Report writing

DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING

DATA PREPARATION AND DESCRIPTION
Once the data begin to flow, a researcher’s attention turns to
data analysis. this chapter focuses on the first phases of that
process, data preparation and description.
Data preparation includes
 Editing,
 Coding, and
 Data entry and
It is the activity that ensures the accuracy of the data and
their conversion from raw form to reduced and
classified forms that are more appropriate for analysis.
Preparing a descriptive statistical summary is another
preliminary step leading to an understanding of the collected
data.

EDITING
The customary first step in analysis is to edit the raw data.
Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when
possible, and certifies that maximum data quality standards are
achieved.
The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:
• accurate.
• consistent with the intent of the question and other
information in the survey.
• uniformly entered.
• complete.
• arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.

EXAMPLE:
In the following question asked of adults 18 or older, one
respondent checked two categories, indicating that he was a
retired officer and currently serving on active duty.
Please indicate your current military status:
(a) active duty (b) reserve (c )retired
(d) national guard (e )separated (f) never served in the
military
The editor’s responsibility is to decide which of the
responses is both consistent with the intent of the
question or other information in the survey and most
accurate for this individual participant.

Field Editing
 In large projects, field editing review is a
responsibility of the field supervisor.
 It, too, should be done soon after the data have been
gathered.
 During the stress of data collection in a personal
interview and paper-and-pencil recording in an
observation, the researcher often uses adhoc
abbreviations and special symbols.
 Soon after the interview, experiment, or observation,
the investigator should review the reporting forms.

It is difficult to complete what was abbreviated or
written in shorthand or noted illegibly.
If the entry is not caught that day. when entry gaps are
present from interviews, a callback should be made
rather than guessing what the respondent
“probably would have said.”
Self-interviewing has no place in quality research.

Central editing
While online surveys and their subsequent data
entry has eliminated some editing problems,
regardless of the mode of collection, all data should
get a thorough editing.
For a small study, the use of a single editor
produces maximum consistency. In large
studies, editing tasks should be allocated so
that each editor deals with one entire section.

Sometimes it is obvious that an entry is incorrect—for
example, when a respondent clearly specifies time in days
(e.g., 13) when it was requested in weeks (for example,
you expect a number of 4 or less)—or data is entered in
the wrong place.
When replies are inappropriate (out of range of expected
values or not related to the question asked) or missing, the
editor can sometimes detect the proper answer by
reviewing the other information in the data set.
Another alternative is for the editor to strike out the answer
if it is inappropriate. Here an editing entry of “no
answer” or “unknown” is called for.

CODING
 Coding involves assigning numbers or other
symbols to answers so that the responses can be
grouped into a limited number of categories.
 In coding, categories are the partitions of a data set of
a given variable (e.g., if the variable is gender, the
partitions are male and female ).
 Categorization is the process of using rules to partition a
body of data. both closed- and open-response
questions must be coded.
 Some paper and online survey questions contain
numerical or textual codes and these are visible
to the respondent.

The categorization of data sacrifices some data
detail but is necessary for efficient analysis.
Most statistical and banner/table software
programs work more efficiently in the numeric
mode.
Instead of entering the word male or female in
response to a question that asks for the
identification of one’s gender, we would use
numeric codes (e.g., 0 for male and 1 for
female).

VALIDATION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the
researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing.
 This has to be done very carefully, otherwise
misleading conclusions may be drawn and the
whole purpose of doing research may get
vitiated.
 It is only through interpretation that the
researcher can expose relations and processes
that underlie his findings.

As a matter of fact let us ponder over the purpose of
interpretation of data analysis .
In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and
upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at generalizations.
But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
this may at times result in new questions,
(a) leading to further researches. all this analytical information and
consequential inference(s) may well be communicated,
(b)preferably through research report, to the consumers of
research results who may be either an
(c )individual or a group of individuals or some public/private
organization.

MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences
from the collected facts after an analytical and/or
experimental study. in fact, it is a search for broader
meaning of research findings.
The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz.,
(i) the effort to establish continuity in research
through
linking the results of a given study with those of
another, and
(ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts.

UNDERLYING REASONS FOR INTERPRETATION
(i) It is through interpretation that the researcher can
well understand the abstract principle that works
beneath his findings.
Through this he can link up his findings with those
of other studies, having the same abstract
principle, and thereby can predict about the
concrete world of events.
Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on.
this way the continuity in research can be
maintained. Example: Multi Dimensional Poverty

(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of
explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for
future research studies; it opens new avenues of
intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for
more knowledge. End Outcome: Expansion of
Knowledge horizons
(iii) Researcher can better appreciate only through
interpretation why his findings are what they are and
can make others to understand the real significance of
his research findings. End Outcome: Dissemination
of Knowledge

(iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory
research study often results into hypotheses for
experimental research and as such interpretation is
involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental
research. End Outcome : Universal Applicability unlike
Observational Research
Since an exploratory study does not have a
hypothesis
to start with, the findings of such a study have to be
interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the
interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’
interpretation. End Outcome: Practical Experimental
Findings along with Empirical results.

TECHNIQUES OF INTERPRETATION
 The task of interpretation is not an easy job,
rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher.
 Interpretation is an art that one learns
through practice and experience.
 The researcher may, at times, seek the
guidance from experts for
accomplishing the task of
interpretation.

The TECHNIQUE of interpretation often involves the following steps:
Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he
has found and
 he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms
of the underlying processes and must try to
 find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the
surface layer of his diversified research findings.
 In fact, this is the technique of how generalization
should be done and concepts be formulated.
Result: Accuracy and Transparency in a diligent manner.
Deniable explanations dilute the purpose of research and
un- resourceful with extravagant wasteful expenditure along
with filing of criminal conviction on research
investigator

(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be
considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it
may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under
consideration.
Result: Irrelevant or unnecessary stuff can be utilized to get in to
the dead end of the problem
(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to
consult someone having insight into the study and who is frank and
honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in
logical argumentation. such a consultation will result in correct
interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
Result: High Handed Expertise in the relevant field is imperative for
deterring ambiguous results.

(iv) The researcher must accomplish the task of
interpretation only after considering all relevant factors
affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.
He /She must be in no hurry while interpreting results,
for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all
right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
Result: False inclusion of irrelevant proxies complicates
the very purpose of the research project. Such ignorant
variables can be counteracted by the researcher with
effecti8ve suggestions from core professionals only.

PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
One should always remember that even if the data are
properly collected and analyzed, wrong interpretation
would lead to inaccurate conclusions.
It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task of
interpretation be accomplished with patience in an
impartial manner and also in correct
perspective.

(i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that
(a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing
inferences;
(b) the data reflect good homogeneity; and that
(c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
(ii) he must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is
very much intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly
separated.
As such he must take the task of interpretation as a special aspect
of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions that one
usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz.,
precautions concerning
 the reliability of data,
 computational checks,
 validation and comparison of results.

(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the
errors that can possibly arise in the process of
interpreting results. errors can arise due to false
generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of
statistical measures,
such as the application of findings beyond the range of
observations, identification of correlation with causation
and the like.
Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that
definite relationships exist on the basis of confirmation
of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results
accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as
“being in accord” with the hypothesis, rather than as
“confirming the validity of the hypothesis”.

(iii) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is
not only to make sensitive observations of relevant
occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the
factors that are initially hidden to the eye. this
will enable him to do his job of interpretation
on proper lines.
Broad generalization should be avoided as most
research is not amenable to it because the coverage
may be restricted to a particular time, a
particular area and particular conditions.

(iv) the researcher must remember that “ideally in the
course of a research study, there should be constant
interaction between
 initial hypothesis,
 empirical observation and
 Theoretical conceptions.
It is exactly in this area of interaction between
theoretical orientation and empirical
observation that opportunities for originality
and creativity

IMPORTANCE OF REPORT WRITING
 Research report is considered a major component of
the research study for the research task remains
 Incomplete till the report has been presented and/or
written. as a matter of fact even the most
 Brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and
conducted research study, and the most striking
 Generalizations and findings are of little value
unless they are effectively communicated to
others.
UNIVERSAL APPLICABILITY IS OF BASIC AND
CORE VALUE.

 The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings
are made known to others.
 Research results must invariably enter the general store of
knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing
research report.
INTERNATIONAL ACCQUISITION OF VALIDITY IS REQUIRED
 There are people who do not consider writing of report as an
integral part of the research process.
 But the general opinion is in favor of treating the presentation
of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel
of the research project.
 Writing of report is the last step in a research study
and requires a set of skills somewhat different from
those called for in respect of the earlier stages of
research.

This task should be accomplished by the researcher
with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and
guidance of experts for the purpose.
LACK OF PROPER KNOWLEDGE AND HOLD ON THE
SUBJECT ENDS UP IN DUBIOUS RESULTS WITH NO
INTERNATIONAL ATTENTION. IT RAVAGES IN TO
BLACKLISTED RESEARCH WITH NO IMPORTANCE.

TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORTS
The research report contains findings, analyses of findings, interpretations, conclusions, and
sometimes recommendations.
SHORT REPORTS
Short reports are appropriate when the problem is well defined, is
of limited scope, and has a simple and straightforward
methodology. most informational, progress, and interim reports
are of this kind:
Example: a report of cost-of-living changes for upcoming
labor negotiations or an exploration of filing “dumping”
charges against a foreign competitor.
short reports are about five pages. if used on a website, they
may be even shorter. at the beginning, there should be a brief
statement about the authorization for the study, the problem
examined, and its breadth and depth. next come the
conclusions and recommendations, followed by the findings
that support them.

 A letter of transmittal is a vehicle to convey
short reports. a five-page report may be
produced to track sales on a quarterly
basis. The report should be direct, make
ample use of graphics to show trends,
 Refer the reader to the research department
for further information. Detailed information on
the research method would be omitted,
although an overview could appear in an
appendix.

 The purpose of this type of report is to distribute
information quickly in an easy-to-use format.
short reports are also produced for clients with
small, relatively inexpensive research projects.
 The letter is a form of a short report. Its tone should
be informal.
 The format follows that of any good business
letter and should not exceed a few pages. A
letter report is often written in personal style (we,
you), although this depends on the situation.
 Memorandum reports are another variety and
follow the to, from, subject format.

Long reports
Long reports are of two types, the technical or
base report and the management report. the
choice depends on the audience and the
researcher’s objectives.
Many projects will require both types of
reports:
 a technical report, written for an audience
of researchers, and
 a management report, written for the
nontechnically oriented manager or client.

The technical report
 This report should include full documentation and
detail. It will normally survive all working papers
and original data files and so will become the
major source document.
 It is the report that other researchers will want to
see because it has the full story of what was done
and how it was done.
 Although completeness is a goal, you must guard
against including nonessential material. A good
guide is that sufficient procedural information
should be included to enable others to replicate
the study.

 This includes sources of data, research procedures,
sampling design, data gathering instruments, index
construction, and data analysis methods. most
information should be attached in an appendix.
 A technical report should also include a full
presentation and analysis of significant data
conclusions and recommendations should be clearly
related to specific findings.
 Technical jargon should be minimized but defined
when used. there can be brief references to other
research, theories, and techniques.
 Although you expect the reader to be familiar with
these references, it is useful to include some short
explanations, perhaps as footnotes or endnotes.

The Management Report
In contrast to the technical report, the
management report is for the nontechnical
client. the reader has little time to absorb
details and needs a prompt exposure to the
most critical findings; thus the report’s sections
are in an inverted order.
After the prefatory and introductory
sections, the conclusions with
accompanying recommendations are
presented. individual findings are presented
next, supporting the conclusions already made.

 The style of the report should encourage rapid
reading and quick comprehension of major
findings, and it should prompt understanding
of the implications and conclusions.
 The report tone is journalistic and must be
accurate. headlines and underlining for
emphasis are helpful; pictures and graphs
often replace tables.
 Sentences and paragraphs should be short
and direct. consider liberal use of white space
and wide margins. it may be desirable to put a
single finding on each page.
 It also helps to have a theme running through the
report and even graphic or animated characters
designed to vary the presentation.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
WHEN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RESEARCHER AND THE
CLIENT IS FORMAL, A LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SHOULD BE
INCLUDED.
THIS IS APPROPRIATE WHEN A REPORT IS FOR A SPECIFIC CLIENT
(E.G., A COMPANY OFFICER) AND WHEN IT IS GENERATED FOR AN
OUTSIDE ORGANIZATION.
THE LETTER SHOULD REFER TO THE AUTHORIZATION FOR THE
PROJECT AND ANY SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS OR LIMITATIONS
PLACED ON THE STUDY.
IT SHOULD ALSO STATE THE PURPOSE AND THE SCOPE OF THE
STUDY.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The research objectives address the purpose of
the project. These objectives may be research
questions and associated investigative
questions. In correlational or causal studies, the
hypothesis statements are included.
BACKGROUND
Background material may be of two types. it may be the
preliminary results of exploration from an experience
survey, focus group, or another source.
Alternatively, it could be secondary data from the
literature review. A traditional organizational scheme is
to think of the concentric circles of a target. Starting with
the outside ring, the writer works toward the center. the
bull’s eye contains the material

The literature should be organized, integrated, and
presented in a way that connects it logically to the
problem.
The background includes definitions, qualifications, and
assumptions. It gives the reader the information needed
to understand the remainder of the research report.
Background material may be placed before the problem
statement or after the research objectives.
It is composed primarily of literature review and related
research, it should follow the objectives.
If it contains information pertinent to the management
problem or the situation that led to the study, it can be
placed before the problem statement (where it is found
in many applied studies).

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE DOCUMENTATION
In a report or research paper, documentation is
the evidence provided (in the form
of endnotes, footnotes, and entries in bibliographies)
for information and ideas borrowed from others. that
evidence includes both primary sources and secondary
sources.
There are numerous documentation styles and formats,
including MLA style (used for research in the humanities), APA
STYLE (psychology, sociology, education), chicago style (history),
and ACS STYLE (chemistry).

The general principle of documentingciting
sources is that you should cite the source of
any statement by way of facts, opinions,
figures, ideas, information etc. That other
people have made, but which you want to
form part of your work. In this case, you have
to give credit by showing indebtedness to the
original owner(s) of such statement. To do
this effectively, mccrimmon (1963) advised
that you should cite your sources whenever:

Documentation styles there are many styles that one can
use in the process of documenting or citing references
and bibliographies.
However, since most of the styles do not have universal
acceptability, The focus of this work is on the three styles
that are most 5 prominently adopted by
publishers,
writers,
researchers and
students across the nations of the world.
The three styles are those developed by scholars in
chicago, harvard and vancouver.

It is common among users of the various styles to mention either
the M.L.A. (modern language association), A.P.A (american
psychological association or vancouver[turebian] style when
discussing the choice of citation style in their writings. What
differentiates one style from the other is the way the content of
each style is punctuated.
A style according to greetham[2001] may prescribe the use of a
full stop in specific parts of the content, where another style
prefers the use of a comma. While a style may insert date of
publication in parenthesis immediately after the author’s name,
but another style may decide instead to put the date immediately
before the publisher’s name.

The rules or prescriptions that each citation
style makes for its users are not sacrosanct,
because they are often subject to reviews by
the formulators of the styles.
Since there is no universal convention
prescribing which of the styles, one must
adopt when citing sources, one is free to take
to any of the styles; however, you have to be
consistent with the prescriptions of the style
that you intend to adopt.

MLA style to cite your sources in one part of your
work and use the apa or vancouver style in the other
parts of the same work. You should therefore comply
and remain consistent with a particular style you
choose to adopt when you want to cite your sources
or prepare your reference/bibliography list.
Note that some publishers may, however, insist on
their own conventions and thus prescribe a specific
style that you should adopt in citing your sources.
when a situation like that arises, you have to comply
with such instructions. this underscores the need to
master more than one citation style/ technique.

How to cite your sources. quotation some people do not seem to
understand when to quote, how to quote and why using
quotations when writing.
To make a quotation implies making references to what someone
else has said or written. the quotation mark: ‘ ' or “ “ is used to
indicate the beginning and the end of a quotation.
When you are quoting, you are citing directly the exact words,
ideas, or facts of another person and you must give credit
acknowledgement to the sources that you are quoting.
You can indicate your quotation within the sentences using
quotation marks or the quotation can be indented as a
paragraph; in this case you do not require to use quotation
marks. indirect quotation does not require quotation mark but
the word 'that' must indicate the reference that you want to
make.

Bibliography
A bibliography according to omotosho [2007] simply
means a list of books, articles, and other publications
that you intend to or have consulted as background to
your topic.

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