive and not
really attuned to the linguistic, communication and professional challenges, so an interpreter
has to be able to adjust to this environment.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 4).
Unsurprisingly, Female PSI 1 with an average upper limit score of 61 also values
variety in her work and enjoys the unknown in her job as a PSI. Although when it comes to
the challenge of having very little time to prepare for an assignment she admits that it may be
daunting in the beginning, but with experience a PSI interpreter will learn to relax (Annex 6,
Female PSI 1, p. 2). When asked to give advice to students training as Conference
Interpreters, female CI 3 states that: “I would say do your homework as much as you can; ask
for materials specific to the job and prepare as much as possible and try and create the right
conditions for you to work, as much as that is humanly possible.” (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p.
6). This suggests that at least to some extent the unknown can be contained and that

32. 32
preparation plays a big role in creating the right working conditions for a CI, especially for
those who are at the beginning of their career. To some extent this opinion can represent her
reflections on how she felt at the beginning of her career, which may explain the average
although fairly low score (33) she obtained in trait Adaptability.
4.2.6 Self-motivation
The facet Self-motivation measures the extent to which a respondent is intrinsically
motivated (Annex 2, Sample Report, p. 70). Interpreters motivated in this way have their own
internal standards which they apply in their work, and their motivation is to live up to those
standards.
Overall, PSI interpreters seem to possess a higher level of self-motivation as the
scores in the EI tests indicate: 48.67 for CIs and 60.33 for PSIs, although both scores fall
within the average range. However, within each group of respondents the level of self-
motivation seems to vary considerably, from 4 (Male PSI 1) to 99 (Male PSI 2). The scores of
the group of interviewees are either average or above average, being more homogeneous in
this respect than the population sample overall.
Male CI 1, who obtained an above-average score in this trait (91), is clearly driven by his
own standards: “I appreciate recognition like anybody; it makes me feel positive; it’s more
important for me to feel that I did my best in those particular circumstances; that’s more
important to me than praise.” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 4). Similarly Male PSI 2 who obtained
an extremely high score (99) in trait self-motivation also seems to be intrinsically motivated
to perform well: “It would be unprofessional to take on other jobs when you feel unhappy
because you had a distressing job. Because you couldn’t just go and interpret for the Tax
Office afterwards; it just wouldn’t work” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 5). The interviewees who
scored less (Female CI 1 – 47 and Female CI 3 – 34) seem to quote more aspects that they
dislike about the job, such as: irregular work (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 1 and Female CI 1, p.
3), confronting clients over conditions, lack of professional recognition (Annex 6, Female CI
3, p. 1), unpleasant colleagues (Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 1), no materials received in advance
(Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 5, Female CI 3, p. 4). Although arguably they are all external
factors, this could indicate that their own ability to self-motivate is overwhelmed by these
external factors to some extent, or simply that their self-motivation is not strong enough to
overcome the detrimental effect of those factors.

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Chapter V
Discussion
Overall, women have scored higher than men, but the difference is hardly noticeable,
especially considering the finding that men under-report their level of EI (Petrides and
Furnham, 2000, pp. 449-461). More importantly women seem to score considerably higher
than men in terms of
Emotion perception and Emotion expression and significantly lower than men when it comes
to Impulse control, which seems to be in line with the popular belief that women are more
emotional than men. This translates as women being better at perceiving and identifying
emotions, but once they do perceive them they seem to be more affected and find it harder to
control emotions. This indicates that in an unpredictable and emotionally challenging
environment such as the working environment of interpreters, a male interpreter would be
better adjusted, and interestingly some males enjoy this challenge and seem to thrive on it
(Annex 6, Male PSI 3, p. 4). Therefore it is important to look at the EI factors and the traits
separately.
5.1 Well-being factor
Although the overall score of the respondents was average when compared to the general
population it is important to point out that there are extremes in both groups, as mentioned in
the previous chapter. The results of the tests are, however, consistent with the interviews
considering that all six interpreters that were interviewed had an above-average level of Well-
being and they all confirmed that they enjoy their work. For example, when specifically
asked whether they found their work stressful, male CI 1 simply responded, “I don’t think I
am typical because I always read how stressful this is and to me it’s not so stressful. I enjoy
it.” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 6) thus suggesting that finding the job stressful is not the case for
all interpreters.
Equally, female CI 1 explained (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 4) that although it is a
demanding job she has coping strategies, such as breathing techniques, and as a language
tutor she is trying to help her students as well in this respect (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 6).
Interestingly Male PSI 2 calls it “a good kind of stress” keeping him alert (Annex 6, Male PSI
2, p. 4), which again takes us back to the idea that for these interpreters the variation and the

34. 34
constant novelty of their job as interpreters suits their personalities.
So the fact that either they enjoy the stress or they have found a way of coping with
the demanding environment as Female CI 1 pointed out, reflects the average high score of job
satisfaction, which is 5.83 out of 7, indicated by the interviewees during the self-report test,
and it also explains the length of their careers spanning from nine years (Female PSI 2) to 25
years (Female CI 3). The fact that this is their main job over such a long period of time is a
good indicator that they are successful in their careers, which prompts the hypothesis that a
high score in well-being translates into good job performance.
5.2 Self-control factor
There is shown to be an inverse correlation between the level of Self-control and the level of
tendency or urge to interfere in what is outside the regular duties of the interpreter. Thus, the
lower the level of Self-control the more prone they say they are to moral or ethical dilemmas.
Two of the interpreters interviewed (Female CI 3, Male PSI 2) with a level of Self-control
below average seem to remember in great detail incidents where they felt the need to
intervene or when they had a personal reaction. On the contrary, two of interpreters with an
above-average level of Emotion regulation gave examples when they were perfectly
comfortable explaining their impartial role either to a client who solicited the interpreter to
make side comments (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 3) or to a defendant who was trying to have a
conversation with the interpreter: “I just tell them ‘I’m sorry but I am not allowed to support
any side conversations with you’ and that’s it. I shifted my responsibility to someone bigger
than me who doesn’t allow me to do so.” (Annex 6, Female PSI 2, p. 3). So, in this example,
Female PSI 2 who had a high score in Emotion regulation (77) distanced herself from a
responsibility presumably perceived by the defendant. In contrast, Female PSI 1 who
obtained a low score (26) in Emotion regulation feels responsible for the defendant in
question who was in a difficult situation and helps her by offering her money for food and
travel (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 3).
The fact that the interviewees who obtained a higher score in Stress management
(Male CI 1 – 86, Female PSI 2 – 73, Female CI 1 – 86) declared that they do not find the job
that stressful or that they cope with it indicates that the better equipped interpreters are to
manage stress the less stressful they perceive their job to be.

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5.3 Emotionality factor
Overall, women scored considerably higher than men in both Emotion perception and
Emotion expression, which is line with previous research showing that “women do have an
edge over men” (Goleman, 2011) when it comes to Emotional Intelligence. Emotion
perception and Emotion expression would undoubtedly assist an interpreter to decode non-
verbal communication and to convey meaning, as is rightly pointed out on the AIIC website.
However, it is important to consider that out of the six interviewees four were female and two
male, and the two males obtained particularly high scores, both overall (Male CI 1 – 85 and
Male PSI 2 – 92) and in the Emotionality factor (91 and 99 respectively), so perhaps they are
not typical in this sense and they may not necessarily be considered to be representative of
the male population of interpreters in general. Nevertheless this may explain why they dwell
more on the topic of emotions. like Male CI 1: “it [empathy] is important when there are
emotions to convey and you are meant to be, as the conveyer of emotions, authentic” (Annex
6, Male CI 1, p. 6) or why Male PSI 2 gave so many examples of when he used Empathy.
Throughout the interviews all the interpreters, either when specifically prompted or when
digressing from another topic, remarked on the importance of conveying emotions in their
work and therefore the need to have the ability to express emotions. Of course this
presupposes that to begin with they are able to perceive the emotions they are meant to
convey which implies having a good level of Emotion perception, and indeed all the
interpreters interviewed had an extremely high score in trait Emotion Perception (EI results
table at Annex 5). So, not only do these interpreters possess the abilities to perceive and
express emotion but they also believe that they are useful and necessary in their work: “I can
put myself into the place of the mother who will lose her child because health care is not
sufficient in her country and then in the place of the politician who speaks about the lack of
funds and the corruption and then I can understand that side as well.” (Annex 6, Male CI 1, p.
6), thus explaining why being equally empathetic to all parties involved wouldn’t clash with
the impartiality rule that all Conference interpreters must observe in accordance with the
AIIC Code of Ethics.
Similarly, Female PSI 2, who had a high score (99) in both Emotion perception and
Emotion expression, when asked if it happens for defendants or victims to be confused about
her role as an interpreter she replied: “It happens all the time. Your typical victim or
defendant will immediately think you are their mother, father, friend, chaperone that they can
treat you in a way that makes you uncomfortable; you hardly ever come across anyone who

36. 36
knows what your role is; there are people who want to touch you with their hands because
they were kept in a cell for so many hours and now suddenly someone nice turned up and as a
sign of appreciation they want to give you a hug or put a hand on your shoulder.” (Annex 6,
Female PSI 2, p. 6). It’s not the answer itself that is relevant, namely that yes there is this
confusion about the role of an interpreter, but the fact that she goes into detail as to why this
happens, which shows insight into the defendant’s emotions, reflecting very well the high
score she obtained in Emotion perception. She also mentions that it makes her uncomfortable,
which accords with her lower score in trait Empathy (61) and in trait Relationships (47) as
opposed to a score of 99 in both Emotion perception and Emotion expression.
Indeed some of the examples supplied describe extraordinary circumstances which
understandably would justify an interpreter's straying from the Code of Conduct and
intervening, or would justify their expressing their personal feelings or views. But Male PSI 2
rightly observes that in the job of a PSI such circumstances represent the norm: “That’s the
thing…you have to be ready for the unexpected.” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 4) and he then
explains why he needs to take a break as a coping mechanism: “This happens to police staff
and ambulance staff as well and they need to take a break. It’s not unique to the job of
interpreter.” (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 4), implicitly comparing the job of an interpreter with
that of police staff and ambulance staff, who are confronted with similar situations daily and
who do have access to counselling services, although they may simply choose just to take a
break or use the counselling service and take a break.
The fact that such situations occur more often than one might think is also confirmed
by female CI 1 who, having declared that she also had some experience in Public Service
Interpreting was asked to compare the role of the interpreter in the two settings, CI versus
PSI, and she observed, “In PSI there are more chances of finding yourself in a situation where
you could be emotionally affected.” (Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 4).
All the interviewed interpreters clearly stated that a degree of Empathy is both
desirable and necessary for an interpreter but that it can also have a detrimental effect. Thus it
can lead to mood deterioration as in the case of Male PSI 2 who after reflecting about the
incident with the dead baby concludes “In some cases all you can do is stop and take a break
– and I am lucky I have a supportive family – and then when you feel better you get back to
work,” or as in the case of Female PSI 1 who made a pact with herself early on in her career
that once a job was finished “to leave it there” and to “switch off” (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p.
4), thus suggesting a conscious effort to stop these emotions from affecting her, but she
immediately added: “There have been occasions when it was extremely difficult to do that

37. 37
because really how do you control your emotions? …and it plays in your mind.” (Annex 6,
Female PSI 1, p. 4) which explains why the pact was considered necessary to begin with.
However, these two interpreters who show signs of mood deterioration as a result of
their work indeed have above-average levels of Empathy, 99 and 83 respectively, but they
also have below-average scores in Emotion regulation, 23 and 26 respectively, indicating that
the problem is not in having too much empathy but in the way they regulate their emotions
once they relate to the defendants or the patients they work with. So it can be concluded that
a good level of Emotion regulation plays an important role in diminishing mood deterioration
in interpreters.
5.4 Sociability factor
The interviewees have all shared various stories showing that as interpreters they constantly
interact with new people, adapting quickly to new social situations (Social awareness),
managing the emotions of people they meet infrequently (Emotion management) and the
expectations of their clients and/or interlocutors who are more or less aware of their duties or
responsibilities (Assertiveness).
Initially the author expected that interpreters would have a high or at least average
level in these three traits and indeed generally the findings of the tests seem to support this,
although it is notable that PSIs scored higher in Sociability than did CIs, which accords with
the fact that they are closer to the everyday human drama and thus more likely to find
themselves in emotionally challenging circumstances. However, Conference Interpreters are
by no means spared from such challenges either, because of the topic of the conference
(Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 4) or due to the lack of collegiality of some fellow interpreters
(Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 2). And yet the booth seems to act as a protection as one CI observes
(Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 4), which would suggest that CIs are not necessarily people persons,
and that is what the overall results of the EI test indicate. This finding confirms the theory of
Schweda Nicholson that introverts would make better Conference Interpreters because they
need to concentrate for long hours and not be easily distracted (Schweda Nicholson, 2005, p.
115).
Also there is the aspect of visibility as Male PSI 2 points out. Having worked in a
conference setting on a few occasions he stated that he does not enjoy it, because the booth
makes him claustrophobic (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 1) and he prefers to talk to people face to
face and to intervene if something is not clear. This preference indicates that social interaction

38. 38
is important for his well-being and indeed he has the highest score in the Sociability factor of
all respondents. This raises the question of whether PSIs enjoy a higher visibility or perhaps
the typical conference setting where interpreters work in a booth could represent a problem
for interpreters who are people persons. Going back to the question raised by Hubscher-
Davidson whether “anyone can be trained as an interpreter” (Hubscher-Davidson, 2013) one
can speculate that someone who is uncomfortable with being less visible would not be
suitable for work in a Conference interpreting setting or at least he or she would be unhappy
when doing such work despite possessing the right linguistic skills. However this seems to
clash with the need for Conference interpreters to speak in front of an audience during
business meetings and presumably this is where a good level of confidence and stress
management techniques make the difference, and indeed this is the case with Male CI 1 who
scored high in trait Self-esteem and trait Stress management. He is perfectly comfortable
working in business meetings and getting to know the parties as he goes along (Annex 6,
Male CI 1, p. 3), and he mentions that although it would help to have time to build a rapport
with them, personally he does not find it necessary.
So, the overall scores show that PSIs are more able to socialize, to manage and to
communicate with others and the interviews support this finding given the numerous
examples of the extraordinary circumstances they have to work in (Annex 6, Male PSI 2 p.
4), although it appears that CIs are under greater pressure given the higher expectations from
clients (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 5), which they need to manage well (Annex 6, Female CI
3, p. 4).
5.5 Adaptability
The mere fact that the majority of respondents established themselves in a new country shows
that they possess a certain level of adaptability, although some may possess a higher level
than others as the differences in scores seem to suggest. However, it is obvious that all those
interviewed enjoy the variety that comes with being a freelance interpreter, although some
(Annex 6, Female CI 1, p. 3 and Female CI 3, p. 1) can find the prospects of irregular work to
be rather daunting. Thus, it can be concluded that a good level of adaptability is necessary for
CIs who must be able to work in a booth with colleagues they may dislike or hardly know
(Annex 6, Female CI 3, p. 3) and also to speak before an audience in a business meeting
(Annex 6, Male CI 1, p. 3) as well as for PSIs whose work environment is full of unexpected
situations (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 4) they need to adjust to.

39. 39
5.6 Self-motivation
Taking into account that interpreters are mainly freelancers working without or with very
little supervision and who are more in control of their work flow and directly responsible for
marketing themselves or for their professional development than full-time employees,
initially it was expected that they would have a high level of Self-motivation. However the
results of the tests indicated that they have an average level of Self-motivation: 48.67 for CIs,
on average, and a slightly higher score of 60.33 on average for PSIs. Also, within each group
the level of Self-motivation seems to vary considerable as can be seen in the table at Annex 5.
Moreover all the interviewees identified their penchant for languages as their reason
for deciding to become interpreters which, it is reasonable to conclude, motivates them
throughout the length of their careers, and this can be considered an internal motivation.
Apart from this talent or inclination which puts them in good stead for an interpreting career
they also appear to be driven by an insatiable curiosity (Female CI 1), a taste for constant
variety (Female CI 3), a sense of development and social interaction (Female PSI 2 and Male
PSI 2), pride and status (Female PSI 1) and mental stimulation (Male CI 1) which are the
defining characteristics and pre-requisites of the interpreting profession. However, the
interviewees who indicated that they prefer the self-employed status, e.g. Male CI 1 (Annex
6, Male CI 1, p. 2) also scored better in trait Self-motivation as opposed to those (Annex 6,
Female CI 3, p. 1 and Female CI 1, p. 3) who seem to be disheartened by the financial
insecurity of a freelance job, despite admitting to its advantages. Similarly Male PSI 2, who
obtained an extremely high score (99) in trait Self-motivation also seems to be driven by his
own standards (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p. 5) in refusing jobs when he feels that he could not
perform as well as usual following a distressing assignment which has affected him.
Thus, it can be concluded that at least an average amount of self-motivation is
required for freelance interpreters, although those with a higher score in this facet seem to
regard the self-employed status as an advantage.

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Chapter VI
Conclusion
The general belief is that interpreters are made not born, but what are the right ingredients?
Obviously some are more successful than others. So, apart from a good command of at least
two languages and specialist skills such as chuchotage, note-taking and public speaking, is
there anything else that an interpreter needs to make it in this competitive profession? What
makes a newly qualified interpreter stand out in the crowd of freelancers? How do
interpreters cope with stress, emotional speakers, uncooperative colleagues, the undue
pressure from clients and the financial instability that comes with a freelance status, and what
happens if they don’t?
In an attempt to answer these questions the author focused on the role of Emotional
Intelligence in Interpreting studies. Thus, as mentioned in Chapter I, the aim of this research
paper was to gain more insight into the process of interpreting from the perspective of the
interpreters who participated in this study. A review of the existing literature showed in
Chapter II that Emotional Intelligence is extensively used in other fields, such as Education,
Psychology, Marketing and Medicine, and only recently has benefited from interest in Sign
Language Interpreting (Bontempo et al, 2014) and Translation Studies (Hubscher-Davidson,
2013). Chapter III discussed why it was important to use a mixture of quantitative research
(TEIQue EI test) and qualitative research (interviews). The TEIQue test was preferred as
being a widely used and valid testing tool of Emotional Intelligence, and semi-structured
interviews were used to put the results of the tests in context. Chapter IV presented the
findings of the EI tests (pp. 21-22 and Annex 5) and these results were then analysed in
connection with the findings provided by the interviews. In Chapter V these correlated
findings were discussed allowing for tentative generalizations to be made as to why
interpreters behave the way they do in their work environment and speculating on the role of
Emotional Intelligence in the work of interpreters.
In view of the results shown in Annex 5, the most obvious deduction is that
interpreters have an average level of Emotional Intelligence and PSIs seem to have an edge
when it comes to Empathy and Emotion perception. Based on the interviews carried out, it is
apparent that interpreters need at least an average or above-average level of Self-esteem,
Emotion regulation, Impulse control, Stress management, Empathy, Emotion perception,
Emotion expression, Emotion management, Assertiveness, Social awareness, Adaptability
and Self–motivation. The respondents who were interviewed and who also scored high in

41. 41
these traits attested to coping better with stressful or simply delicate situations; they were
confident in their performance and they interacted well with colleagues and clients. They
were also very adaptable to unexpected changes in work conditions and they seemed to have
an inner set of standards which motivated them professionally. So is this the profile of the
ideal interpreter? On the contrary, AIIC seems to support the idea that “of course ‘good’
interpreters should not show emotions and must remain impartial” (Besson et al, 2012), but
then immediately questions it: “However, it is clear that they are not machines, but human
beings who also feel emotions and who can detect those emotions which are embedded in
non-verbal communication.” This resonates very well with the statement of Female PSI 1
who explains her emotional reaction to a delicate situation: “We are interpreters, but above all
we are human beings” (Annex 6, Female PSI 1, p. 3). However, the NRPSI Code of Conduct
clearly states that in Public Service Interpreting “the requirement for neutrality between
parties is absolute” (NRPSI, 2011). Perhaps the best way forward is for all relevant codes of
ethics and conduct to be updated in such a way that they realistically reconcile the ideal that
interpreters are neutral translation machines and the truism that interpreters are also human
beings. How realistic is it to expect a Conference interpreter not to show emotion when
interpreting a speech about starving children whilst looking at disturbing photos (Annex 6,
Female CI 3, p. 4) which are meant to get a reaction from the audience? Or for a PSI to be
absolutely neutral when giving the terrible news of a baby’s death (Annex 6, Male PSI 2, p.
5) considering that even a minimal degree of social awareness dictates the opposite? Perhaps
such circumstances are extraordinary, but they are by no means uncommon in the work of
interpreters. In fact some of the interpreters interviewed considered that at least an average
level of empathy is vital in their job as interpreters. The abundance of personal examples
provided by interviewees indicates that interpreters need to act in an emotionally intelligent
way as part of their work. This can lead to job satisfaction whilst increasing their overall state
of well-being and ultimately having a positive impact on their performance.
Another finding is that overall PSIs are more sociable and more adaptable than CIs.
Therefore the deduction is that PSIs enjoy the face-to-face interaction more, and given the
more emotionally challenging environment they work in and the fact that daily they deal with
people from various social backgrounds, it is vital for them to be readily adaptable. By no
means does this imply that a Conference Interpreter is a complete recluse because they work
in a booth, since they need to work closely with a booth partner. Extrapolating this deduction
further and hypothesizing that social interaction is not a must for the well-being of
Conference Interpreters and then taking into account that CIs found remote interpreting to be

42. 42
more stressful due to the psychological distance and a diminished sense of presence (AIIC
Private Market Sector Standing Committee, 2012), it does raise the questions if Remote
Interpreting will be successful on a national scale in a courtroom setting or in a police-station
setting in the UK and how PSIs feel about this fairly recent modus operandi. Perhaps this
would make an interesting avenue for research, although it would be even more interesting to
find out how comfortable suspects or defendants are with communicating in this way via an
interpreter.
The overall results of the EI test show that female interpreters scored higher than male
respondents (Annex 5). So, are women more emotionally intelligent than men? Actually, it
has been demonstrated that women tend to overestimate their EI skills (Petrides, Furnham
and Martin, 2004), so perhaps the overall difference is effectively negligible. However, when
it comes to gender differences women seem to be emotionally intelligent in a different way:
men seem to have the upper hand when it comes to self-control and women when it comes to
emotion perception and emotion expression. But all these traits are important in the work of
an interpreter, so perhaps this does not explain why there are more female interpreters than
men. But it does explain why a female interpreter is to be preferred in certain medical settings
or why a male interpreter would be better suited for a police raid for example.
Despite the limitations of this study, namely that the small numbers of respondents
cannot be considered to be representative of the whole population of interpreters (especially
as for some of the respondents interpreting is no longer their only profession) and that
generalizations are never hard facts, especially in small-scale studies, the objectives of the
study have been achieved. Even if individually the results of the EI tests vary, thus indicating
that when it comes to personality traits interpreters are as varied and individually unique as
their assignments, the study has shown the importance of EI in Interpreting studies and why
the study of EI would be beneficial to interpreters and interpreter users alike. Although it was
not the aim of this study to build the profile of the perfect Public Service Interpreter or
Conference Interpreter it is apparent that some EI traits (Empathy, Emotion management,
Stress management, Adaptability and Self-motivation) will be of great benefit in an
interpreting career.
Regarding the perspective of the interpreters who took part in this study some
respondents were not at all surprised by the results, but a few of them were, especially those
who obtained a low score which, considering that the tests are based on self-reporting, can
mean either a low level of self-awareness or a low level of self-esteem and of course although
the TEIQue is a valid testing tool its accuracy has never been proved to be 100%.

43. 43
Furthermore, the result of an EI test is not a horoscope. A person’s EI can vary according to
personal circumstances (e.g. it can decrease after suffering the loss of a loved one) and most
importantly it can be enhanced. Although the popular belief is that a high level of EI can
predict success, the author suggests that EI should be used to nurture well-being and to
enhance self-awareness. Undoubtedly further research into Emotional Intelligence in
Interpreting studies will shed light on its significance for task performance. For example,
targeted courses similar to the ELSA project6 used in secondary schools could also be applied
to Interpreting students. Such courses should be specifically designed for Interpreting
students using role play, for example simulating a conversation with a difficult client or with
an uncooperative colleague. This type of emotional coaching would equip interpreting
students to cope better with unexpected work situations and to manage clients’ expectations.
The students might also have their EI levels tested at the beginning and at the end of the
emotional coaching course to check for improvement. In fact two controlled studies carried
out on 37 participants (Nelis et al, 2011) showed that not only were emotional competencies
improved as a result of such a course but the positive changes were long lasting. Another
suggestion would be to test the EI level of students at the beginning of the interpreting course
and to correlate their academic results to their EI results and possibly with their IQ scores to
verify the relevance of EI for task performance. A second stage of this project would be to
follow up on these students after a certain period of time to see what their professional
trajectory was and how well they had done in their careers.
The author, as a practitioner (PSI) and an aspiring CI found this study extremely
useful, because it has enhanced her understanding of what working in a Conference
Interpreting setting presupposes from the perspective of CIs beyond the linguistic skills
taught at University. It has also allowed her to reflect on her weaknesses and strengths and
why intuitively she had decided it would suit her better to retrain as a Conference Interpreter.
Thus, the general conclusion is that an Emotionally Intelligent interpreter will not
necessarily be a better interpreter but he or she would definitely be a happier, more adjusted
professional who inspires confidence and to some extent this could reflect on the level of
success in his or her career as a freelancer. Even if EI is seen as only one of the necessary
ingredients for a successful career in interpreting it is certainly not the least important one. It
might just be the one thing that will help junior interpreters survive the difficult years at the
6 TheEmotional Literacy Support Assistant (ELSA) project is an initiative designed to build the capacity of schools
to support theemotional needs of their pupils from within their own resources. Source: www.brainary.com

44. 44
beginning of their career due to self-motivation or earn them a good reputation as great
colleagues to work with; or, what will help a PSI keep it together when dealing with child
victims of human trafficking as he or she finally understands that the neutrality promoted by
the NRPSI Code of Conduct is hardly relevant in such a case. And yes, the circumstances are
extraordinary but so are the interpreters who choose to be a part of it. Emotional Intelligence
does matter in the work of an interpreter from the perspective of clients and end users as well,
and therefore the concept of neutrality should be rethought by the Codes of Conduct or Ethics
in order to acknowledge the need for emotional awareness. Of course, the first step would be
to introduce it in academic courses or to incorporate it in the training of interpreters.
__________________

45. 45
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